Generated by All in One SEO Pro v5.0.1.1, this is an llms-full.txt file, used by LLMs to index the site. # The Geography of Transport Systems The spatial organization of transportation and mobility ## Posts ### [Latest Posts](https://transportgeography.org/posts/) **Published:** September 19, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/posts/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/posts/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/posts/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/posts/?share=reddit) - --- ## Pages ### [The Geography of Transport Systems](https://transportgeography.org/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Excerpt:** Reference transport geography site **Content:** ## Overview The **mobility** of passengers and freight is fundamental to economic and social activities such as commuting, manufacturing, distributing goods, or supplying energy. Each movement has a purpose, an origin, a potential set of intermediate locations, and a destination. Mobility is supported and driven by **transport systems** composed of infrastructures, modes, and terminals. They enable individuals, institutions, corporations, regions, and nations to interact and undertake economic, social, cultural, or political activities. Understanding how mobility is linked with the geography of transportation is the primary purpose of this textbook. The **Geography of Transport Systems** offers a comprehensive and accessible introduction to the field with a broad overview of its concepts, methods, and areas of application. This material is provided to practitioners, policymakers, educators, researchers, students, and individual learners and includes a wide variety of media elements such as maps, figures, and [PowerPoint presentations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=113). ## Contents The textbook is divided into ten chapters that cover a specific conceptual dimension of transport geography, such as networks, modes, terminals, and urban transportation. In addition to these conventional topics, emerging issues such as globalization, supply chain management, information technologies, energy, and the environment are also thoroughly discussed. ### [Chapter 1 – Transportation and Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/ "Chapter 1 – Transportation and Geography") - [1.1 – What is Transport Geography?](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/ "1.1 – What is Transport Geography?") - [1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/ "1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment") - [1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ "1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems") - [1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/ "1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems") - [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/ "1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography") ### [Chapter 2 – Transportation and the Spatial Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/ "Chapter 2 – Transportation and Spatial Structure") - [2.1 – The Geography of Transportation Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/ "2.1 – The Geography of Transportation Networks") - [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/ "2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization") - [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/ "2.3 – Transport and Location") - [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/ "2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility") ### [Chapter 3 – Transportation, Economy and Society](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/ "Chapter 3 – Transportation, Economy and Society") - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/ "3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development") - [3.2 – Transportation and Society](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/ "3.2 – Transportation and Society") - [3.3 – Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/ "3.3 – Transport Costs") - [3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/ "3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services") ### [Chapter 4 – Transport, Energy and Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/ "Chapter 4 – Transport, Energy and Environment") - [4.1 – Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/ "4.1 – Transportation and Energy") - [4.2 – Transportation and the Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/ "4.2 – Transportation and the Environment") - [4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/ "4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation") - [4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/ "4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization") ### [Chapter 5 – Transportation Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/ "Chapter 5 – Transportation Modes") - [5.1 – Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/ "5.1 – Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift") - [5.2 – Road Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/ "5.2 – Road Transportation") - [5.3 – Rail Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/ "5.3 – Rail Transportation and Pipelines") - [5.4 – Maritime Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/ "5.4 – Maritime Transportation") - [5.5 – Air Transport](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/ "5.5 – Air Transport") - [5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/ "5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization") ### [Chapter 6 – Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/ "Chapter 6 – Transportation Terminals") - [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/ "6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals") - [6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/ "6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands") - [6.3 – Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/ "6.3 – Port Terminals") - [6.4 – Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/ "6.4 – Rail Terminals") - [6.5 – Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/ "6.5 – Airport Terminals") ### [Chapter 7 – Trade, Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/ "Chapter 7 – Trade, Logistics and Freight Distribution") - [7.1 – Transborder and Crossborder Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/ "7.1 – Transborder and Crossborder Transportation") - [7.2 – Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/ "7.2 – Globalization and International Trade") - [7.3 – Freight Transportation and Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/ "7.3 – Freight Transportation and Value Chains") - [7.4 – Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ "7.4 – Logistics and Freight Distribution") ### [Chapter 8 – Urban Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/ "Chapter 8 – Urban Transportation") - [8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ "8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form") - [8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/ "8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation") - [8.3 – Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/ "8.3 – Urban Mobility") - [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/ "8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges") ### [Chapter 9 – Transport Planning and Policy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/ "Chapter 9 – Transport Planning and Policy") - [9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/ "9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy") - [9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/ "9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance") - [9.3 – Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/ "9.3 – Transport Safety and Security") - [9.4 – Transportation, Disruptions and Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/ "9.4 – Transportation and Disasters") ### [Chapter 10 – Challenges for Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/ "Chapter 10 – Challenges for Transport Geography") - [10.1 – Transport Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/improving-transport-infrastructure/ "10.1 – Improving Transport Infrastructure") - [10.2 – Governance, Management and Digitalization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/governance-and-management/ "10.2 – Governance and Management") - [10.3 – Social and Environmental Responsibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/social-environmental-responsibility/ "10.3 – Social and Environmental Responsibility") - [10.4 – Future Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ "10.4 – Future Transportation Systems") ### [Appendix A – Methods in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/ "Appendix A – Methods in Transport Geography") ### [Appendix B – Applications and Case Studies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/ "Appendix B – Applications and Case Studies") ### [Appendix C – City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/ "Appendix C – City Logistics") Since transport is a field of application, using methodologies is particularly relevant to assist transport operators in allocating their resources (investments, infrastructure, vehicles) or influencing public policy. [Appendix A](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/ "Appendix A – Methods in Transport Geography") focuses on qualitative and quantitative methodologies linked with transport geography, such as accessibility, spatial interactions, and graph theory. The convergence between methodologies and information technologies has led to many new analytical opportunities, notably geographic information systems for transportation (GIS-T). Transportation is a very active **field of investigation and application** to real-world issues, which are covered in [Appendix B](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1010 "Appendix B – Applications and Case Studies"). In particular, the field of **city logistics**, which combines unique characteristics of transport geography adapted to the urban context, is covered in [Appendix C](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/ "Appendix C – City Logistics"). ## Usage Conditions - **DO NOT COPY, REDISTRIBUTE OR TRANSLATE THE CONTENTS OF THIS WEB SITE**. - **The content of this site can be freely used for personal or classroom use ONLY.** Although the material contained on this website is freely available, it is not in the public domain. Its contents, in whole or in part (including graphics and datasets), cannot be copied and published in ANY form (printed or electronic) without consent. - The material, such as maps and figures, can be freely used for **educational purposes,** such as for classroom presentations, as long as it is not redistributed to the public. This excludes any other form of communication, such as conference presentations, business presentations, published reports, and papers. - Backlink and guest post requests are ignored. This web site is an academic, neutral, and reliable source of information, not a marketing tool. - CONSULTANTS: SEE NOTICE BELOW. - PUBLISHERS: Permission requests to reproduce published materials have become abusive as publishers often ask for material (e.g. figures, maps, charts) to be granted unlimited use, in any language, on any media, for an unlimited amount of time and to have to right to grant third parties (anyone) to use the material. This means that such permissions ask the author to give his work away to the publisher to do as it pleases. Therefore, I rarely grant permission to reproduce my material. If I do, it is for a single-use and without the right for third-party use. - Permission to use any graphic material herein in any form of publication, such as an article, a book, or a conference presentation, on any media must be requested before use. - Information cited from this web site should be referred to as: Rodrigue, J-P (2024), The Geography of Transport Systems, Sixth Edition, New York: Routledge. - Inquiries: [Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue](mailto:ecojpr@gmail.com). ## Notice To Consultants Over the years, some of the contents of this website have been **plagiarized**, often without attribution, by consultants (and professionals) in reports and presentations covering various sectors of the transport industry. Maps and figures have been a particular target. This does involve not only small firms or individual consultants but also **large globally recognized firms**. This is highly unethical since it involves stealing someone else’s work while being remunerated. A common practice in the consulting industry is to steal and adapt the work of academics and present it as original material. Consultants, please keep in mind the following: - I usually do not provide interviews and advice unless compensated. The only exception is for the press. - By default, **NONE of the graphic material on this web site can be used for commercial purposes without my consent**. - Instances of plagiarism will be **reported to clients and supervisors**. - Even if plagiarism is done for internal or confidential reports, this does not remove the risk of detection. I am often asked to act as a **third-party reviewer** for consulting reports through non-disclosure agreements. Also, on some occasions, clients will release elements of these reports to the public, thinking that they are original work. - Consultants wishing to use some graphic elements contained in this web site, **please contact me**. For a reasonable fee, I can provide customized maps and graphics for unlimited use (I am also a consultant). - On some occasions (e.g., humanitarian work, NGOs, charitable organizations), the use of some graphic elements can be authorized at no charge. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Geography of Transport Systems](https://transportgeography.org/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Excerpt:** Reference transport geography site **Content:** ## Overview The **mobility** of passengers and freight is fundamental to economic and social activities such as commuting, manufacturing, distributing goods, or supplying energy. Each movement has a purpose, an origin, a potential set of intermediate locations, and a destination. Mobility is supported and driven by **transport systems** composed of infrastructures, modes, and terminals. They enable individuals, institutions, corporations, regions, and nations to interact and undertake economic, social, cultural, or political activities. Understanding how mobility is linked with the geography of transportation is the primary purpose of this textbook. The **Geography of Transport Systems** offers a comprehensive and accessible introduction to the field with a broad overview of its concepts, methods, and areas of application. This material is provided to practitioners, policymakers, educators, researchers, students, and individual learners and includes a wide variety of media elements such as maps, figures, and [PowerPoint presentations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=113). ## Contents The textbook is divided into ten chapters that cover a specific conceptual dimension of transport geography, such as networks, modes, terminals, and urban transportation. In addition to these conventional topics, emerging issues such as globalization, supply chain management, information technologies, energy, and the environment are also thoroughly discussed. ### [Chapter 1 – Transportation and Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/ "Chapter 1 – Transportation and Geography") - [1.1 – What is Transport Geography?](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/ "1.1 – What is Transport Geography?") - [1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/ "1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment") - [1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ "1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems") - [1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/ "1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems") - [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/ "1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography") ### [Chapter 2 – Transportation and the Spatial Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/ "Chapter 2 – Transportation and Spatial Structure") - [2.1 – The Geography of Transportation Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/ "2.1 – The Geography of Transportation Networks") - [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/ "2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization") - [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/ "2.3 – Transport and Location") - [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/ "2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility") ### [Chapter 3 – Transportation, Economy and Society](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/ "Chapter 3 – Transportation, Economy and Society") - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/ "3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development") - [3.2 – Transportation and Society](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/ "3.2 – Transportation and Society") - [3.3 – Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/ "3.3 – Transport Costs") - [3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/ "3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services") ### [Chapter 4 – Transport, Energy and Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/ "Chapter 4 – Transport, Energy and Environment") - [4.1 – Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/ "4.1 – Transportation and Energy") - [4.2 – Transportation and the Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/ "4.2 – Transportation and the Environment") - [4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/ "4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation") - [4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/ "4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization") ### [Chapter 5 – Transportation Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/ "Chapter 5 – Transportation Modes") - [5.1 – Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/ "5.1 – Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift") - [5.2 – Road Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/ "5.2 – Road Transportation") - [5.3 – Rail Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/ "5.3 – Rail Transportation and Pipelines") - [5.4 – Maritime Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/ "5.4 – Maritime Transportation") - [5.5 – Air Transport](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/ "5.5 – Air Transport") - [5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/ "5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization") ### [Chapter 6 – Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/ "Chapter 6 – Transportation Terminals") - [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/ "6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals") - [6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/ "6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands") - [6.3 – Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/ "6.3 – Port Terminals") - [6.4 – Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/ "6.4 – Rail Terminals") - [6.5 – Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/ "6.5 – Airport Terminals") ### [Chapter 7 – Trade, Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/ "Chapter 7 – Trade, Logistics and Freight Distribution") - [7.1 – Transborder and Crossborder Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/ "7.1 – Transborder and Crossborder Transportation") - [7.2 – Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/ "7.2 – Globalization and International Trade") - [7.3 – Freight Transportation and Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/ "7.3 – Freight Transportation and Value Chains") - [7.4 – Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ "7.4 – Logistics and Freight Distribution") ### [Chapter 8 – Urban Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/ "Chapter 8 – Urban Transportation") - [8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ "8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form") - [8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/ "8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation") - [8.3 – Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/ "8.3 – Urban Mobility") - [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/ "8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges") ### [Chapter 9 – Transport Planning and Policy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/ "Chapter 9 – Transport Planning and Policy") - [9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/ "9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy") - [9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/ "9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance") - [9.3 – Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/ "9.3 – Transport Safety and Security") - [9.4 – Transportation, Disruptions and Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/ "9.4 – Transportation and Disasters") ### [Chapter 10 – Challenges for Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/ "Chapter 10 – Challenges for Transport Geography") - [10.1 – Transport Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/improving-transport-infrastructure/ "10.1 – Improving Transport Infrastructure") - [10.2 – Governance, Management and Digitalization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/governance-and-management/ "10.2 – Governance and Management") - [10.3 – Social and Environmental Responsibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/social-environmental-responsibility/ "10.3 – Social and Environmental Responsibility") - [10.4 – Future Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ "10.4 – Future Transportation Systems") ### [Appendix A – Methods in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/ "Appendix A – Methods in Transport Geography") ### [Appendix B – Applications and Case Studies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/ "Appendix B – Applications and Case Studies") ### [Appendix C – City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/ "Appendix C – City Logistics") Since transport is a field of application, using methodologies is particularly relevant to assist transport operators in allocating their resources (investments, infrastructure, vehicles) or influencing public policy. [Appendix A](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/ "Appendix A – Methods in Transport Geography") focuses on qualitative and quantitative methodologies linked with transport geography, such as accessibility, spatial interactions, and graph theory. The convergence between methodologies and information technologies has led to many new analytical opportunities, notably geographic information systems for transportation (GIS-T). Transportation is a very active **field of investigation and application** to real-world issues, which are covered in [Appendix B](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1010 "Appendix B – Applications and Case Studies"). In particular, the field of **city logistics**, which combines unique characteristics of transport geography adapted to the urban context, is covered in [Appendix C](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/ "Appendix C – City Logistics"). ## Usage Conditions - **DO NOT COPY, REDISTRIBUTE OR TRANSLATE THE CONTENTS OF THIS WEB SITE**. - **The content of this site can be freely used for personal or classroom use ONLY.