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Source: adapted from Energy density Extended Reference Table, Wikipedia. Different fuels have different energy density levels, which can be measured in terms of equivalent energy released through combustion. Energy density is the amount of energy that can be released by a given mass or volume of fuel. It can be

Energy exists in various forms, including mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, gravitational, and nuclear, which are all interconvertible. Mechanical energy results from movement and is the combination of kinetic and potential energy. Thermal energy is the outcome of temperature differences between two systems. Electromagnetic energy (also called radiant energy) is the outcome of electromagnetic waves,

Economic Costs. Noise levels have an impact on property values, particularly around airports. Declines in property values for residential areas range from 0.4 to 1.1% per decibel, with an average value of 0.62%. For highways, a decrease from 8 to 10% of property values due to noise emissions were observed.

Economic Costs. Commercial fishing and aquaculture are likely to be less profitable when an aquatic ecosystem is damaged. A comparison between the average output of commercial activities, taking into account extraction means (ships, surface cultivated, etc.), over a time period may reveal some indicators about the economic costs of water

The main externalities of air pollution include: Economic Costs. They include a wide range of externalities like damage to property, superstructures and infrastructure, and loss of productivity of people and crops. Acid rains (and depositions), smog, and ozone pollution change the time scale during which investments in infrastructure can be

Source: EPA. The most important transport emissions are related to carbon monoxide (CO), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Still, transportation plays a marginal role in particulates and sulfur oxide emissions. Due to better engine technology and more stringent standards, the amount of pollutants released on highways has

The assessment of environmental externalities of transportation involves multiple causes, effects and consequences. Some are clear, evident and well documented, while several are indirect, subjective and linked with other sources.

A decibel is a unit of measure of the intensity of acoustic pressure. 0 dB is barely perceivable by human beings, while 120 dB is considered the threshold of pain and hearing damage. Decibels are measured on a logarithmic scale, which means that an increase of 10 dB corresponds to

Transportation systems, by their inherent characteristics, have an impact on the environment: Network. The structure of transportation networks influences the spatial distribution of emissions. Centralized networks experience a concentration of traffic and emissions at specific locations (hubs), but are using less energy since the average distance is shorter. Dispersed networks

Source: adapted from K. Button, Center for Transportation Policy, Operations and Logistics, George Mason University, Lecture Notes. The spatial and temporal dimensions are important to consider when assessing the impacts of environmental externalities, such as pollutants. The more extensive the spatial and the temporal dimensions, the more difficult it is