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The conceptual relationship between distance and urban density varies between European and North American cities. While density in North American cities has generally decreased through sub-urbanization and the creation of peripheral centers, in Europe, there was an extension away from the urban center. Furthermore, density in central areas of North

Source: adapted from A. Bertaud (2003) “Metropolitan Structures Around the World”. Notable differences in population density gradients from the city center can be observed among a sample of world cities. For Asian and European cities, there is a steep gradient related to compact and relatively well-defined urban areas, while in

Source: Demographia World Urban Areas: 9th Annual Edition (2013.03). Urban density is reflective of the mode of habitation elected by the population, with high-density cities characterized by apartment buildings (or crowded slums), while lower-density cities have low-rise habitation units and even single-family homes in the suburbs. It is also reflective

Source: adapted from Marshall, W.E. and N.W. Garrick (2010) “Street Network Types and Road Safety”, Urban Design International, 10.1057/udi.2009.31, April 21 2010. Prior to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a grid street pattern was relatively uncommon, as many cities grew organically along the landscape. The conventional street grid

Source: Adapted from P. Hugill (1995), World Trade since 1431, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 213. There is a relationship between the form and structure of cities, a relationship that was shaped by subsequent changes in transportation technology. One way to express this relationship is through the commuting

A city performs different but interdependent functions related to its connectivity. Although a city can have several forms of connectivity, there is usually a dominance of a particular form based upon the main economic functions and specialization. This involves a range of activities, each having its own connectivity: Production and

The urban spatial structure can be characterized by its level of centralization and clustering of value-added activities such as retail, management, fabrication, and distribution. Centralization refers to the preponderance the central part of the city has on the organization of urban activities, which is mainly derived from accessibility. Clustering refers

Elements of the urban transport system, namely modes, infrastructures, and users, have a spatial footprint. Transportation infrastructures consume space and their organization shapes urban form. The modes being used, by their technical and operational characteristics, also shape urban form as they underline what can be connected and what can be

Source: adapted from World Bank (2009) World Development Report 2009: Reshaping Economic Geography. Conventional perspectives about the urban spatial structure usually represent the urban and rural spaces as a dichotomy, and they were considered two separate entities, albeit interacting. However, the urban spatial structure is better understood as a continuum

Source: US Department of Energy. Residential Energy Consumption Survey. Table HC7.3  Air conditioning in U.S. homes by year of construction, 2022. The importance of air conditioning is often not well acknowledged as a factor in the expansion of human settlements in warmer and humid climates, opening new regions and economic