** Although the material contained on this website is freely available, it is not in the public domain. Its contents, in whole or in part (including graphics and datasets), cannot be copied and published in ANY form (printed or electronic) without consent. - The material, such as maps and figures, can be freely used for **educational purposes,** such as for classroom presentations, as long as it is not redistributed to the public. This excludes any other form of communication, such as conference presentations, business presentations, published reports, and papers. - Backlink and guest post requests are ignored. This web site is an academic, neutral, and reliable source of information, not a marketing tool. - CONSULTANTS: SEE NOTICE BELOW. - PUBLISHERS: Permission requests to reproduce published materials have become abusive as publishers often ask for material (e.g. figures, maps, charts) to be granted unlimited use, in any language, on any media, for an unlimited amount of time and to have to right to grant third parties (anyone) to use the material. This means that such permissions ask the author to give his work away to the publisher to do as it pleases. Therefore, I rarely grant permission to reproduce my material. If I do, it is for a single-use and without the right for third-party use. - Permission to use any graphic material herein in any form of publication, such as an article, a book, or a conference presentation, on any media must be requested before use. - Information cited from this web site should be referred to as: Rodrigue, J-P (2024), The Geography of Transport Systems, Sixth Edition, New York: Routledge. - Inquiries: [Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue](mailto:ecojpr@gmail.com). ## Notice To Consultants Over the years, some of the contents of this website have been **plagiarized**, often without attribution, by consultants (and professionals) in reports and presentations covering various sectors of the transport industry. Maps and figures have been a particular target. This does involve not only small firms or individual consultants but also **large globally recognized firms**. This is highly unethical since it involves stealing someone else’s work while being remunerated. A common practice in the consulting industry is to steal and adapt the work of academics and present it as original material. Consultants, please keep in mind the following: - I usually do not provide interviews and advice unless compensated. The only exception is for the press. - By default, **NONE of the graphic material on this web site can be used for commercial purposes without my consent**. - Instances of plagiarism will be **reported to clients and supervisors**. - Even if plagiarism is done for internal or confidential reports, this does not remove the risk of detection. I am often asked to act as a **third-party reviewer** for consulting reports through non-disclosure agreements. Also, on some occasions, clients will release elements of these reports to the public, thinking that they are original work. - Consultants wishing to use some graphic elements contained in this web site, **please contact me**. For a reasonable fee, I can provide customized maps and graphics for unlimited use (I am also a consultant). - On some occasions (e.g., humanitarian work, NGOs, charitable organizations), the use of some graphic elements can be authorized at no charge. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/?share=reddit) - --- ### [1.4 - The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Global transportation systems emerged in the 20th century, particularly with the internal combustion engine, the jet plane, and the container. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transportation in the Fordist Era (1920-1970)](#1_Transportation_in_the_Fordist_Era_1920-1970) - [2. A New Context for Transportation: The Post-Fordist Era (1970-2000s)](#2_A_New_Context_for_Transportation_The_Post-Fordist_Era_1970-2000s) - [3. The Setting of Global Mobility Systems (2000s-)](#3_The_Setting_of_Global_Mobility_Systems_2000s) # 1. Transportation in the Fordist Era (1920-1970) The adoption of the assembly line epitomized the Fordist era as the dominant form of industrial production, an innovation that substantially benefited transportation. The **internal combustion engine**, or four-stroke engine, was developed by Daimler (1889), a modified version of the Diesel engine (1885). The pneumatic tire (1885) by Dunlop also contributed to making road vehicle operations faster and more comfortable. Compared with steam engines, internal combustion engines have a much higher efficiency by using a lighter fuel; petrol. Petrol, previously perceived as an unwanted by-product of the oil refining process, which was seeking kerosene for illumination, became a convenient fuel for the emerging land transport system. Initially, diesel engines were bulky, limiting their use to industrial and maritime propulsion, a purpose which they still fulfill today. The internal combustion engine enabled extended flexibility of movement with fast, inexpensive, and ubiquitous (door-to-door) transport modes, such as automobiles, buses, and trucks. **[Mass-producing](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/assembly-ford-model-t-1913/ "Assembly Line of the Ford T Model, 1913")** these vehicles changed the industrial production system considerably, notably by 1913, when Ford began producing the [Model T](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/ford-t-coupelet-1915/ "Ford T Town Car, 1915") car using an assembly line. From 1913 to 1927, about 15 million Ford Model Ts were built, making it the second most-produced car in history behind the Volkswagen Beetle. Economies of scale realized along the assembly line were passed on to the consumer, making the automobile even more [affordable and popular](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1257). The rapid diffusion of the automobile marked an increased demand for oil products and other raw materials such as steel and rubber. This led to the creation of large manufacturing clusters. [![Assembly Line Ford T](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/assembly_line_ford_t.jpg?resize=900%2C694&ssl=1 "Assembly Line of the Ford T Model, 1913 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/assembly-ford-model-t-1913/attachment/1500005673521/)Assembly Line of the Ford T Model 1913[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fordtcoupelet.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Ford T Town Car, 1915 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/ford-t-coupelet-1915/fordtcoupelet/)Ford T Town Car 1915[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cost_production_ford_t.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Cost and Production of Ford Vehicles, 1908-1924 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/ford-cost-production-1908-1924/cost_production_ford_t/)Cost and Production of Ford Vehicles 1908 1924[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/usmc_cargo_ships.png?resize=900%2C321&ssl=1 "United States Maritime Commission Cargo Ships, 1938-1947 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/usmc-cargo-ships/usmc_cargo_ships/)United States Maritime Commission Cargo Ships 1938 1947[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/t2_vlcc2.png?resize=900%2C289&ssl=1 "Comparison between a Contemporary and a Second World War Tanker | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/tanker-size-second-world-war-ulcc/t2_vlcc2/)Comparison between a Contemporary and a Second World War Tanker**Economies of scale also improved transportation in terms of capacity,** which enabled it to carry low-cost bulk commodities such as minerals and grain over long distances. However, the process was slow as cargo ships required large amounts of labor to be loaded and unloaded. This technical limitation informally imposed a limit of [10,000 deadweight tons to break-bulk cargo ships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/usmc-cargo-ships/ "United States Maritime Commission Cargo Ships, 1938-1947") that would remain as such until containerization began in the late 1950s. Still, the gradual growth of international trade, particularly after World War II, gave a strong impetus for shipbuilding. The end of the war left an ample supply of military cargo ships, namely Liberty Ships, which could be cheaply used for commercial purposes and became the workhorses of global trade until the 1960s. Oil tankers are a good example of applying the principle of [economies of scale](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/tanker-size-second-world-war-ulcc/ "Comparison between a Contemporary and a Second World War Tanker") to transport larger quantities of oil at a lower cost, especially after World War II, when global demand surged. Maritime routes were thus expanded to include tanker routes, notably from the Middle East, the dominant global oil producer. The long distances in the oil trade favored the construction of larger tankers. In the 1960s, tanker ships of 100,000 tons became available, to be supplanted by VLCCs (Very Large Crude Carriers) of 250,000 tons in the 1970s and by the ULCCs (Ultra Large Crude Carriers) of 550,000 tons at the end of the 1970s. What remained a challenge was the loading and unloading of cargo, which remained unchanged. Loading items such as amphorae, barrels, bags, or crates was slow and labor-intensive. **Unitization**, where batches of break-bulk cargo could be combined into a single handling unit, was difficult to achieve due to the volume and weight limits that could be handled manually. Since antiquity, amphorae were used as load units but had limitations for carrying goods other than bulk. Technical advances, such as using ropes for bundling cargo, provided some improvements, but methods and productivity remained similar. From a material handling perspective, a port of the late 19th century would be difficult to differentiate from a port of the 17th century. Loading and unloading a ship could easily account for up to three-quarters of the total maritime transportation costs. The **pallet** became the first effective load unit, particularly after the invention of the forklift in 1937. Pallets permitted better handling of goods as they could be more effectively managed and stored. By the early 1930s, about three days were required to unload a rail boxcar containing 13,000 cases of unpalletized canned goods. A similar task could be completed in approximately four hours using pallets and a forklift. During World War II, however, the massive adoption of pallets as the standard supply unit load by the US military permitted fast handling of goods and turnaround of transport assets. This underlined the growing importance of efficient transportation systems in the competitiveness of nations, whether for commercial or military gain. Although the first balloon flight took place in 1783, no practical applications for air travel were realized until the 20th century due to the lack of propulsion. A lighter-than-air device could be designed, but steering could not be readily achieved. The first propelled flight was made in 1903 by the [Wright brothers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1273) and inaugurated the era of air transportation. The initial air transport services targeted carrying mail since it was a type of freight that could be easily transported and proved to be profitable. 1919 marked the first commercial air transport service between England and France, but air transport suffered from limitations in terms of capacity and range. Several attempts were made to develop dirigible services, with the first Atlantic crossing by a Zeppelin airship in 1924. However, such technology was almost entirely abandoned in 1937 after the spectacular Hindenburg accident, in which the hydrogen-filled reservoirs of the dirigible burned. The 1920s and 1930s witnessed the expansion of regional and national air transport services in Europe and the United States, driven by mass-produced propeller aircraft such as the [Douglas DC-3](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1278). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/1024px-First_flight2.jpg?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Wright Brothers First Flight, 1903 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/wright-brothers-flight-1903/1024px-first_flight2/)Wright Brothers First Flight 1903[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dc3.jpg?resize=650%2C394&ssl=1 "Douglas DC-3 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/douglas-dc3/dc3/)Douglas DC 3[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/powered_transatlantic_passengers.png?resize=900%2C433&ssl=1 "Evolution of Powered Transatlantic Passenger Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/powered-transatlantic-passenger-modes/powered_transatlantic_passengers/)Powered Transatlantic Passenger Modes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/liner_transatlantic_crossing.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times, 1833 - 1952 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/liner-transatlantic-crossing-time/liner_transatlantic_crossing/)Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times 1833 1952 in days[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/b707.jpg?resize=700%2C468&ssl=1 "Boeing 707 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/boeing-707/b707/)Boeing 707[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/FirstTelephone-58a750b23df78c345bbd2870.jpg?resize=900%2C600&ssl=1 "Bell's First Telephone, 1875 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/bell-telephone-1875/firsttelephone-58a750b23df78c345bbd2870/)Bells First TelephoneThrough the first half of the 20th century, the [Atlantic remained an important technical challenge](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/powered-transatlantic-passenger-modes/ "Evolution of Powered Transatlantic Passenger Modes") for long-distance transportation modes since it linked large markets in Europe and North America. The post-World War II period was the turning point for air transportation as the range, capacity, and speed of aircraft increased, as well as the average income of the passengers. A growing number of people were thus able to afford the speed and convenience of air transportation. Applying the gas turbine principle led to the development of jet engines. 1952 marks the beginning of commercial jet services with the Comet, but a design flaw grounded the plane the following year. In 1958, the first successful commercial jet plane, the [Boeing 707](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1288), entered into service and revolutionized international movements of passengers, marking the end of [transoceanic passenger ships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2135) (liners) and replacing propeller planes for long-distance services. The jet plane enabled the setting of time-dependent trade relations between producers across the world (such as electronics), created a long-distance market for perishables (fruits, vegetables, flowers), and supported the development of mass tourism. Basic telecommunications infrastructures, such as the [telephone](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1295) and the radio, were mass-marketed during the Fordist era. However, the major change was the broad **diffusion of the automobile**, especially from the 1950s, as it became a mass consumption product, and when the first major highway systems, such as the American Interstate, began to be built. No other modes of transportation have so drastically changed lifestyles and the structure of cities, notably in developed countries. It created suburbanization and expanded some of the largest cities to areas larger than 100 km in diameter. In dense and productive regions, such as the Northeast of the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, the urban system became structured and interconnected by transport networks to the point that it could be considered one vast **urban region**; the Megalopolis. # 2. A New Context for Transportation: The Post-Fordist Era (1970-2000s) Among the significant changes in international transportation from the 1970s are the massive development of **telecommunications**, the **globalization of trade**, more efficient distribution systems through the application of **logistics**, and the considerable **development of air transportation**. Telecommunications enabled growing information exchanges, especially for the financial and service sectors. After 1970, **telecommunications successfully merged with information technologies**. As telecommunications became [widely available household conveniences](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/household-telecommunications-united-states/ "US Household Penetration of Telecommunications, 1920-2015"), they also became a medium of doing business, in addition to supporting and enhancing other transportation modes. The information highway became a reality as fiber optic cables gradually replaced copper wires, multiplying the capacity to transmit information between computers. Global submarine cable networks, which have existed since the setting of telegraph networks in the 19th century, were overhauled with fiber optics to become the backbone of the global telecommunication system, particularly the Internet. However, this growth was dwarfed by the tremendous growth in the [capacity of microprocessors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/moore-law-transistors/ "Moore’s Law (Transistors per Microprocessor), 1971-2022"), allowing for the diffusion of [personal computing devices](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/personal-computing-devices/ "Diffusion of Personal Computing Devices, 1977-2021"), which are now fundamental components of economic and social activities worldwide. A satellite communication network was also created to support the growing information exchanges, especially for television images, but it remained of marginal use because of lower bandwidth. Local cellular networks emerged from this wireless technology that expanded and merged to cover whole cities, countries, regions, and continents. Telecommunications have [massively diffused](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/telecommunication-services-diffusion/ "Diffusion of Telecommunication Services, 1985-2021") and reached the era of individual access to the Internet, portability (cellular phones), and global coverage, enabling [global media systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11506). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Oceanic-Cables.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Global Submarine Cable Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-submarine-cable-network/map-world-oceanic-cables-png/)Global Submarine Cable Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/moore_law_transistors.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Moore's Law (Transistors per Microprocessor), 1971-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/moore-law-transistors/moore_law_transistors/)Moores Law Transistors per Microprocessor 1971 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/diffusion_personal_computing_devices.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Diffusion of Personal Computing Devices, 1977-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/personal-computing-devices/diffusion_personal_computing/)Diffusion of Personal Computing Devices 1977 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/diffusion_telecommunications_services.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Diffusion of Telecommunication Services, 1985-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/telecommunication-services-diffusion/diffusion_telecommunications_services/)Diffusion of Telecommunication Services 1985 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/us_household_telecommunications.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "US Household Penetration of Telecommunications, 1920-2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/household-telecommunications-united-states/us_household_telecommunications/)US Household Penetration of Telecommunications 1920 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_media_systems2.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Global Media Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/global-media-systems/global_media_systems2/)Global Media SystemsThe diffusion of railways in the late 19th and early 20th centuries considerably improved the efficiency of inland transportation. However, the growth of trade and the economies of scale provided by railways placed additional pressures on ports where the interface between maritime and inland transport systems was the bottleneck. **Containers** were introduced by the American entrepreneur Malcolm McLean, who initially applied containerization to land transport but saw the opportunity to use container shipping as an alternative to acute road congestion in the early 1950s before the first Interstate Highways were constructed. The first **containership** (the [Ideal-X](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1323), a converted T2 oil tanker) set sail in 1956 from New York to Houston and marked the beginning of the era of containerization. Before the introduction of containers, loading and unloading at ports could account for between 50% and 70% of the cost of break bulk shipping. Containers, the main agents of the modern international transport system, enable increased freight transport flexibility, mainly by reducing transshipment costs and delays; handling a container requires about 25 to 40 times less labor than its equivalent in bulk freight. Loading and unloading operations that required days could now be done in a matter of hours. The first containerships spent about 18% of their operational time at ports, while a breakbulk ship would spend 40%. From a cost perspective, loading and unloading cargo went from about $5 per ton for breakbulk cargo to about 15 cents per ton with containers. This enabled further the unitization trend brought forward by the pallet, particularly since pallets could be loaded into containers. The initial attempts at containerization thus aimed at [reducing maritime transshipment costs and time](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6900). Later on, the true potential of containerization became clear when interfacing with other modes became an operational reality, mainly between maritime, rail, and road transportation. In 1960, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, foreseeing the potential of containerization, constructed the **first specialized container terminal** next to Port Newark; the Port Elizabeth Marine Terminal. Unlike conventional break bulk operations that require storage sheds adjacent to piers, containerization requires large paved open spaces for container storage. The Sea-Land Company established the first regular maritime container line in 1966 over the Atlantic between North America and Western Europe. It took over a decade for the [container to become a standardized form of maritime shipping](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/dawn-containerization/ "The Dawn of Containerization: 1970") as ports and shipping lines were initially reluctant to provide the required capital investments. By the early 1980s, container services with specialized ships (**cellular containerships**, first introduced in 1968) became a dominant aspect of international and regional transport systems, transforming the maritime industry. However, the size of those ships remained constrained for 20 years by the size of the Panama Canal, which *de facto* became the **Panamax standard**. In 1988, the first post-Panamax containership was introduced, indicating the will to expand economies of scale in maritime container shipping. The container revolution was concomitant with globalization by supporting an increasingly complex system of trade involving parts, manufactured goods, and even commodities. Few other transport innovations had such an impact on the global economic landscape. Air and rail transportation experienced remarkable improvements in the late 1960s and early 1970s through massification and network developments. The first commercial flight of the [Boeing 747](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1327) between New York and London in 1969 marked an important landmark for international transportation, mainly for passengers. Still, air freight became a significant economic function of air transportation in the 1980s. Depending on the configuration, this giant plane could transport up to 400 passengers. It permitted a considerable reduction of airfares through economies of scale and opened intercontinental air transportation to the mass market. Attempts were also undertaken to establish faster-than-sound commercial services with the Concorde (1976; flying at 2,200 km/hr). However, such services proved unprofitable, and no new supersonic commercial planes have been built since the 1970s. The Concorde was retired in 2003, but the setting of supersonic passenger services remains a market that can be developed. At the regional level, the emergence of **high-speed rail systems** provided fast and efficient inter-urban services, notably in France (1981; speeds up to 300 km/hr) and Japan (1964; [Shinkansen](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/shinkansen-class-0/ "Shinkansen (Class 0)"); speeds up to 275 km/hr). Later, high-speed services were expanded in Europe, and more recently, [high-speed rail systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7457) were constructed in China, South Korea, and Taiwan. