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Source: adapted from Schafer, A. (2000) Regularities in Travel Demand: An International Perspective, Journal of Transport Statistics, Vol. 3, No. 3. Distance remains a significant factor in the modal choice of passengers. The above figure represents the respective share of three modes by travel distances and excludes public transit and

Mode Price (one way) Time LimoLiner (luxury bus) $69 4 hours Acela (Amtrak train) $99 3 hours Greyhound bus $30 4 hours Air Shuttle $128 1 hour (plus check-in) Source: K. Gordon (2004) “Boston to New York: Four Ways to Make the Trip”, New York Times, January 20. New York

Three major dimensions are of concern to depict the concept of modal competition: Modal choice competition is the most basic competitive consideration. In the above example, three modal choice scenarios are considered for two modes. The first two cases (1 and 2) are instances where only one mode is used

Source: BTS, Table 3-21. Note: Cents per ton-mile. In a competitive market, the revenue a transport company generates depends on its costs and profit margin. High revenue per ton-mile is directly related to high operating costs associated with this revenue generation. The most important factor related to transport costs is

Transportation modes have different cost functions according to the serviced distance. Using a simple linear distance effect, road, rail, and maritime transport have C1, C2, and C3 cost functions. While road transport has a lower cost for short distances, it increases faster than rail and maritime costs. It becomes more

Depending on the circumstances, transport modes can be competing or complementary over the transport market, the geographical market and the expected performance: Passengers and freight. Since both systems cover different markets, they are perceived as complementary since specific modes are designed to carry only passengers or freight (except air transport,

Source: Adapted from Brown, T.A and A.B. Hatch (2002) The Value of Rail Intermodal to the US Economy. Rail transportation has several key advantages over trucking, particularly in terms of energy efficiency (4 times), capacity (6 times), and costs (2 times).

in % of passenger-kilometers.Source: IATA, World Air Transport Statistics. In 2010, about 2.6 billion passengers traveled by air transport. A large share (39%) of air traffic flows in terms of passenger-km occurs within three regions, North America (19%), Europe (13%), and China (7%). Most international movements in Europe have a

Source: Shipping density data adapted from IMF World Seaborne Trade Monitoring System. Note: Commercial ships involve bulk carriers, tankers, and containerships. Oceanic masses and rivers are the two primary domains of maritime circulation, and oceanic masses account for 71% of the terrestrial surface. The four major oceans relevant to maritime

Source: USGS. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System was constructed between 1975 and 1977 to move oil from the oil fields of northern Alaska to the northernmost ice-free port of Valdez, Alaska. Eleven pumping stations maintain the oil flow along the 1,300 km pipeline, which can carry up to 2.1 million barrels