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Note: Share of Exajoules produced. Source: Energy Information Agency. Since the 1970s, the global energy supply has increased by a factor of 2.6 (from 230 ExaJoules in 1970 to 606 Exajoules in 2019). The share of oil fell from 44% to 31% between 1971 and 2010 and remained within this

Source: adapted from The Economist, 2001. Energy use is in constant transition, particularly from a long-term perspective where changes can be substantial. An energy transition involves a change from one supply system to another, namely in terms of the fuels used, their sources, and how they are processed and brought

Economic and technological developments are linked with shifts in sources of energy. The trend is towards the adoption of higher energy content sources, as the shift from coal (solid) to oil (liquid) and natural gas (gas) illustrates. This shift can be simplified into five major phases, including one speculative about

Source: adapted from Energy density Extended Reference Table, Wikipedia. Different fuels have different energy density levels, which can be measured in terms of equivalent energy released through combustion. Energy density is the amount of energy that can be released by a given mass or volume of fuel. It can be

Energy exists in various forms, including mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, gravitational, and nuclear, which are all interconvertible. Mechanical energy results from movement and is the combination of kinetic and potential energy. Thermal energy is the outcome of temperature differences between two systems. Electromagnetic energy (also called radiant energy) is the outcome of electromagnetic waves,

Economic Costs. Noise levels have an impact on property values, particularly around airports. Declines in property values for residential areas range from 0.4 to 1.1% per decibel, with an average value of 0.62%. For highways, a decrease from 8 to 10% of property values due to noise emissions were observed.

Economic Costs. Commercial fishing and aquaculture are likely to be less profitable when an aquatic ecosystem is damaged. A comparison between the average output of commercial activities, taking into account extraction means (ships, surface cultivated, etc.), over a time period may reveal some indicators about the economic costs of water

The main externalities of air pollution include: Economic Costs. They include a wide range of externalities like damage to property, superstructures and infrastructure, and loss of productivity of people and crops. Acid rains (and depositions), smog, and ozone pollution change the time scale during which investments in infrastructure can be

Source: EPA. The most important transport emissions are related to carbon monoxide (CO), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Still, transportation plays a marginal role in particulates and sulfur oxide emissions. Due to better engine technology and more stringent standards, the amount of pollutants released on highways has

The assessment of environmental externalities of transportation involves multiple causes, effects and consequences. Some are clear, evident and well documented, while several are indirect, subjective and linked with other sources.