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/first-containers-loading-ss-ideal-x-1956.jpg?resize=900%2C706&ssl=1 "Containers Being Loaded on the First Containership, Ideal-X, 1956 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/idealx-first-containeriship-1956/first-containers-loading-ss-ideal-x-1956/)First Containership Ideal X 1956[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-1970.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "The Dawn of Containerization: 1970 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/dawn-containerization/map-teu-1970/)The Dawn of Containerization 1970[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerbarge.jpg?resize=601%2C402&ssl=1 "Containers being Unloaded to a Barge, Shanghai 1992 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-barge-shanghai/containerbarge/)Containers being Unloaded to a Barge Shanghai 1992[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/747.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Boeing 747 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/boeing-747/attachment/747/)Boeing 747[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Shinkansen_Series0_R67_JNRcolor.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Shinkansen (Class 0) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/shinkansen-class-0/konica-minolta-digital-camera/)Shinkansen Class 0# 3. The Setting of Global Mobility Systems (2000s-) While transportation allowed the trade of raw materials and finished goods, it also allowed for the making better use of the comparative advantages of regions. In the first half of the 20th century, the setting of regional manufacturing clusters specializing in sectors such as transport equipment, textiles, or foodstuffs became prevalent. By the second half of the 20th century, trade liberalization and the formation of economic blocs allowed for the fragmentation of production at the global level. A conjunction of trade liberalization, containerization, and technological innovations modified the operational scale of transport systems and their network structure. The setting of gateways and hubs became particularly prevalent, leading to an extended scale for transportation that reflects commercial considerations less subject to political or regulatory constraints. This particularly impacted air transport systems, which have a network hierarchy of services ranging from regional services with hub-and-spoke networks to globally interconnected city pairs. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_motor_vehicle_production_manufacturer.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Production per Car Manufacturer, 1998-2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/car-production-manufacturer/global_motor_vehicle_production_manufacturer/)Global Production per Car Manufacturer 1998 2017[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_production_world.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Automobile Production, Selected Countries, 1950-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/automobile-production-world/automobile_production_world/)Automobile Production Selected Countries 1950 2024The increasing efforts to manage freight reinforced the **development of logistics and global supply chains**. Major transportation equipment manufacturers, particularly [car manufacturers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1338), became dominant actors of transnationalism. Even if the car is not an international transport mode, its global diffusion has expanded the global trade of vehicles, parts, raw materials, and fuel (mainly oil). Car production, which used to be mainly concentrated in the United States, Japan, and Germany, has become a global industry with a few key players forming well-integrated groups, such as Ford, General Motors, Hyundai, and Toyota. Car manufacturing is a supply chain-intensive industry associated with the circulation of parts within manufacturing clusters. Although manufacturing clusters emerged in the first half of the 20th century, by the 21st century, clusters had become prevalent across a wide range of activities and locations. Accessibility and connectivity offered by intermodal transportation allowed for setting logistics clusters near terminal facilities. These clusters became the regulators and coordinators of distribution systems spanning large regions. Transportation systems at all scales are being transformed by their **[integration with information technologies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=22913 "Main Technological Advances in Transportation and Telecommunication")**, a process also known as the digitalization of mobility, leading to a higher level of integration between modes as well as the automation of transportation operations. This relates to the [Fourth Industrial Revolution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/four-industrial-revolutions/ "The Four Industrial Revolutions"), impacting mobility and global value chains. To remain competitive, corporations created in earlier parts of the Industrial Revolution needed to [continuously adapt their business model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/corporate-adaptation-transport-innovations-american-express-wells-fargo/ "Corporate Adaptation to Transport Innovations: American Express and Wells Fargo"), considering technological innovations and the business opportunities they provided. Therefore, the historical evolution of transportation is strongly associated with the evolution of economic, social, and managerial processes. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/main_technological_advances_transport_telecom.png?resize=900%2C429&ssl=1 "Main Technological Advances in Transportation and Telecommunication | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/main-technological-advances-transportation-telecommunication/main_technological_advances_transport_telecom/)Main Technological Advances in Transportation and Telecommunication[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fourth_industrial_revolution.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "The Four Industrial Revolutions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/four-industrial-revolutions/fourth_industrial_revolution/)The Four Industrial Revolutions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/corporate_adaptation_transport_innovation.png?resize=900%2C512&ssl=1 "Corporate Adaptation to Transport Innovations: American Express and Wells Fargo | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/corporate-adaptation-transport-innovations-american-express-wells-fargo/corporate_adaptation_transport_innovation/)Corporate Adaptation to Transport Innovations American Express and Wells Fargo[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/phases_development_global_economy.png?resize=900%2C370&ssl=1 "Phases of Development of the Global Economy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-economy-development-phases/phases_development_global_economy/)Phases of Development of the Global EconomyThe global transportation system is marked by growing infrastructure, economic and environmental constraints, leading to the search for alternatives. Transportation modes have a **dependence on fossil fuels,** and second, road transportation has assumed dominance and is increasingly congested. The rise in oil prices since the 1970s induced innovations in transport modes, **reduced energy consumption**, and the search for **alternative energy sources** (electric cars, adding ethanol to gasoline, hybrid cars, and fuel cells). **Decarbonization** has become the framework articulating the transportation energy transition. Still, the reliance on fossil fuels continues with robust growth of motorization in developing economies. Since the onset of the Modern Era in the 15th century, transportation has played a significant role in the [development of the global economy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1348). Like most technological innovations, transportation innovations take place in waves that reflect the [cumulative development of infrastructures](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1352). Although each wave played out differently, developed economies such as Europe and the [United States](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1357) first saw the setting of canal systems, which were then complemented by rail transport systems. Later, the internal combustion engine supported the development of extensive road systems. From the 1950s, air transport systems developed to service regional and international markets. With containerization, the global transportation system further evolved to support global supply chains, and digitalization allowed new forms of productivity and efficiency improvements. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_transport_technology.png?resize=900%2C488&ssl=1 "Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/evolution-transport-technology/evolution_transport_technology/)Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th Century[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/waves_transport_development.png?resize=900%2C460&ssl=1 "Cumulative Waves of Transport Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/transport-development-waves/waves_transport_development/)Cumulative Waves of Transport Development[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/growth_us_transport_system.png?resize=900%2C548&ssl=1 "Growth of the US Transport System, 19th - 21st Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/transport-system-evolution-united-states/growth_us_transport_system2/)Growth of the US Transport System 19th 21st Century--- ## Related Topics - [1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ "1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems") - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/) - [4.1 – Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/) - [5.1 – Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/) - [7.1 – Transborder and Crossborder Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/) - [10.4 – Future Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ "10.4 – Future Transportation Systems") ## Bibliography - Ausubel, J.H. and C. Marchetti (2001) “The Evolution of Transportation”, The Industrial Physicist, April/May, pp. 20-24. - Clark, G. (2008) A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World, Princeton: Princeton University Press. - Harrington, R. (1999) “Transport: Then, Now, and Tomorrow”, Royal Society of Arts Journal, vol. CXLVI, no. 5488. - Lay, M.G. (1992) Ways of the world: a history of the world’s roads and the vehicles that used them. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. - Levinson, M. (2006) The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, Princeton: Princeton University Press. - Schwab, K. (2016) The Fourth Industrial Revolution, New York: Crown Business. - Vance, J.E. (1970) The Merchant’s World: The Geography of Wholesaling, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/?share=reddit) - --- ### [1.3 - The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Before the Industrial Revolution, even with limited technical capabilities, transportation enabled the setting of empires and trade routes. The Industrial Revolution allowed mechanized transportation systems, expanding mobility at the local and global levels. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transportation in the Pre-Industrial Era (pre-1800s)](#1_Transportation_in_the_Pre-Industrial_Era_pre-1800s) - [2. The Industrial Revolution and Transportation (1800-1870)](#2_The_Industrial_Revolution_and_Transportation_1800-1870) - [3. The Emergence of Modern Transportation Systems (1870-1920)](#3_The_Emergence_of_Modern_Transportation_Systems_1870-1920) # 1. Transportation in the Pre-Industrial Era (pre-1800s) Transportation is closely linked with the [genesis of globalization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1032). Moving people and freight has been an essential factor in maintaining the cohesion of economic systems from empires to modern nation-states and economic blocs. With technological and economic developments, the means to achieve this goal have evolved considerably through a series of **[historical revolutions and evolutions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/transport-revolutions-history/ "Transport Revolutions in Human History")**. Moving people and cargo faster, in greater volumes, over longer distances, and more conveniently became possible. This process is very complex and related to the spatial evolution of economic systems and the associated technical developments. Before the major technical transformations brought forward by the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 18th century, **no forms of **motorized transportation** existed**. Transport technology was mainly limited to [harnessing animal labor for land transport and to wind for maritime transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1042). Initially, rowers propelled ships, with sails added around 2,500 BCE as a complementary form of propulsion. The transported quantities were minimal, and so was the speed at which people and freight moved. The average overland speed by horse, domesticated around 2,000 BCE, was around 8 kilometers per hour, and maritime speeds were barely above these figures. Also, a horse can only carry a load of about 125 kg, while a camel can carry about 200 kg. **Waterways** were the most efficient transport systems available, and cities next to water bodies, such as rivers and bays, could trade over long distances and maintain political, economic, and cultural cohesion over a larger territory. Accordingly, the first civilizations emerged along river systems for agriculture and trading purposes (Tigris-Euphrates, Nile, Indus, Ganges, Huang He). Evidence underlined that for the same load unit, land transport costs were 50 times higher than sea transport costs, while river transport was six times higher. [Long-distance trade existed](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ancient-trade-issues/ "Ancient Trade Issues"), but traded commodities were high-value, non-perishable goods such as spices, silk, wine, and perfume. The most active overland trading routes formed a system that would eventually be known as the [Silk Road](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1048 "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes (11th and 12th Centuries)"). Around the Mediterranean, the amphora permitted an early form of intermodalism as an effective standard transport product of olive oil, grain, or wine. Because the efficiency of the land transport system of this era was poor, most of the **trade was local in scope**. Economies based on autonomy and basic subsistence could not generate much trade. Cities were located to benefit from the [defensible or commercial advantage](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1054) of a location. From the perspective of regional economic organization, the provision of cities in perishable agricultural commodities was limited to a radius of about 50 kilometers. The size of cities also remained unchanged over time because of urban mobility constraints. Since people can walk about 5 km per hour and are not willing to spend more than one hour per day walking, the daily space of interaction would be constrained by a 2.5 km radius corresponding to about 20 square kilometers. Thus, most rural areas centered around a village and cities rarely exceeded a 5 km diameter. The largest cities of that era, such as Rome, Beijing, Constantinople, or Venice, never surpassed an area of 20 square kilometers. Large cities above 100,000 inhabitants were scarce, and those that exceeded such a population did so because they were at the nexus of maritime and land trade networks. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/genesis_globalization2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "The Genesis of Globalization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/genesis-globalization/genesis_globalization/)The Genesis of Globalization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_revolutions_history2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Transport Revolutions in Human History | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/transport-revolutions-history/transport_revolutions-2/)Transport Revolutions in Human History[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/preindustrial.png?resize=900%2C647&ssl=1 "The Performance of Pre-industrial Means of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/pre-industrial-travel-modes/preindustrial/)The Performance of Pre industrial Means of Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ancient_trade.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Ancient Trade Issues | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ancient-trade-issues/ancient_trade_issues/)Ancient Trade Issues[![Map Silk Road](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Silk-Road.png?resize=768%2C461&ssl=1 "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/map-silk-road/)The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/historical_urban_location_factors.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Historical Urban Location Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/urban-defense-commerce/historial_urban_location_factors/)Historical Urban Location Factors[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Roman-Empire-125AD.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Roman Empire, c125 AD | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/map-roman-empire-125ad-png/)The Roman Empire c125 AD[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/China_grand_canal.png?resize=734%2C913&ssl=1 "Grand Canal System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/grand-canal-china/china_grand_canal/)Grand Canal SystemBefore the Industrial Revolution, urban systems were not present, as each city was a self-sufficient economic system with minimal trade. The **preponderance of city-states** during this period can partly be explained by transportation and the difficulties of shipping goods. Among the most notable exceptions were the Roman and Chinese empires, which made extraordinary efforts to build transportation networks and consequently maintained control over extensive territory for centuries. - The [Roman Empire](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1060) grew around an intricate coastal shipping network and roads, supporting large cities around the Mediterranean basin. Its regional trade network was supplemented by long-distance trade that included India and China. - The [Chinese Empire](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1065 "Grand Canal System") established an extensive fluvial transport network with several artificial canals connected to form what has been dubbed the Grand Canal. Some parts of it are still being used today. The economic importance and the geopolitics of transportation were recognized very early. Maritime transportation was the most convenient way to move freight and passengers around, an advantage that would not change until the Industrial Revolution. Large commercial empires were established with the setting of maritime trade networks. However, long-distance maritime trade involved risk, which favored the emergence of a financing and insurance industry as mitigation instruments. In Ancient Greece, merchants financed their commercial ventures through high-interest loans that simultaneously served as insurance, since the loan would not be repaid if the ship sank. This model, known as “bottomry”, was then copied by the Romans. It originates in the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi around 1700 BCE, stating repayment of a loan for a successful voyage. These early forms of financing and insurance permitted commercial activities that would otherwise not have taken place to the same extent. By the 13th century, an extensive maritime trade network was established, the highways of the time, centered along the navigable rivers, canals, and coastal waters of Europe and China. Shipping used the English Channel, the North Sea, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean, where the most important cities were coastal or inland ports (London, Norwich, Königsberg, Hamburg, Bruges, Bordeaux, Lyon, Lisbon, Barcelona, and Venice). Trade of bulk goods, such as grain, salt, wine, wool, timber, and stone, took place. By the 14th century, galleys were finally replaced by full-fledged sailships (the caravel, the carrick, and then the galleon) that were faster and required smaller crews. The discovery by the Portuguese in 1431 of the **North Atlantic circular wind pattern**, better known as the trade winds, marked the beginning of European expansion. A similar wind pattern was also found in the Indian and Pacific oceans with the monsoon winds. This allowed sailships to travel over longer distances along consistent and reliable routes. