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Economic Costs. The costs incurred to maintain the functionality of an urban area according to the characteristics of its land uses. Lower densities and specialized land use increase economic costs in terms of average commuting distances, public utility provision, and energy consumption. Commonly, urban growth has occurred at the expense

Source: Adapted from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division.Note: The Land-Ocean Temperature Index considers the deviation in degrees Celsius from the 1951-1980 temperature average. The association between carbon emission, temperature, and climate change is complex and controversial. Two main categories are used to measure

Collaborative distribution usually involves multiple shippers combining shipments to create truckloads rather than shipping individually by more expensive less-than-truckload (LTL). It is an advanced form of cargo consolidation often requiring Third Party logistics providers (3PLs) since the cargo can involve several suppliers, customers, and freight forwarders. For instance, instead of

The seasonality of tourism involves a summer peak season, which has a strong influence on the seasonality of air travel. This peak season correspond to summer vacations in the northern hemisphere, the largest source of tourists.

Source: IATA. Air travel is characterized by a seasonality where winter months (December, January, and February) are a period of lower activity and summer months (July and August) are a period of high activity. The summer high season corresponds to tourism activity in Europe and North America, which remain the

Source: Henley and Partners Holdings. The value relates to the number of countries and territories that the holder of a passport can travel to without a visa. There is a wide variety of regulatory regimes controlling the movement of foreign nationals. One such restriction concerns the emission of a visa

Source: World Tourism Organization. Europe accounts for the largest share of international tourist arrivals, as its tourist industry is well developed with a large number of world class cultural destinations with France being the most visited country in the world. The share of Europe is somewhat inflated as due to

Source: World Tourism Organization. Since the 1950s, the international tourist industry has seen spectacular growth with the setting of mass tourism, reaching 1 billion arrivals in 2011. One of the most significant changes in global tourism was when in 1999, China started its Approved Destination Status (ADS) program. This program allowed Chinese