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Source: International Union of Railways. Passenger rail transportation is particularly effective in countries with multiple interconnected cities, which is the case for India, China, and Japan. They account for the largest passenger rail use, with population density as the main driver. The Russian Federation has a much lower population density,

The purpose of oil pipelines is to move petroleum products from regions where they are extracted to main refineries or ports. In many cases, oil can be carried over substantial distances, such as in North America and in Siberia. The main advantage of an oil pipeline is its ability to

Source: International Energy Association. IEA and IPCC (2014) Summary for Policymakers. Several activity sectors contribute to the emission of greenhouse gases, with energy generation being the most significant. Each source of carbon emission is the outcome of specific processes and technologies that cannot be collectively addressed. For instance, carbon emissions

Externalities have to be considered within policies aiming at alleviating them. Externalities tend to be at their highest level – C(E) – when no regulations are applied with the assumption (not necessarily proven) that producers and users will try to externalize costs as much as possible under such circumstances. Environmental regulations involve