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mathewcarav.jpg?resize=550%2C478&ssl=1 "Early European Sailships | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/early-sailships/mathewcarav/)Early European Sailships[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-Global-Wind-Patterns-Jan-Jul-1.png?resize=900%2C918&ssl=1 "Seasonal Variations of Major Global Wind Patterns | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/wind-patterns-seasonal-variations/map-global-wind-patterns-jan-jul-1/)Seasonal Variations of Major Global Wind PatternsIn 1453, the fall of Constantinople to the Turks became a critical geopolitical event. The capital of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) acted for centuries as a trade hub. Its fall disrupted the traditional land trade routes from Europe to Asia. Emerging European powers were forced to find [alternative maritime routes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1077) through high-sea expeditions. One alternative trade route, followed by Columbus in 1492, was to sail west across the Atlantic. The other alternative, followed by Vasco de Gama in 1497, was to sail to the East by rounding the African continent. Columbus stumbled upon the American continent, while Gama found a maritime route to India using the Cape of Good Hope. Wherever they went, European explorers realized they had several technological advantages, such as artillery and firearms, over local political entities. One remarkable advantage was the refinement of celestial navigation, which allowed ships to follow more direct paths without relying on the coast as a reference. What started as exploration led to the capture of strategic trading locations, the signing of treaties with local rulers, or the annexation of territories. These events and the promised new trade routes were quickly followed by a wave of European exploration and colonization, initially by [Spain and Portugal](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1203), the early maritime powers, then by Britain, France, and the Netherlands. The traditional trade route to Asia no longer involved Italy (Venice) and Arabia but involved direct maritime connections from ports such as Lisbon and Amsterdam. European powers were able to master the seas with larger, better-armed, and more efficient sailing ships and thus were able to control [international trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1083) and colonization. Private charter companies, such as the [Dutch East India Company](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1089), were agents initially used to establish maritime trading networks that spanned the world. By the early 18th century, most of the world’s territories were controlled by Europe, providing wealth and markets to their thriving metropolises through a [system of colonial trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1094). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-First-Explorations-15-16c.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Early European Maritime Expeditions, 1492-1522 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/european-maritime-expeditions-16th-century/map-first-explorations-15-16c-png/)Early European Maritime Expeditions, 1492-1522 [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Spanish-and-Portuguese-Empires-1024x551.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Spanish and Portuguese Empires (1581-1640) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/spanish-portuguese-empires-17th-century/map-spanish-and-portuguese-empires-png/)Spanish and Portuguese Empires 1581 1640[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-ShippingDensity1750_1810.png?resize=900%2C507&ssl=1 "Density of Ship Log Entries, 1750-1810 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ship-log-density-1750-1810/map-shippingdensity1750_1810-png/)Density of Ship Log Entries 1750 1810[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/VOC_Trade_Network2.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Dutch East India Company, Trade Network, 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/dutch-east-india-company-trade-network/voc_trade_network2/)Dutch East India Company Trade Network 18th Century[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/North-Atlantic-Colonial-Trade-18C.png?resize=900%2C650&ssl=1 "Colonial Trade Pattern, North Atlantic, 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/colonial-trade-pattern-atlantic-18th-century/north-atlantic-colonial-trade-18c-png/)Colonial Trade Pattern North Atlantic 18th CenturyPrior to the Industrial Revolution, the quantity of freight transported between nations was **negligible** by contemporary standards. For instance, during the Middle Ages, the total volume of French imports through the Saint-Gothard Pass (between Italy and Switzerland) would not fill a freight train. The amount of freight transported by the Venetian fleet, which dominated the Mediterranean trade for centuries, would not fill a modern container ship. By the late 16th century, the capacity of the British fleet was estimated to be around 68,000 tons and required 16,000 sailors. Containerships built in 2022 had a capacity of 236,000 tons and a crew of 22. The volume, but not the speed of trade, improved under mercantilism (15th to 18th century), notably for maritime transportation. Despite all, distribution capacities and speeds were minimal. For example, a stagecoach going through the English countryside in the 16th century had an average speed of two miles per hour. Moving one ton of cargo 30 miles (50 km) inland in the United States by the late 18th century was as costly as moving it across the Atlantic. Thus, most international flows focused on [coastal systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/north-america-coastal-trade-18th-century/ "North American Coastal Trade System, 18th Century"). The [inland transportation system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1105) was very limited in its capacity to carry passengers and freight. By the late 18th century, canal systems emerged in Europe, initially in the Netherlands and England. They enabled large-scale inland movement of bulk freight and expanded regional trade. Maritime and fluvial transportation were the dominant modes of the pre-industrial era. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA_Coastal_19th_Century.png?resize=900%2C680&ssl=1 "North American Coastal Trade System, 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/north-america-coastal-trade-18th-century/map-na_coastal_19th_century-png/)North American Coastal Trade System 18th Century[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US_Travel_Time_1800_1830.png?resize=900%2C539&ssl=1 "Inland Travel Time from New York, 1800 - 1830 (in days) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/united-states-travel_time-1800-1830/map-us_travel_time_1800_1830-png/)Inland Travel Time from New York 1800 1830 in days# 2. The Industrial Revolution and Transportation (1800-1870) From the 1750s, a series of changes took place in Europe that would transform the global economic, political, social, and technological landscape, which came to be known as the **Industrial Revolution**. Human and animal labor was replaced by mechanical labor, and new materials, such as chemicals, enabled new processes and products. The factors that led to the remarkable changes of the Industrial Revolution are debated for their role and importance in the emergence of capitalism. Four of them appear to be prevalent and interdependent: - **The scientific method**. Mostly the outcome of changes that took place in the 17th century, often dubbed the “Age of Reason”. It triggered a rational approach to the laws of nature and formalized technical professions (physics, chemistry, engineering, etc.). This, in turn, fostered innovations and their application to practical uses by engineers. - **Property rights**. The outcome of strengthening democratic institutions that lean on the rule of law, which guarantees and protects private ownership. Property owners had greater representation in elected legislatures, and capital accumulation could expand—greater freedom in making commercial decisions allowed for entrepreneurship and the formation of corporations. - **Capital markets**. Institutions such as banks are able to gather capital pools and invest them in economic ventures. The process of capital accumulation and allocation became increasingly rational and institutionalized. - **Communications and transport infrastructure**. The setting and development of mechanized transport systems supported the distribution of resources and the setting of comparative advantages. Markets could interact more effectively, and the cost of moving resources and products declined. The Industrial Revolution radically changed the foundations of economic systems and set in motion the emergence of a global economy. Most of the [technical innovations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1110) that modified the way to produce and transport took place in a short period, mainly between 1760 and 1800. Massive modifications of transport systems occurred in two major phases. The first centered on the development of [**canal systems**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1114), and the second centered on **railways**. This period marked the development of the steam engine, an **external combustion engine** that converted thermal energy into mechanical energy, providing an important territorial expansion for maritime and railway transport systems. Much of the credit for developing the first efficient steam engine in 1765 is attributed to the British engineer Watt, although the first steam engines were used to pump water out of mines. The term horsepower was also coined by Watt as a comparison to the number of horses a steam engine could technically be able to replace. It was then only a matter of time before the steam engine was adapted to locomotion. In 1769, the French engineer Cugnot built the first self-propelled steam vehicle, along with being responsible for the first automobile accident ever recorded. The first mechanically propelled maritime vehicle was tested in 1790 by the American Inventor Fitch as a fluvial transportation mode on the Delaware River. By 1807, commercial steamboat services were inaugurated. This marked a new era in the **mechanization of land and maritime transport systems**. From the perspective of land transportation, the early Industrial Revolution faced bottlenecks, as inland distribution could not handle the growing volumes of raw materials and finished goods. Roads were often unpaved and could not effectively carry heavy loads. Although improvements were made to road transport systems in the early 17th century, such as the [Turnpike Trusts](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-turnpike-19th-century/ "Turnpikes in Great Britain and Travel Hours from London, Late 18th and Early 19th Century") in Britain (1706) and the development of stagecoaches, this was insufficient to accommodate the growing demands on freight transportation. The first coach services had speeds of about 5.5 miles per hour in the 1750s. By the 1820s, turnpikes had greatly improved overland transportation, but roads were not profitable for hauling anything except compact, valuable goods. In a horse-drawn era, road economics were disadvantageous. Bulk products could be transported about 100 miles, but only in a slow, costly, and inefficient manner. For instance, four horses could pull a wagon weighing one ton 12 miles a day over an ordinary road and one-and-a-half tons 18 miles a day over a well-maintained turnpike. Comparatively, four horses could draw a barge of 100 tons 24 miles a day on a canal. In such a context, the early stages of the Industrial Revolution focused on canal development since their economic benefits were more apparent. The discovery of latex in the 1730s and its transformation into flexible, durable rubber through vulcanization in the 1830s enabled the development of wheels that combined high speed and traction, revolutionizing road transportation. Before rubber tires, wheels were narrow, limiting load and comfort, and prone to damaging the road surface. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/technological_innovations_industrial_revolution.png?resize=900%2C337&ssl=1 "Major Technological Innovations of the Industrial Revolution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Technological Innovations of the Industrial Revolution[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Barton-Aqueduct-1795-edited-for-web.jpg?resize=676%2C506&ssl=1 "Bridgewater Canal, Manchester, 1767 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/bridgewater-canal-manchester-1767/barton-aqueduct-1795-edited-for-web/)Bridgewater Canal Manchester 1767[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/turnpikes_uk_travel-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Turnpikes in Great Britain and Travel Hours from London, Late 18th and Early 19th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-turnpike-19th-century/uk_turnpikes-png/)Turnpikes in Great Britain Late 18th and Early 19th Century[![Map Canals 19th Century United States](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Northeast-Canal-System-19th-Century-1.png?resize=900%2C663&ssl=1 "Major Canals Built in the 19th Century, American Northeast | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-canals-19th-century/map-northeast-canal-system-19th-century-1/)Major Canals Built in the 19th Century American Northeast[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/eriecanal1829.jpg?resize=776%2C588&ssl=1 "Erie Canal, New York, 1829 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/erie-canal-1829/eriecanal1829/)Erie Canal New York 1829From the 1760s, **freight shipping canals** were slowly built in emerging industrial cores such as England (e.g. [Bridgewater Canal, 1761](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1123)) and the [United States](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1128) (e.g. [Erie Canal, 1825](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1135)). These projects relied on a system of locks to overcome elevation changes and linked different segments of fluvial systems into a comprehensive waterway system. Barges, many pulled by horses, became increasingly used to move goods and raw materials at a scale and a cost that was not previously possible. Economies of scale and specialization, the foundation of modern industrial production systems, became increasingly applicable through fluvial canals. However, physical obstacles made canal construction expensive, and the network was constrained in its geographical coverage. In 1830 there were about 2,000 miles of canals in Britain, and by 1850, there were 4,250 miles of navigable waterways. The canal era was, however, short-lived, as a new mode of transportation emerged in the second half of the 19th century that would revolutionize inland transportation. **Steam railway** technology initially appeared in 1814 to haul coal. Using a steam engine on smooth rails required less power and could handle heavier loads. The first commercial rail line linked Manchester to Liverpool in 1830 over a distance of 65 km. Shortly after, rail lines began to be laid, leading to the setting of national systems. Speed improvements were significant as the first rail networks ran between 30 and 50 km/h, three times faster than stagecoach services. The capital costs of building railway networks were enormous and often left to the private sector, with significant public involvement through loans and land grants. They included rights-of-way, building, maintenance, and operating costs. This was accompanied by a few [railway manias](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1141) (and their subsequent busts) with capital pouring into a sector that was perceived, at least by the general public, as limitless in possibilities. By the 1850s, railroad towns were being established, and railways were providing access to the resources and markets of vast territories. 10,000 km of railways were then operating in England, and railways were quickly being constructed in Western Europe and North America. The need to organize and schedule rail services led to the adoption of standard time (often called standard railroad time). England was the first to implement a standard time system in 1855, **Greenwich Mean Time**, which became the global reference time. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/british_railways_19th_century.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "Length of the British Railway System, 1830-1860 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-rail-system-1830-1860/british_railways_19th_century-png/)Length of the British Railway System 1830 1860[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US_Rail_1861.png?resize=900%2C788&ssl=1 "American Rail Network, 1861 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-rail-network-1861/map-us_rail_1861-png/)American Rail Network 1861[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/1869-Golden_Spike.jpg?resize=900%2C682&ssl=1 "Completion of the Transcontinental Railway, 1869 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/completion-transcontinental-rail-1869/1869-golden_spike/)Completion of the Transcontinental Railway 1869Railroads represented an inland transport system that was at the same time **flexible in its spatial coverage**, and that could carry **heavy loads**. As a result, many canals fell into disrepair and were closed as they could no longer compete with rail services. In their initial development phase, railways were a point-to-point process where major cities were linked one at a time by independent companies. Thus, the first railroad companies bore the name of the city pairs or the region they were servicing, such as the Camden and Amboy Railroad Company chartered in 1830. From the 1860s, **integrated railway systems** started cohesively serving whole nations with standard gauges (made mandatory in the United States by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887) and passenger and freight services. The journey between New York and Chicago was reduced from three weeks by stagecoach in 1830 to 72 hours by train in 1850. Thus, many cities became closely interconnected, favoring economic specialization and comparative advantages. The [transcontinental line between New York and San Francisco](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1147), completed in 1869, represented a remarkable achievement in territorial integration made only possible by rail. It reduced the journey across the continent (New York to San Francisco) from six months to one week, thus opening a vast pool of resources and new agricultural regions for the Eastern part of the United States. This was followed by Canada in 1886 (Trans-Canada Railway) and Russia in 1904 (Trans-Siberian Railway). The beginning of the 19th century saw the establishment of the **first regular maritime routes** linking harbors worldwide, especially over the North Atlantic between Europe and North America. Many of these long-distance routes were navigated by fast [Clipper ships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/clipper-ship/ "Clipper Ships"), which dominated ocean trade until the late 1850s. Due to technical improvements such as hull design, copper plating (reducing drag), improved sail designs, and iron joints and bolts, the speed of sailships increased by up to 50% between 1750 and 1830. By the 1850s, it could take more than three months to move cargo from China to the UK, while before clipper ships, the same journey could take up to one year. Another significant improvement was the [design of accurate navigation charts](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/maury-navigation-sailing-1850/ "Impacts of Maury’s Navigation Charts on Sailing Time, 1850s") where prevailing winds and sea currents could be used for navigation advantages. Composite ships (a mix of wood and iron armature) then took over a large portion of the trade until about 1900. Still, they could not compete with steamships, which have been continually improved since they were first introduced one hundred years before. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/clippersc.jpg?resize=600%2C363&ssl=1 "Clipper Ship "Prinz Albert", 1897 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/clipper-ship/clippersc/)Clipper Ships[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Maury-Trade-Routes-1858.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "Impacts of Maury's Navigation Charts on Sailing Time, 1850s | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/maury-navigation-sailing-1850/map-maury-trade-routes-1858-png/)Impacts of Maurys Navigation Charts on Sailing Time 1850s[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ssgreatbritain_launch_of_the_great_britain_steamship.jpg?resize=900%2C646&ssl=1 "An Early Steamship, the Great Britain, 1845 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/great-britain-steamship-1845/gtbritain/)An Early Steamship the Great Britain 1845[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/break_even_sail_steam.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Break-Even Distance between Sail and Steam, 1850-1890 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/steam-sail-breakeven/break_even_sail_steam/)Break Even Distance between Sail and Steam 1850 1890Regarding steam propulsion technology, 1807 marks the first successful use of a steamship, Fulton’s North River / Clermont, on the Hudson, servicing New York and Albany. In 1820, the Savannah was the first steamship (used as an auxiliary power) to cross the Atlantic, taking 29 days to link Liverpool to New York. The first regular services for transatlantic passenger transport by steamships were inaugurated in 1838, followed up closely by using the helix instead of the paddlewheel as a more efficient propeller (1840). [Iron-armature ships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/great-britain-steamship-1845/ "An Early Steamship, the Great Britain, 1845") were 30 to 40% lighter and had 15% more cargo capacity compared with wood-armature ships of the same size. Among the advantages of steamships, the ability to navigate regardless of wind direction enabled them to access river systems, thereby permitting the development of active inland navigation. The gradual improvement in steam engine technology permitted longer and safer voyages, enabling steamships to become the [dominant mode of maritime transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/steam-sail-breakeven/ "Break-Even Distance between Sail and Steam, 1850-1890") by the late 19th century. Shipbuilding was also revolutionized by the use of steel armatures (1860), escaping the structural constraints of wood and iron armatures that limited ship size. The main consequence of the Industrial Revolution was a **specialization of transportation services** and the establishment of **large distribution networks** of raw materials and energy. # 3. The Emergence of Modern Transportation Systems (1870-1920) By the end of the 19th century, international transportation undertook a new growth phase, especially with improvements in **engine propulsion technology** of steamships and a gradual shift from coal to oil in the 1870s. Although oil has been known for centuries for its combustion properties, its commercial use began in the early 19th century. Inventors started experimenting with engines that could use cheap and abundant fuel. Oil increased the speed and capacity of maritime transport. The energy consumption of ships was reduced by a factor of 90% relative to coal, the primary energy source for steam engines before this innovation. An equal-sized oil-powered ship could transport more freight than a coal-powered ship, considerably reducing operating costs and extending range. Also, coal refueling stages along trade routes could be bypassed. [Global maritime circulation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1179) was also dramatically improved when the [construction of transoceanic canals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1184) reduced intercontinental distances, such as the Suez (1869) and Panama (1914) canals. With the Suez Canal, the far reaches of Asia and [Australia](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1189) became more accessible from Europe. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Maritime-Trade-Routes-1912.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "World Trade Routes, 1912 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/world-trade-routes-1912/map-world-maritime-trade-routes-1912-png/)World Trade Routes 1912[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Panama-Suez-Shortcuts-1.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Geographical Impacts of the Suez and Panama Canals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/suez-panama-canal-geography-impacts/map-panama-suez-shortcuts-1/)Geographical Impacts of the Suez and Panama Canals[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/maritime_journey_britain_australia.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Maritime Journey from Britain to Australia, 1788-1960 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/maritime-journey-australia-1788-1960/maritime_journey_britain_australia/)Maritime Journey from Britain to Australia 1788 1960[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Steamship-Ports-1890-1925.png?resize=900%2C394&ssl=1 "Map-Steamship-Ports-1890-1925.png | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/port-cargo-steamships-1890-1925/map-steamship-ports-1890-1925-png/)Cargo Carried by Steamship by Port City 1890 1925[![Travel Time London World 1914](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/travel_time_london_world_1914.jpg?resize=900%2C609&ssl=1 "Travel Time between London and the Rest of the World, 1914 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/travel-time-between-london-world-1914/london_isochronic_1914/)Travel Time between London and the Rest of the World 1914[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/liner_transatlantic_crossing.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times, 1833 - 1952 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/liner-transatlantic-crossing-time/liner_transatlantic_crossing/)Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times 1833 1952 in daysThe increasing size of ships, the outcome of advances in shipbuilding, imposed massive investments in port infrastructures such as piers and docks to accommodate them. Ship size grew dramatically, from the largest tonnage of 3,800 gross registered tons (revenue-making cargo space) in 1871 to 47,000 tons in 1914. Accordingly, ocean freight rates dropped by 70% between 1840 and 1910. The commercial demise of the sailship took place during that period as [trade shifted to the steamship](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1196) and expanded substantially. While sailships accounted for 85% of the total maritime tonnage in 1870, this share plummeted to 14% in 1910. 1878 appears to have been the last year the sailship could compete effectively with the steamship for the China trade. While integrating production and transshipping activities, the harbor became an **industrial complex** around which agglomerated activities using ponderous raw materials. From the 1880s, [liner services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2135) linked major ports worldwide, supporting the first regular international passenger transport services, until the 1950s when air transportation became the dominant long-distance mode. This period also marked the golden era of the [development of railway transport systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1217) as railway networks expanded tremendously and became the dominant land transport mode for passengers and freight. As locomotive speed and power improved above 100 km/hr, and as the market expanded, rail services became increasingly specialized, with trains entirely devoted to passengers or freight. Japan, the first Asian country to undertake its industrial revolution, saw its first train service introduced in 1872. Rail systems reached a phase of [maturity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1237) by the early 20th century, as in most developed economies, the rail network reached its maximum extent in terms of total length. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_world_railway_network.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Evolution of the Railway Network, 1850-1913 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/world-rail-development-1850-1913/evolution_world_railway_network/)Evolution of the Railway Network in km 1850 1913[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/railway_system_1913.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Length of the World’s Largest Railway Systems, 1913 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/rail-systems-1913/railway_system_1913/)Length of the Worlds Largest Railway Systems 1913[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/demographic_transition.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Demographic Transition | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/demographic-transition/demographic_transition/)Demographic Transition[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/horse_dublin_c1900.jpg?resize=600%2C380&ssl=1 "Horse-Drawn Carriage, Dublin c1900 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/horse-drawn-carriage-dublin-c1900/horse_dublin_c1900/)Horse Drawn Carriage Dublin c1900[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/share_population_agriculture_early_industrial.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of the Population in Agriculture, Early Industrial Countries, 1820-1910 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/agriculture-population-1820-1910/share_population_agriculture_early_industrial/)Share of the Population in Agriculture Early Industrial Countries 1820 1910Many European countries underwent a [demographic transition](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4684), implying rapid population growth with related urbanization and migration pressures. In this context, a significant technological change of this era involved urban transportation, which until then solely relied on walking and different types of carriages (mainly [horse-drawn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/horse-drawn-carriage-dublin-c1900/ "Horse-Drawn Carriage, Dublin c1900")). The reliance on horses has historically been a waste disposal and public health challenge for cities since a horse could produce 30 to 40 pounds of manure and urine per day. The [declining share of the rural population](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/agriculture-population-1820-1910/ "Share of the Population in Agriculture, Early Industrial Countries, 1820-1910") and the corresponding fast growth of the urban population favored the construction of the first **urban transport systems**. Electric energy became widely used in the 1880s and considerably changed urban transport systems with the introduction of **tramways** (streetcars), notably in Western Europe and the United States. They enabled the first forms of urban sprawl and the specialization of economic functions through a wider separation between the place of work and residence. In large agglomerations, underground metro systems began to be constructed, London being the first in 1863. The **bicycle**, first shown at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, was also an important innovation that changed commuting in the late 19th century. Initially, the rich used it as a form of leisure, but the working class rapidly adopted it as a mode of transportation for commuting. Today, the bicycle is less commonly used in developed economies (outside recreational purposes), but it remains a major mode of transportation in developing economies, especially in China. This era also marked the first significant developments in **telecommunications**. The telegraph is considered the first efficient telecommunication device to achieve widespread market adoption. It enabled the first instantaneous transmission of information over vast distances. Prior to its invention, information had to be physically transported as documents (letters, bank orders, missives, books, etc.) via postal systems and was thus bound to postal speed. Semaphore telegraph systems using visual signals transmitted through a network of towers had been implemented beforehand. Still, their bandwidth was minimal, and they were highly constrained by geography since visibility is inversely proportional to distance. In 1844, Samuel Morse built the first experimental telegraph line in the United States between Washington and Baltimore, opening a new era in the transmission of information. By 1852, more than 40,000 km of telegraph lines were in service in the United States. In 1866, the first successful transatlantic telegraph line marked the inauguration of an intercontinental telegraphic network that was later dubbed the “Victorian Internet”. The growth of telecommunications is thus closely associated with the growth of railways and international shipping. Managing a rail transport system, especially at the continental level, became more efficient with telegraphic communication. In fact, continental rail and telegraphic networks were often laid concomitantly. Telecommunications were also a dominant factor behind the creation of **standard time zones** in 1884. From a multiplicity of local times, zones of constant time with Greenwich (England) as the reference were laid. This improved the scheduling of passenger and freight transportation at national levels. By 1895, every continent was linked by telegraph lines, a precursor of the global information network that would emerge in the late 20th century. Business transactions became more efficient as production, management, and consumption centers interacted, with delays measured in hours rather than weeks or even months. Several contemporary telecommunications giants (such as American Telephone and Telegraph Company, AT&T) started out as telegraph service providers. --- ## Related Topics - [1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/ "1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems") - [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/) - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/ "3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development") - [10.4 – Future Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1579) ## Bibliography - Alvarez, E, X. Franch, and J. Marti–Henneberg (2013) “Evolution of the Territorial Coverage of the Railway Network and Its Influence on Population Growth: The Case of England and Wales, 1871–1931″, Historical Methods, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 175-191. - Berechman, J. (2003) “Transportation – economic aspects of Roman highway development: the case of Via Appia”, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp. 453-478. - Bernstein, W.J. (2008) A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World, New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. - Bogart, D. (2009) “Inter-modal network externalities and transport development: Evidence from roads, canals, and ports during the English industrial revolution”, Networks and Spatial Economics, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 309-338. - Casson, L. (1994) Travel in the Ancient World, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. - Chevallier, R. (1972) Les Voies Romaines. Paris: Armand Colin. - Clark, G. (2008) A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World, Princeton: Princeton University Press. - Cooley, C.H. (1894) The Theory of Transportation, Publications of the American Economic Association, 9. - Flückigerm, M., E. Hornung, M. Larch, M. Ludwig and A. Mees (2019) “Roman Transport Network Connectivity and Economic Integration,” CESifo Working Paper Series 7740, CESifo Group Munich. - Frankopan, P. (2015) The Silk Roads: A New History of the World, London: Bloomsbury Publishing. - Hugill, P.J. (1995) World Trade since 1431, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. - Lay, M.G. (1992) Ways of the world: a history of the world’s roads and the vehicles that used them. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. - Parthesius, R. (2010) Dutch Ships in Tropical Waters: The Development of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) Shipping Network in Asia 1595-1660, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. - Pomeranz, K. and S. Topik (2017) The World That Trade Created, 4th ed, New York: Routledge. - Rioux, J-P (1989) La révolution industrielle, 1780-1880, Paris: Éditions du Seuil. - Tinbergen, J. (1962) Shaping the world economy. 1st edition. New York: Twentieth Century Fund. - Vance, J.E. (1970) The Merchant’s World: The Geography of Wholesaling, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/?share=reddit) - --- ### [1.1 - What is Transport Geography?](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/) **Published:** October 27, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > **Transport geography** is a sub-discipline of geography concerned with the mobility of people, freight and information. It includes the spatial organization of attributes and constraints related to the origin, destination, extent, nature, and purpose of mobility. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Purpose of Transportation](#1_The_Purpose_of_Transportation) - [2. The Importance of Transportation](#2_The_Importance_of_Transportation) - [3. Transportation in Geography](#3_Transportation_in_Geography) - [4. Transportation Systems](#4_Transportation_Systems) - [5. Prospects for Transport Geography](#5_Prospects_for_Transport_Geography) # 1. The Purpose of Transportation The unique purpose of transportation is to overcome space, which is shaped by human and physical **constraints** such as distance, time, administrative divisions, and topography. Jointly, they confer [friction](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=169) to any movement, commonly known as the **friction of distance** (or friction of space). In an ideal world, transportation would come at no effort in terms of cost and time, with unlimited capacity and spatial reach. Under such circumstances, geography would not matter. However, geography can be a significant constraint to transport in the real world since it trades space for time and effort and can only be partially circumvented. The extent to which this is done has a **cost** that [varies significantly](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/representations-effects-distance/ "Representations of the Effects of Distance") according to factors such as the length of the trip, the capacity of modes and infrastructures, and the nature of what is being transported. From the mobility of a person using an automobile or a public transit system to commute to their place of work to the mobility of cargo being shipped across the Pacific as part of an international trade transaction; both are bound to a similar set of constraints. Transport geography can be understood from a series of eight [core principles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=180): 1. Transportation is the spatial linking of **derived demand**. 2. Distance is a **relative** concept involving space, time, and effort. 3. Space is concomitantly the **generator, support, and constraint** for mobility. 4. The relation between space and time can **converge or diverge**. 5. A location can be **central**, generating and attracting traffic, or an **intermediate** element where traffic transits. 6. To overcome geography, transportation requires a **footprint**. 7. Transportation seeks **massification** but is constrained by **atomization**. 8. **Velocity** is a modal, intermodal, and managerial effort. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/sisyphus_analogy.jpg?resize=900%2C888&ssl=1 "The Sisyphus Analogy in Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/sisyphus-analogy-transportation/sisyphus_transportation/)The Sisyphus Analogy in Transportation![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/representations_effects_distance.png?resize=900%2C349&ssl=1 "Representations of the Effects of Distance | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Representations of the Effects of Distance[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/core_principles_transport_geography.png?resize=900%2C518&ssl=1 "The Core Principles of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/core_principles_transport_geography.png?ssl=1)The Core Principles of Transport Geography[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/operational_differences_passengers_freight.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "Operational Differences between Passengers and Freight Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/operational_differences_passengers_freight-scaled.png?ssl=1)Operational Differences between Passenger and Freight Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transportation_derived_demand.png?resize=900%2C600&ssl=1 "Transportation as a Derived Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transportation_derived_demand.png?ssl=1)Transportation as a Derived Demand[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/representations_distance.png?resize=900%2C629&ssl=1 "Representations of Distance | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/representations_distance.png?ssl=1)Representations of Distance[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mobility_freight.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Mobility of Freight | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mobility_freight-scaled.png?ssl=1)Mobility of Freight[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/space_time_convergence.png?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Space - Time Convergence | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/space_time_convergence.png?ssl=1)Space Time Convergence[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/atomization_massification.png?resize=900%2C311&ssl=1 "Atomization versus Massification in Transportation Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/atomization_massification.png?ssl=1)Atomization versus Massification in Transportation ModesThese principles underline that there would be no transportation without geography and no geography without transportation. Thus, the goal of transportation is to transform the **geographical attributes** of freight, passengers, or information, from an origin to a destination, conferring **added value** in the process. There are substantial [operational differences](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3013) between transportation modes, particularly between passenger and freight services, which are often operated separately. The ease with which this can be done varies considerably and is commonly referred to as mobility. > **[Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=209)**. The ease of a movement of a passenger or a unit of freight related to their costs as well as to the attributes of what is being transported (fragility, perishable, price). Political factors such as laws, regulations, borders, and tariffs can also influence mobility. When mobility is high, activities are less constrained by distance. Transportation is not necessarily a science but a **field of application,** borrowing concepts and methods from a wide variety of disciplines. The specific purpose of transportation is to **fulfill a demand for mobility** since transportation can only exist if it moves passengers, freight, and information around. Otherwise, it has no purpose. This is because transportation is dominantly the outcome of a [derived demand](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=186); it occurs because other activities are taking place. Distance, a core attribute of transportation, can be represented in a [variety of ways](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/distance-representations/ "Representations of Distance"), ranging from a simple Euclidean distance – a straight line between two locations – to what can be called logistical distance; the complete set of required tasks so that distance can be overcome. Thus, mobility must consider [its geographical setting](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=222), which is linked to [spatial flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=231) and their patterns. The concept of flow has four major components: - **Geographical**. Each flow has an origin, a destination, and a degree of separation. Flows with high degrees of separation tend to be more limited than flows with low degrees of separation. - **Physical**. Each flow involves specific physical characteristics in terms of possible load units and the conditions in which they can be carried. Depending on the transportation mode, flows can be [atomized](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=51) (smallest load unit) or [massified](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=51) (moving load units in batches). - **Transactional**. The realization of each flow has to be negotiated with providers of transport services, such as booking a slot on a containership or an air travel seat. A flow is commonly related to a monetary exchange between a provider of transportation services and the user. - **Distribution**. Flows are organized in sequences, where the most complex involve different modes and terminals. Many transport flows are scheduled and routed to minimize costs or maximize efficiency, often through intermediary locations. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/spatial_consideration_movement2.png?resize=900%2C571&ssl=1 "The Spatial Consideration of a Movement | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/movement-mobility-spatial-consideration/spatial_consideration_movement/)The Spatial Consideration of a Movement[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/spatial_flow_patterns-scaled.png?resize=900%2C371&ssl=1 "Spatial Flow Patterns | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/patterns-spatial-flows/spatial_flow_patterns/)Types of Spatial Flows[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transportation_mobility_passengers_freight.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Transportation and the Mobility of Passengers and Freight | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportmobility-2/mobility_passengers_freight2/)Transportation and the Mobility of Passengers and Freight[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/scales_transport_geography-scaled.png?resize=900%2C454&ssl=1 "The Scales of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/the-scales-of-transport-geography/scales_transport_geography/)The Scales of Transport GeographyUrbanization, multinational corporations, and economic globalization are forces shaping and taking advantage of transportation at [different but often related scales](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10179). Consequently, the fundamental purpose of transport is geographic because it [facilitates movements between other locations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=240). Transport plays a role in the structure and organization of space and territories, which may vary according to the level of development. In the 19th century, the purpose of the emerging modern forms of transportation, mainly railways and maritime shipping, was to expand spatial coverage by creating, expanding, and consolidating national markets. In the 20th century, the objective shifted to selecting itineraries, prioritizing transport modes, increasing the capacity of existing networks, and responding to mobility needs, and this at an increasingly global scale, with its own space of flows. In the 21st century, transportation must cope with a globally oriented economic system in a timely, cost-effective, and sustainable manner, accounting for local problems such as congestion and capacity constraints. # 2. The Importance of Transportation Transport represents one of the most essential human activities worldwide as it allows us to mitigate the constraints of geography. It is an indispensable component of the economy and plays a major role in supporting spatial relations between locations. Transport creates links between regions and economic activities, between people and the rest of the world, generating value. It is composed of [core components](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-components-transportation/ "core components"), which are the **modes, infrastructures, networks, and flows**. These components are fundamental for transportation, but they also underline that geography remains a salient force shaping transportation despite significant technological, social, and economic changes. Transport is a [multidimensional activity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/key-dimensions-transportation/ "Key Dimensions of Transportation") whose importance is: - **Historical**. Transport modes have played different historical roles in the rise of civilizations (Egypt, [Rome](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1060), and [China](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1065)), their trading networks, the development of societies, and national defense. The evolution of transportation technology is intricately linked with historical changes and socioeconomic transformations. As such, transportation offers a valuable perspective on understanding historical **processes** at any scale, from the community to the nation. - **Economic**. The evolution of transport has been linked to economic development. It is an industry in its own right, including car manufacturing, air transport companies, and railways. The transport sector is also an economic factor in producing goods and services. It contributes to the added value of economic activities, facilitates economies of scale, and influences land (real estate) value and regional specialization. Transport shapes economic activities and is also shaped by them, underscoring their reciprocity through **multiplier** effects. - **Social**. Transport modes facilitate access to healthcare, welfare, and cultural events, thus performing a social service. They shape social interactions by favoring or inhibiting the mobility of people. Higher mobility implies the potential for extended social interactions. Transportation thus supports and may even shape the **cohesion** of social structures. - **Political**. Governments play a critical role in transport as sources of transport investments and as regulators of transport operations. The political role of transportation is undeniable, as governments often subsidize the mobility of their populations, such as providing highways and public transit. While most transport demand relates to economic imperatives, many transport infrastructures have been constructed for political reasons such as national accessibility or job creation. Transport **governance** thus impacts nation-building and national unity but is also a tool for shaping policy. - **Environmental**. Despite the apparent advantages of transport, its environmental impacts are also significant. They include negative impacts on air and water quality, noise levels, and public health. All decisions relating to transport need to be evaluated, considering the corresponding environmental costs and how they can be mitigated. Transportation is, therefore, a dominant factor in contemporary environmental **externalities**, including sustainability and decarbonization. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/core_components_transportation2.png?resize=900%2C650&ssl=1 "Core Components of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-components-transportation/core_components_transportation/)Core Components of Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/key_dimensions_transportation2.png?resize=900%2C481&ssl=1 "Key Dimensions of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/key_dimensions_transportation/)Key Dimensions of TransportationTransportation as a multidisciplinary endeavor can be approached through several [fields of inquiry](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=256), where some are at the core of transport geography, such as transport demand, nodes, and networks. In contrast, others are more peripheral, such as natural resources, political geography, and regional geography. Yet, they all contribute to the understanding of transport activities and their impacts on the economy, society, and the environment. Substantial empirical evidence underlines that the **importance of transportation is growing**, particularly in light of the following contemporary trends: - [**Growth of the demand**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=264). The second half of the 20th century has seen considerable growth in the transport demand related to individuals (passengers) as well as freight mobility. This growth is jointly the result of more passengers and freight being moved, including the longer distances over which they are carried. Recent trends underline an ongoing process of mobility growth, which has led to the multiplication of the number of journeys involving various modes that service transport demand. - **[Reduction of costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=271 "Transport and Communication Costs Indexes, 1920-2015")**. Even if several transportation modes are costly to own and operate, such as ships and planes, costs per unit transported have dropped significantly over the last few decades. This is particularly the case for transportation services subject to competitive pressures. Lower transportation costs made it possible to overcome greater distances and further exploit the comparative advantages of space. As a result, despite the lower costs, the share of transport activities in the economy has remained relatively constant over time. More transportation services are used, but their costs are declining. - **Expansion of infrastructures**. The above two trends have extended the demand for transport infrastructures quantitatively and qualitatively. [Roads](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/world-road-network/ "World Main Highway and Primary Road Network"), [rails](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-network-system/ "World Rail Network and Rail Systems"), harbors, airports, telecommunication facilities, and pipelines have expanded considerably to service new areas and add capacity to existing networks. Transportation infrastructures are thus a major component of land use. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/fields_transport_geography.png?resize=900%2C387&ssl=1 "Fields of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-fields/fields_transport_geography-1/)Fields of Transport Geography[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/vehicle_use_indicators_world-1.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Vehicle Use Indicators, World, 1950-2025 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/world-vehicle-use-indicators/world_vehicle_use/)Vehicle Use Indicators World 1950 2025[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_communication_cost_indexes.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Transport and Communication Costs Indexes, 1920-2025 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-communication-costs-index/transport_communication_costs_indexes/)Transport and Communication Costs Indexes 1920 2025[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Road-Network-1.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World Main Highway Road Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/world-road-network/road-network-map-png/)World Main Road Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Network2.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World Rail Network and Rail Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-network-system/rail-network-map-png/)World Rail Network and Rail SystemsFacing these contemporary trends, an important part of the **spatial differentiation** of the economy is related to where resources (raw materials, capital, people, information, etc.) are located and how well they can be distributed. Transport routes are established to distribute resources between places where they are abundant and places where they are scarce, but only if the costs are lower than the benefits. Consequently, transportation has an important role in the conditions that affect global, national, and regional economies. It is a strategic infrastructure so embedded in the socioeconomic life of individuals, institutions, and corporations that it is often invisible to the consumer but always part of all economic and social functions. This is paradoxical since the perceived invisibility of transportation is derived from its **efficiency**. If transport is disrupted or ceases to operate, the consequences can be dramatic, such as workers being unable to reach their workplace, parts not being delivered to factories, and goods not being available at stores or through e-commerce. # 3. Transportation in Geography Features such as resources, populations, and economic activities are **not randomly distributed around the world**; there is logic, order, and hierarchy to spatial distribution. Geography seeks to understand the spatial order of things as well as their interactions, particularly when this spatial order is less evident. Transportation, being one element of this spatial order, is, at the same time, influenced by geography as well as influencing it. For instance, the path followed by a road is influenced by regional economic and physical attributes, but once constructed, the same road will shape future regional developments. Transportation is of relevance to geography for two main reasons. First, transport infrastructures, terminals, modes, and networks occupy an **important place in space** and constitute the basis of a **complex spatial system**. Second, since geography seeks to explain spatial relationships, transport networks are of specific interest because they are the **main physical support of these interactions**. As a discipline, transport geography emerged as a branch of economic geography in the second half of the 20th century. In earlier considerations, particularly from a [commercial geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481) perspective (late 19th and early 20th century), transportation was an important factor behind spatial economic representations of space, namely in terms of the location of economic activities and the monetary costs of distance. These cost considerations became the foundation of several geographical theories, such as central places and location analysis (see [transportation and space](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=322)). The growing mobility of passengers and freight justified the emergence of transport geography as a specialized and independent field of investigation. In the 1960s, transport costs were formalized as key factors in location theories, and transport geography began to rely increasingly on **quantitative methods**, particularly over a network and spatial interaction analysis. This was accompanied by a growing use of **visual tools**, beginning with conventional maps but also with graphs and figures. Abstract concepts, such as distance-decay, could be visualized. However, from the 1970s, technical, political, and economic changes challenged the centrality of transportation in many geographical and regional development investigations. The spatial anchoring effect of high transportation costs receded, and decentralization became a dominant paradigm observed within cities (suburbanization) and regions. The spatial theory foundations of transport geography, particularly the friction of distance, became less relevant or evident in explaining socioeconomic processes. As a result, transportation became underrepresented in economic geography in the 1970s and 1980s, even if the mobility of people and freight and low transport costs were considered important factors behind the globalization of trade and production. Further, the lack of computational power and the limited data availability undermined the applicability of transportation models developed so far. There was an abundance of models and concepts but limited empirical evidence and capabilities to support them. Since the 1990s, transport geography has received renewed attention with new realms of investigation: - The massive diffusion of analytical software, such as spreadsheets, statistical analysis, graphic design, and **Geographic Information Systems**, allowed transportation researchers and planners to undertake work previously available only to large and well-funded agencies. Further, the Internet allowed access to large public and private databases, expanding opportunities. - This is a **multi-scalar effect** in which mobility, production, and distribution become interrelated in a complex geographical setting, and the local, regional, and global boundaries become increasingly blurred through the development of new passenger and freight transport systems. - **Rapid urbanization**, particularly in developing economies, underlined the challenges of transport infrastructure investment for private as well as collective uses. For instance, suburbanization resulted in an array of challenges related to congestion and automobile dependency. - Globalization supported the development of complex air and maritime transportation networks, supporting **global supply chains** and trade relations across long distances. - The role of **information and communication technologies** was also being felt, often as a support or as an alternative to mobility. More importantly, the rise of e-commerce is changing the retailing and distribution landscape with the growth of home deliveries. All the above are linked with **new and expanded mobilities** of passengers and freight and, as such, new realms of investigation for transport geography. # 4. Transportation Systems Transport geography is based on the premise that **transportation is a system** supporting complex relationships articulated by [three central concepts](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=284): - **Transportation nodes**. Transportation primarily links locations, often characterized as nodes. They serve as access points to a distribution system or intermediary locations within a transport network. This function is mainly serviced by transport terminals where flows originate, end, or are being transshipped from one mode to another. Transport geography must consider its places of convergence and transshipment. - **Transportation networks**. It considers the spatial structure and organization of transport infrastructures and terminals. Transport geography must include in its investigation the structures (routes and infrastructures) supporting and shaping movements. - **Transportation demand**. It considers the demand for transport services as well as the modes used to support movements. Once this demand is realized, it becomes an interaction that flows through a transport network. Transport geography must evaluate the factors affecting its derived demand function. Analyzing these concepts within transport geography relies on **methodologies** often developed by other disciplines, such as economics, mathematics, planning, and demography. For instance, the spatial structure of transportation networks can be analyzed with [graph theory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5976), which was initially developed in mathematics. Further, many models developed to analyze movements, such as the [gravity model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8565), were borrowed from physical sciences. **Multidisciplinarity** is consequently an important attribute of transport geography, as in geography in general, as each discipline provides a different [dimension to transport geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=292). Transport geography must be systematic as one element of the transport system is linked with numerous others; transport systems are [complex systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=298). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_system2.png?resize=900%2C806&ssl=1 "The Transport System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-system-overview/transport_system2/)The Transport System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/dimensions_transport_geography2.png?resize=900%2C905&ssl=1 "Dimensions of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-dimensions/dimensions_transport_geography2/)Dimensions of Transport Geography[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/complex_systems_transportation2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Complex Systems and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/complex-systems-transportation/complex_systems_transportation/)Complex Systems and Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/fallacies_transport_geography.png?resize=900%2C441&ssl=1 "Common Fallacies in Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/fallacies-transport-geography/fallacy_transport_geography/)Common Fallacies in Transport Geography[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/challenges_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C607&ssl=1 "Common Challenges for Transport Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/challenges-transport-systems/comon_problems_transport_systems/)Common Challenges for Transport SystemsThe role of transport geography is to understand the spatial relations produced by transport systems. This can give rise to several transportation [fallacies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=307) regarding the relations between access, accessibility, distance, and time. A better understanding of spatial relations is essential to assist private and public actors involved in transportation in mitigating key [transport problems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=313), such as capacity limits, transfer between different systems, the reliability of mobility, and the integration of transport systems. There are three basic geographical considerations relevant to transport systems: - **Location**. As all activities are located somewhere, each location has characteristics conferring a potential supply and demand for resources, products, services, or labor. A location will determine the nature, origin, destination, distance, and even the possibility of a movement to be realized. For instance, a city provides employment in various sectors of activity in addition to consuming resources. - **Complementarity**. Some locations have a surplus of labor, resources, parts, or final goods, while others have a deficit. The only way an equilibrium can be reached is by mobility between locations with supply (or a surplus) and with demand. For instance, a complementarity is created between a store (supply of goods) and its customers (demand for goods). - **Scale**. Movements generated by complementarity occur at different scales, depending on the nature of the activity. Scale illustrates how transportation systems are established over local, regional, and global geographies. For instance, home-to-work journeys generally have a local or regional scale. At the same time, the distribution network of a multinational corporation is most likely to cover several regions of the world. Consequently, transport systems have a **footprint** and support the relationships between locations on an increasingly global scale. Over this, transport geography provides a multidisciplinary perspective to understand the complexity of transportation and how space supports and hinders mobility. # 5. Prospects for Transport Geography Transport geography played a relatively small role in the field of transport studies, a field that has been dominated by engineers and economists. This was due in part to the needs of the industry focused on providing infrastructure and technologies, at what cost and benefits, and at what level of pricing. The contemporary industry is much more complex, with issues as varied as safety, aesthetics, working conditions, the environment, and governance being necessary considerations. Therefore, a much broader set of skills is required, and **transport studies have become a multidisciplinary field of application** to which transport geography has opportunities to contribute because of the breadth of the approach and training. Still, transport geography, like transportation in general, does not receive a level of attention proportional to its economic, environmental, and social importance. It is also fundamental to underline that **transport is a spatial activity**. It has always been a space-adjusting service but has become increasingly global. Contemporary transport operates at a broader range of scales than ever before, from local home deliveries to global air transport networks. Further, there are complex interactions between the local and the global. For example, the issues surrounding the expansion of an airport are usually decided at the local level. The impacts are likely to be felt locally, namely its externalities such as noise and congestion. However, the effects on passenger and freight flows may have global ramifications. The spatiality of transport and the many scales at which it operates are elements concerning transport geography. No other discipline has as its core interest the role of space in shaping human activities. The globalization of transport activities has represented unique opportunities in developing transport geography. One reason for the success of engineers and economists in transport studies and applications is that their training has been rigorous in applying mathematics and multivariate statistics. They have demonstrated the ability to provide precise answers to the questions that decision-makers have required – what to build, at what cost, and with what cost effects. This underlines a dominant perspective in the transport industry: it is of little value unless a process can be quantified, particularly from a cost-benefit perspective. Transport geography provides quantitative skills in modeling, graph theory, and multivariate statistics. However, newer techniques provide geographers with opportunities to contribute to transport studies. **Geographic Information Systems for Transportation** (GIS-T) has become essential to transport geography education and research. The multi-scalar, multivariate nature of the transport industry makes GIS-T an invaluable tool that raises the profile of transport geography in the transportation industry. One of the key challenges in transport studies is **data availability**. Frequently, census and survey data are inadequate or unavailable in the required form. However, the online availability of large datasets is increasing, offering a richer array of information to analyze transport issues in a wide variety of modes and geographies. New opportunities also arise from what came to be known as “**big data**“, where a large amount of digital information is made available at a low cost through mobile devices, sensors, remote sensing, and drones. Mobility can now be observed at an unprecedented scale and level of detail, where passengers, vehicles, and cargo can be tracked. Knowledge of survey techniques and their limitations is also important to the transport geography toolkit. Irrespective of the appeal of information technologies, many of the traditional tools and approaches are still relevant. They allow addressing problems that other disciplines frequently overlook because of the lack of data or the inability to represent this data spatially. Questionnaires and interviews represent a vital source of information in many situations. Content analysis is instrumental in providing quantified data from non-quantified sources, a process that recent advances in **artificial intelligence** have greatly facilitated. By scanning the contents of massive quantities of text documents, algorithms have the capability to extract meaning and relations between concepts, a benefit that is becoming apparent. At the same time, fieldwork offers the opportunity to understand the particularities of the local conditions that cannot be obtained otherwise. Data, methods, and models are not palliative to common sense, which remains a constant challenge when the approach focuses more on the tools than the reality in which transportation is evolving. The following sections will focus on the numerous dimensions of this reality, beginning with the relationship between [transportation and the physical environment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=322). --- ### Related Topics - [1.2 – Transportation and The Physical Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/) - [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/ "1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography") - [A. Methods in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/ "Methods in Transport Geography") - [B.1 – Teaching Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/teaching-transport-geography/ "B.1 – Teaching Transport Geography") - [10. Issues and Challenges in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/concluding-chapter-issues-and-challenges-in-transport-geography-migrated/ "Concluding chapter (Issues and Challenges in Transport Geography) migrated") ### Bibliography - Banister, D. (2002) Transport Planning. 2nd ed. London: Spon Press. - Barr, S., J. Prillwitz, T. Ryley and G. Shaw (2017) Geographies of Transport and Mobility: Prospects and Challenges in an Age of Climate Change, London: Routledge. - Black, W. (2003) Transportation: A Geographical Analysis. New York: Guilford. - Button, K.B., H. Vega and P. Nijkamp (2010) A Dictionary of Transport Analysis, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. - Cidell, J. (2021) An Introduction to Transport Geography: Transport, Mobility and Place, Lanham (MD): Rowman & Littlefield. - Haggett, P. (2001) Geography: A Modern Synthesis, 4th Edition, New York: Prentice Hall. - Hoyle, B. and R. Knowles (eds) (1998), Modern Transport Geography, Second Edition, London: Wiley. - Knowles, R., J. Shaw and I. Docherty (eds) (2008) Transport Geographies: Mobilities, Flows and Spaces, Malden, MA: Blackwell. - Merlin, P. (1992) Géographie des Transports, Que sais-je?, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. - Rimmer, P. (1985) “Transport Geography”, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 10, pp. 271-277. - Rodrigue, J-P, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (2013) (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Sultana, S. and J. Weber (eds) (2017) Minicars, Maglevs, and Mopeds: Modern Modes of Transportation around the World, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. - Schiller, P.L., and J.R. Kenworthy (2018) An Introduction to Sustainable Transportation: Policy, Planning and Implementation, New York: Routledge. - Taaffe, E.J., H.L. Gauthier and M.E. O’Kelly (1996) Geography of Transportation, Second Edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. - Tolley, R. and B. Turton (1995) Transport Systems, Policy and Planning: A Geographical Approach, Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essex: Longman. - White H.P. and M.L. Senior (1983) Transport Geography. New York: Longman. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [3.3 - Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Theo Notteboom > Transport costs are a monetary measure of what the transport provider must pay to produce transportation services. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transport Costs and Rates](#1_Transport_Costs_and_Rates) - [2. Components of the Transport Market](#2_Components_of_the_Transport_Market) - [3. Types of Transport Costs](#3_Types_of_Transport_Costs) # 1. Transport Costs and Rates Transport systems face requirements to increase their capacity and reduce mobility costs, an objective that has seen [continuous improvements in the last century](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-communication-costs-index/ "Transport and Communication Costs Indexes, 1920-2015"). Users, such as individuals, corporations, institutions, or governments, must **negotiate** or **bid** for the mobility of passengers and freight. Capacity, distribution systems, tariffs, wages, locations, marketing, as well as fuel costs, vary across geographies and over time. There are also costs involved in gathering information, negotiating, and enforcing contracts and transactions, often referred to as the cost of doing business. Trade also involves transaction costs, including customs duties, insurance, and currency exchange, which all agents attempt to minimize since these costs account for a share of the resources consumed by the economy. Frequently, corporations and individuals must decide how to route passengers or freight through the transport system. For passengers, this choice has been considerably expanded in the context of rising incomes and the availability of modes. For freight, producing light and high-value consumer goods, such as electronics, and less bulky production techniques have expanded the locational choice of production and distribution. It is not uncommon for transport costs to account for **10% of the total cost of a product**. This share also roughly applies to personal mobility, where [households spend about 10% of their income on transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/household-expenditures-transport-united-states/ "Household Expenditures on Transport, United States, 2020"), including automobile ownership, which has a complex cost structure. Thus, choosing a transportation mode to route passengers and freight between origins and destinations is an important decision. It depends on several factors, such as the nature of the goods, the available infrastructures, origins and destinations, technology, and their respective distances. Jointly, they define **transportation costs**. > **Transport costs** are the costs internally assumed by the providers of transport services. They come as [fixed (infrastructure) and variable (operating)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5527) costs, depending on conditions related to geography, infrastructure, administrative barriers, energy, and how passengers and freight are carried. [Three major components](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-components/ "Components of Transport Cost"), related to transactions, shipments, and the friction of distance, impact transport costs. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_communication_cost_indexes.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Transport and Communication Costs Indexes, 1920-2025 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-communication-costs-index/transport_communication_costs_indexes/)Transport and Communication Costs Indexes 1920 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/household_expenditures_transport_us.png?resize=900%2C519&ssl=1 "Household Expenditures on Transport, United States, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/household-expenditures-transport-united-states/household_transport_expenditures/)Household Expenditures on Transport United States 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fixed_operating_costs.png?resize=900%2C532&ssl=1 "Fixed and Operating Transport Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-fixed-operating/fixed_operating_costs/)Fixed and Operating Transport Costs[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_cost_components2.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "Components of Transport Cost | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-components/transport_cost_components/)Components of Transport Cost[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/airfares_jfk_lax.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Fares Disbursed for JFK–LAX Route | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/elasticity_airfare/)Average Fares Disbursed for JFKLAX Route 2009 April to JulyTransport costs have significant impacts on the structure of economic activities as well as on international trade. Empirical evidence underlines that raising transport costs by 10% reduces trade volumes by more than 20%. The general quality of transport infrastructure can account for half of the variation in transport costs. In a competitive environment where transportation is a service that can be bid on, transport costs are influenced by the respective rates of transport companies, the portion of the transport costs charged to users. > **Rates** are the price of transportation services paid by their **users**. They are the negotiated monetary cost of moving a passenger or a unit of freight between a specific origin and destination. Rates are often visible to the consumers since transport service providers must provide this information to secure transactions. They may not necessarily express the real transport costs. The difference between costs and rates for the service provider results in **a loss or a profit**. Rate-setting is a complex undertaking subject to constant change regarding the components that define transport costs. For public transit, rates are often fixed, and the outcome of a political decision where a share of the total costs is subsidized. Rate increases can be subject to the approval of the regulatory agency. The goal is to provide affordable mobility to the largest possible segment of the population, even if this implies a recurring deficit (public transit systems rarely make any profit). It is thus common for public transit systems to have rates lower than costs and targeted at subsidizing the mobility of social groups such as students, the elderly, or people receiving public assistance. For freight transportation and many forms of passenger transportation (e.g. [air transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=13401)), rates are subject to **competitive pressure**. This means the rate will be adjusted according to the complex interactions between supply and demand. They either reflect the direct costs involved with shipping (cost-of-service) or are determined by the value of the commodity (value-of-service). Since many actors involved in freight transportation are private, rates vary significantly, but profitability is paramount, as transportation service providers cannot remain in service otherwise. # 2. Components of the Transport Market Transportation offers a [spectrum](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5537) of costs and service levels, which results in substantial [differences across the world](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5542). The cost of a transport service includes the direct out-of-the-pocket money costs to the user, time costs, and costs related to possible inefficiencies and risks (e.g. unexpected delays). However, economic actors often base their choice of transport mode or route on only part of the total transport cost. For example, motorists are biased by short-run marginal costs. They might narrow down the price of a specific trip by car to fuel costs only, thereby excluding costs such as tolls, depreciation, insurance, and vehicle tax. Many shippers or freight forwarders are primarily guided by direct monetary costs when considering the cost factor in the modal choice. The narrow focus on direct money costs is, to some extent, attributable to the fact that time costs and costs related to possible inefficiencies are harder to calculate and often can only be fully assessed after the cargo has arrived. There are significant [conditions affecting transport costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5548) and transport rates. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_transport_service_spectrum.png?resize=900%2C392&ssl=1 "Freight Transportation Service Spectrum | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Freight Transportation Service Spectrum![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Import-Costs-per-TEU.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "Cost to Import a 20 Foot Container, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Cost to Import a 20 Foot Container 2015![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/conditions_transport_costs2.png?resize=900%2C460&ssl=1 "Conditions Affecting Transport Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Conditions Affecting Transport Costs## a. Distance and time The impacts of geography mainly involve distance and accessibility. Distance is commonly the most basic condition affecting transport costs. The more difficult it is to trade space for a cost, the more the [friction of distance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5553) is important. It can be expressed in terms of length, time, economic costs, or the amount of energy used. It varies significantly according to the type of transportation mode involved and the [efficiency of specific transport routes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/effect-transport-costs-route-selection/ "Effect of Transport Costs on Route Selection"). Landlocked countries tend to have higher transport costs, often twice as much, as they do not have direct access to maritime transportation. The impact of geography on the cost structure can be expanded to include [several rate zones](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5558), such as one for local, another for the nation, and another for exports. The [transport time component](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5593) is also an important consideration, as it is associated with the service factor of transportation. They include the transport time, the order time, the timing, the punctuality, and the frequency. For instance, a maritime shipping company may offer a container transport service between several North American and Pacific Asian ports. It may take 12 days to service two ports across the Pacific (transport time), and a port call is done every two days (frequency). To secure a slot on a ship, a freight forwarder must call at least five days in advance (order time). For a specific port terminal, a ship arrives at 8 AM and leaves at 5 PM (timing), with the average delay being six hours (punctuality). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/friction_distance_functions2.png?resize=900%2C530&ssl=1 "Friction of Distance Functions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/friction-distance-functions/friction_distance_functions/)Friction of Distance Functions![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/effect_transport_costs_route_selection.png?resize=900%2C461&ssl=1 "Effect of Transport Costs on Route Selection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Effect of Transport Costs on Route Selection[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/components_transport_time.png?resize=900%2C551&ssl=1 "Different Components of Transport Time | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-time-components/components_transport_time/)Different Components of Transport Time[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/zonal_transport_rates.png?resize=900%2C516&ssl=1 "Zonal Transport Rates | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/zonal-freigth-rates/zonal_freight_rates/)Zonal Transport Rates[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/topc_commodity_groups_value.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Top 15 Commodity Groups Ranked by Value Per Ton, United States, 2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/commodity-groups-value-per-ton/topc_commodity_groups_value/)Top 10 Commodity Groups Ranked by Value Per Ton United States 2017## b. Type of product The mobility of freight is **cargo-dependent**. Many bulky or perishable products require packaging and special handling. Coal is a commodity that is easier to transport than fruits or fresh flowers, as it requires rudimentary storage facilities and can be transshipped using rudimentary equipment. Insurance costs are also considered and are commonly a function of the value-to-weight ratio and the risk associated with the movement. As such, different economic sectors incur varying transport costs, as each has its own specific transport intensity. With containerization, the type of product plays a limited role in the transport cost since rates are set per container, but products still need to be loaded or unloaded from the container. For passengers, comfort and amenities must be provided, especially if long-distance travel is involved. These amenities have a cost but can also be a source of revenue, such as for retail and restoration. Product differentiation takes the form of segmenting amenities and levels of comfort during travel. For instance, in its simplest form, air travel is often segmented into business and economy classes. ## c. **Economies of scale** and energy The [larger the shipment size, the lower the unit transport cost](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/inland-transport-costs-shipment-size/ "Shipment Size and Inland Transport Costs"). Economies of scale or the possibilities to apply them are particularly suitable for bulk commodities such as energy (coal, oil), minerals, and grains if transported in large quantities. A similar trend applies to container shipping, with [larger containerships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5632) involving lower unit costs. For the transportation of passengers, economies of scale are salient for public transit systems. However, they are limited by the demand as the maximum-sized transport unit assigned on a route cannot exceed the available demand without impairing its profitability. Transport activities are large consumers of energy, especially oil. About 60% of all global oil consumption is attributed to transport activities. Transport typically accounts for about 25% of all the energy consumption of an economy. The costs of several energy-intensive transport modes, such as maritime and [air transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5572), are particularly susceptible to fluctuations in energy prices, as energy accounts for nearly half of their operating costs. ## d. **Empty backhauls** Many transport interactions involve empty backhauls since it is uncommon to have a perfect match between an inbound and a return trip. Commuting patterns involve imbalanced flows and empty return trips. For international trade, imbalances between imports and exports impact transport costs. This is especially the case for container transportation, as trade imbalances imply the repositioning of empty containers, which must be considered in the total transport costs. Consequently, if a trade balance is strongly negative (more imports than exports), transport costs for imports tend to be higher than for exports. Significant [transport rate imbalances](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5582) have emerged along major trade routes. The same condition applies at the national and local levels, where freight flows are often unidirectional (e.g. from a port terminal to a distribution center), implying empty backhaul movements. ## e. **Infrastructures** and modes The efficiency and capacity of transport modes and terminals directly impact transport costs. Poor infrastructures imply higher transport costs, delays, and adverse economic consequences. More developed transport systems tend to have lower transport costs since they are more reliable, connected, and can handle more movements. Different transport costs characterize different modes since each has its own **capacity limitations and operational conditions**. A core aspect concerns the suitability of modes according to the distance involved and the nature of what is being carried. When two or more modes directly compete for the same market, the outcome often results in lower transport costs and the development of niches. Containerized transportation significantly reduced freight transport rates worldwide by allowing relatively small transport units (containers) to be carried in massified loads. ## f. **Competition, regulation,** and subsidies Transportation involves a complex competitive and regulatory environment. Transport services taking place over highly competitive segments tend to be of lower cost than in segments with limited competition (oligopoly or monopoly). International competition has favored concentration in many segments of the transport industry, namely maritime and air modes. Regulations, such as tariffs, cabotage laws, labor, security, and safety, impose additional transport costs, particularly in [developing economies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5360). If the infrastructure is expensive to develop and maintain, this cost should be reflected in fares to cover the amortization of the asset. Publicly available roads are a form of cross-subsidy since they offer their users free infrastructure. Still, freedom of access can be misleading as sales and fuel taxes are paid by users, and these funds are used for road infrastructure construction and maintenance. If a government or a corporation uses other sectors of its activities to subsidize the full costs of transport infrastructure, then this cross-subsidy is having an impact on its costs. Taxes and tolls are commonly used to cross-subsidize public transit. ## g. **Surcharges**, taxes and tolls Surcharges refer to an array of fees, often set **arbitrarily**, to reflect temporary conditions that may impact the costs assumed by the transporter. They also take place when fares are regulated, leaving the operator to find alternative sources of revenue. Fuel surcharges, security fees, geopolitical risk premiums, and additional baggage fees are the most common. The passenger transport industry, particularly airlines, has become dependent on a wide array of surcharges as a source of revenue for operators. Yield management is another form of surcharge where a transport service provider changes its rate according to fluctuations in demand. Transport activities such as vehicle sales taxes and registration fees are often taxed. [Fuel taxes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5598) are the most significant form of taxation levied by governments, with revenues often used to cover maintenance and infrastructure investment costs. **Tolls** are also commonly levied on using transportation assets, particularly at bottlenecks such as bridges and tunnels. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/jet_fuel_prices.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Jet Fuel Prices, 1990-2026 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/jet-fuel-prices/jet_fuel_prices/)Jet Fuel Prices 1990 2023[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/daily_operating_expenses_teu.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Daily Operating Expenses for Containerships per TEU | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/operating-costs-containerships/daily_operating_expenses_teu/)Daily Operating Expenses for Containerships per TEU[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rates_40_foot_container_ports.png?resize=900%2C457&ssl=1 "Maritime Transportation Rates for a 40 Foot Container between Selected Ports, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/container-shipping-rates-40-foot-container/maritime_container_rates/)Maritime Transportation Rates for a 40 Foot Container between Selected Ports 2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/shipment_size_inland_costs.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Shipment Size and Inland Transport Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/inland-transport-costs-shipment-size/shipment_size_costs/)Shipment Size and Inland Transport Costs# 3. Types of Transport Costs Mobility is influenced by transport costs. Empirical evidence for passenger vehicle use underlines the [relationship between annual vehicle mileage and fuel costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5598), implying the higher fuel costs are, the lower the mileage. At the international level, doubling transport costs can reduce trade flows by more than 80%. The more affordable mobility is, the more frequent the movements and the more likely they will take place over longer distances. Empirical evidence also underlines that transport costs tend to be higher in the early or final stages of a movement, also known as the [first and the last mile](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5603). A wide variety of transport costs can be considered. > [**Terminal costs**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3081 "Terminal Costs"). Costs that are related to loading, transshipment, and unloading. Two major terminal costs can be considered; loading and unloading at the origin and destination, which are unavoidable, and intermediate (transshipment) costs that can be avoided. For complex transport terminals, such as ports and airports, terminal costs can involve various components, including docking/gate fees, handling charges, and pilotage/traffic control fees. > **[Linehaul costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1801)**. Costs that are a function of the distance over which a unit of freight or passenger is carried. Weight is also a cost function when freight is involved. They include labor and fuel and commonly exclude transshipment costs. > **Capital costs**. Costs applying to the physical assets of transportation, mainly infrastructures, terminals, and vehicles. They include the purchase or major enhancement of fixed assets, which can often be a one-time event that can be amortized over several decades. Since physical assets tend to depreciate over time, capital investments are required on a regular basis for maintenance. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/terminal_costs2.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "Terminal Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/terminal-costs/terminal_costs/)Terminal Costs[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_modal_choice_transport_costs2.png?resize=900%2C513&ssl=1 "Distance, Modal Choice and Transport Cost | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distance-modal-choice-transport-cost/distance_modal_choice_transport_costs/)Distance Modal Choice and Transport Cost[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_gasoline_mileage_us.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Retail Gasoline Prices and Annual Vehicle Mileage, United States, 1960-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/vehicle-mileage-gasoline-prices-united-states/gasoline_prices_mileage/)Retail Gasoline Prices and Annual Vehicle Mileage United States 1960 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/first_last_mile_cost2.png?resize=900%2C551&ssl=1 "First and Last Mile Unit Cost Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/first-last-mile-cost/first_last_mile_cost/)First and Last Mile Unit Cost StructureTransport providers make various decisions based on their cost structure, a function of all the above transport costs. This involves transmitting information that takes the form of documents and terms for transactions involving transporting passengers and goods. Specific commercial [transportation terms](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/incoterms-commercial/ "Selected International Commercial Terms (Incoterms)") have been set to simplify transactions and identify the respective responsibilities. While the transport rate plays an important role in modal choice, firms using freight transport services are not always motivated by cost minimization. They often show “satisfying behavior” whereby the transport costs need to be **below a certain threshold** combined with specific requirements regarding reliability, frequency, and other service attributes. Such complexities make it more difficult to assess the role of transport rates in the behavior of transport users, particularly for supply chains where transport costs are a small share of the market value of the end product. The role of transport companies has increased in the general context of global commercial geography. Maritime shipping companies, air carriers, and logistics service providers have become multinational corporations. However, the nature of this role is changing due to a general **reduction of transport costs but growing infrastructure costs**, mainly due to greater flows and competition for land. Each transport sector must consider variations in the importance of different transport costs. While operating costs are high for air transport, terminal costs are significant for maritime transport. Several indexes, such as the [Baltic Dry Index](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5619), have been developed to convey a pricing mechanism useful for planning and decision-making, particularly concerning future expectations. Relations between terminal operators and carriers have thus become crucial, notably in containerized traffic. They are needed to overcome the physical and time constraints of transshipment, notably at ports. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/incoterms2.png?resize=900%2C494&ssl=1 "Selected International Commercial Terms (Incoterms) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/incoterms-commercial/incoterms2/)Selected International Commercial Terms Incoterms[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/baltic_dry_index.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "The Baltic Dry Index, 1985-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/baltic-dry-index/bdi/)The Baltic Dry Index 1985 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_logistics_costs_function_mode.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "Global Logistics Costs by Function and Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-logistics-costs-function/global_logistics_costs/)Global Logistics Costs by Function and Mode 2018Technological improvements and their associated decline in transport costs have weakened the links between transport modes, terminals, and economic activities. With lower transportation costs, there is more locational flexibility as long as transportation networks remain accessible. There is less emphasis on heavy industries and more importance given to manufacturing and transport services such as warehousing and distribution. Indeed, new functions are being grafted into transport activities facilitating logistics and manufacturing processes. The standard notion of transportation costs is being expanded towards [logistics costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-logistics-costs-function/ "Global Logistics Costs by Function and Mode, 2018"), which are more extensive to include inventory carrying costs as well as the combination of modes necessary for a complex movement to occur. The requirements of international trade gave rise to the development of **specialized and intermediary firms** providing transport services. These firms do not physically transport the goods. Still, they must facilitate the grouping, storage, and handling of freight and the complex paperwork and financial and legal transactions involved in international trade. Examples include freight forwarders, customs brokers, warehousing, insurance agents, and financial institutions. Recently, there has been a trend to consolidate these different intermediate functions. A growing proportion of global trade is now being organized by multinational corporations offering door-to-door logistics services; **third-party logistics providers**. --- ## Related Topics - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260) - [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481) - [3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5277) - [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3009) - [B.16 – The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8689) - [A.15 – Market Areas Analysis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9293) - Location Analysis ## Bibliography - Anderson, J.E. and E. van Wincoop (2004) “Trade Costs”, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 691-751. - Button K. (2022) Transport Economics, 4th Edition, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar. - Cowie, J. and S. Ison (eds) (2017) The Routledge Handbook of Transport Economics, New York: Routledge. - European Commission (2019) Handbook on the External Costs of Transport, Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport. 18.4K83.131. - Limao N. and A.J. Venables (2001) Infrastructure, Geographical Disadvantage, Transport Costs, and Trade, The World Bank Economic Review, No 15, pp. 451-479. - Norwood, J. and J. Casey (eds) (2002) Key Transportation Indicators: Summary of a Workshop, Washington, DC: National Academy Press. - Prentice, B.E. and D. Prokop (2016) Concepts of Transport Economics, Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. - Quinet, E. and R. Vickerman (2004) Principles of Transport Economics, London: Edward Elgar Publishing. - Rietveld, P. (1994) “Spatial Economic Impacts of Infrastructure Supply”, Transportation Research Part A, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 329-341. - Transportation Research Board (2009) Funding Options for Freight Transportation Projects, Special Report 297, Washington. - Vickerman, R. (2012) Recent Developments in the Economics of Transport, London: Edward Elgar Publishing. - Vogel, H.L. (2012) Travel Industry Economics: A Guide for Financial Analysis, New York: Cambridge University Press. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/?share=reddit) - --- ### [2.4 - Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transportation is a service generating a substantial amount of information, and the diffusion of information technologies has transformed the mobility of passengers and freight. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Information Technologies and the Material Economy](#1_Information_Technologies_and_the_Material_Economy) - [2. The Digitalization of Transportation](#2_The_Digitalization_of_Transportation) - [3. Telecommuting and Tele-Consuming](#3_Telecommuting_and_Tele-Consuming) - [4. ICT and Location](#4_ICT_and_Location) # 1. Information Technologies and the Material Economy Information and telecommunication technologies (ICT) diffusion resulted in several **economic and social impacts**. Historically, information required [physical means](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11506) to be diffused, implying that transportation and information diffusion domains were similar. For instance, postal services require physical means, making information mobility similar to freight mobility. The invention of the telegraph was the first significant technology contributing to the separation between transportation and telecommunications. Later on, the telephone, radio, and television would further contribute to this division by creating information networks separated from transportation networks. A new range of ICT that emerged in the 1980s contributed to reversing this trend by making telecommunication and transportation more integrated. These include computers, satellite communication, mobile phones, and the Internet. Transportation is a service that requires and processes a large amount of information. The transport sector was conventionally perceived in terms of vehicles and infrastructure managed as assets delivering value by the mobility they confer to passengers and freight. For instance, transportation users decide where and when to travel, which mode to use if they operate their vehicle, and which routes to take. Inversely, the providers of transportation services must manage their assets to effectively match the demand (information) sent by various transportation markets in which they compete. Yet, the interactions between transport supply and demand are far from efficient, leading to enduring mismatches (overcapacity, under-capacity, and imperfect competition). Better sources of information and the ability to distribute information enable transportation systems to function with a higher level of efficiency because of better interaction between their supply and demand. Looking at the potential impacts of ICT, such as the Internet, on mobility must consider how they can **support, modify, expand, or substitute** the mobility of passengers and freight. It is important to underline that information technologies **do not lead to a dematerialization of the economy**, which is a common misconception. This is associated with a [series of paradigms](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/paradigms-dematerialization-economy/ "series of paradigms"): - **Platform corporation paradigm**. Usually, a corporation focuses on core competencies (high-profit tasks) and outsources activities perceived as of lower value. In the manufacturing sector, it is common to focus on product design and retailing and rely on a network of providers to supply and assemble parts through outsourcing and offshoring. A [platform corporation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4244) thus organizes the production, distribution, and retailing of the goods it sells. It indirectly and directly generates large amounts of material flows for the supply chains it manages through its information network. Still, the corporation itself may not be manufacturing any material goods. - **E-commerce paradigm**. Online retailers have challenged the conventional paradigm in the retailing sector by acting as an intermediary between suppliers and consumers. They operate a network of e-fulfillment centers (distribution centers), storing hundreds of thousands of items, processing large volumes of orders that are packaged and delivered by postal or parcel services. A whole array of online retailers depends on material flows, with the distribution center as the key component of this strategy. - **Asset management paradigm**. Elements of what has been labeled as the ‘sharing economy’ are more effective means to manage existing assets, such as real estate or vehicles, by linking providers and consumers. Even if the managing platform can be perceived as immaterial, it involves tangible assets that are more intensively used. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_media_systems2.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Global Media Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_media_systems2.png?ssl=1)Global Media Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/paradigms_dematerialization.png?resize=900%2C492&ssl=1 "Paradigms of the Dematerialization of the Economy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/paradigms_dematerialization.png?ssl=1)Paradigms of the Dematerialization of the Economy[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/platform_corporation2.png?resize=900%2C520&ssl=1 "Disconnection of Global Production and Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/platform_corporation2.png?ssl=1)Disconnection of Global Production and DistributionThe above paradigms underline that the global economy is getting **better at producing and distributing goods** as well as **managing existing material assets** by creating **extended market opportunities**. At times, efficiency can be confused with immateriality because of the digital interfaces between assets and their users, including transportation. # 2. The Digitalization of Transportation With the emergence of an [information society](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1692), the transactional structures of the economy have changed drastically towards networked organizational forms of individuals, institutions, organizations, and corporations with more intensive interactions, many of which are associated with new forms of mobility. Mobility can be provided in three major forms: - **Modal-oriented**. The direct ownership and operation of modes and terminals by corporations (owning a fleet) or individuals (owning a vehicle for exclusive use). Ownership guarantees access to mobility at any time. Digitalization involves more efficient internal use of the assets such as tracking and navigation. Still, the optimal use is bounded by the ownership setting. - **Operation-oriented**. The direct lease and operation of modes and terminals by corporations and individuals. Leasing guarantees access to mobility for the terms of the lease, such as time and condition. Digitalization involves making assets available across a market, reconciling supply and demand. - **Demand-oriented**. Accessing mobility based on expected demand (for corporations) and need (for individuals). Digitalization involves accessing the availability of transportation assets in real time to rent their use temporarily. **Physical foundations**, including transportation infrastructure, energy supply systems, and a regulatory environment, support mobility. The [digital foundation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1713) (or **digitalization**) of this mobility is becoming increasingly important as it creates new transportation markets. The three major spheres of the digitalization of transportation involve: - **Personal**. ICT enables individuals to interact through additional mediums (e.g. email, messaging, video conferencing), which may lead to more interactions, but also to changes in how these interactions are conducted. The diffusion of mobile personal computing devices (e.g. laptops, smartphones, and tablet computers) has also enabled individuals to enrich their mobility by performing various tasks in transit or outside a conventional work setting. Several applications, such as global positioning systems, also enable individuals to manage their mobility better. The intensity and the scheduling of mobility can become highly interactive since users are able to coordinate their mobility considering real-time changes, such as congestion or changes in time and cost preferences. The smartphone acts as a trip optimization device that has improved the efficiency of vehicles through less confusion and errors, as well as the capability to re-route because of changing traffic conditions. At the aggregate level, these improvements are substantial and could be associated with 10 to 20% in overall efficiency improvements. - **Consumer to business (C2B)**. ICT enables consumers to interact with the transportation services they use more effectively. A direct form is purchasing transport services, which are now online through air and rail transport and ride-sharing services booking systems. An indirect form is E-commerce, which has opened a whole new array of commercial opportunities complementing or substituting conventional shopping, from basic necessities to discretionary goods. One important convenience of e-commerce is removing the distance and temporal restrictions associated with conventional retailing. Customers needed to physically travel to a store, which had defined opening hours. E-commerce does not necessarily imply more consumption but that a growing share of retailing transactions is taking place online, resulting in the growth of home deliveries, which are an indirect form of transportation. - **Business to business (B2B)**. ICT enables businesses to transact more effectively, indirectly resulting in changes in their transport operations. The increasing scale and intensity of business transactions are commonly linked with [supply chain management strategies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-freight-transportation-forms/ "Forms of Digitalization in Freight Transportation"). For instance, inventory management strategies permitted by ICT enable a more significant share of the inventory to be in transit (‘stored’ in vehicles and at terminals), often in line with an increase in the frequency of deliveries. The digitalization of transportation incites the development of **new platforms** where actors can interact in providing, using, and exchanging transportation services. The conventional urban mobility landscape is characterized by a patchwork of passengers and freight transportation services, which is associated with the inefficiencies of these assets. By integrating transportation service providers in an ICT platform, a new paradigm emerges, which is referred to as [**mobility as a service**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10887). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/organizational_forms.png?resize=900%2C320&ssl=1 "Organizational Forms in Human Societies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/information-society-organization/human_societies/)Organizational Forms in Human Societies[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/digitalization_mobility2.png?resize=900%2C479&ssl=1 "The Digitalization of Mobility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-mobility/digitalization_mobility/)The Digitalization of Mobility[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/diffusion_personal_computing_devices.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Diffusion of Personal Computing Devices, 1977-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/personal-computing-devices/diffusion_personal_computing/)Diffusion of Personal Computing Devices 1977 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/digitalization_forms_freight_transportation.png?resize=900%2C475&ssl=1 "Forms of Digitalization in Freight Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-freight-transportation-forms/digitalization_forms_freight_transportation/)Forms of Digitalization in Freight Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mobility_as_service2.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "Digital Mobility as a Service | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mobility-as-a-service/mobility_service/)Digital Mobility as a Service[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/core_principles_blockchains.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "The Core Principles of Digital Ledgers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/the-core-principles-of-blockchains/blockchain_principles/)The Core Principles of Blockchains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/blockchains_value_creation.png?resize=900%2C336&ssl=1 "Blockchains and Value Creation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-value-creation/blockchain_value_creation/)Blockchains and Value CreationMobility as a service concerns transactions related to transportation and supply chains. Conventionally, each actor along a transport chain tended to keep its own centralized ledger recording its information and transactions. The emergence of [Blockchain technologies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10724) provides an extended and distributed form of ledgers, [adding value](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11042) to the process. It can potentially improve the [transactional efficiency of supply chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8112) by enabling the providers and users of transport services to share a common and distributed electronic ledger system. Exact copies are maintained and simultaneously updated across several nodes. It becomes possible to more effectively manage access to transport infrastructures and conveyances (from a seat in a plane to a slot in a containership), the related data exchange, and payments for service provided. # 3. Telecommuting and Tele-Consuming One of the ongoing tenets is that ICT can offer forms of **substitution for the physical mobility of passengers and freight**. When this substitution involves work-related flows, it is called **telecommuting**, and when it involves consumption-related flows, it is called **tele-consuming**. > **Telecommuting**. Using information and telecommunication technologies to perform work at a location away from the traditional office location and environment. Commuting is thus substituted, and it is implied that it took place remotely instead. > **Tele-consuming**. Using information and telecommunication technologies to consume products and services that would typically require a physical flow to access. Both have been facilitated by advances in information technologies, particularly the ubiquity of high bandwidth connectivity and mobile devices. There are degrees of telecommuting ranging from a partial substitution, where a worker may spend one or two days per week performing work at another location, to a complete substitution, where the work is performed elsewhere, such as in an offshore location. The latter is much less likely as the vast majority of work tasks tend to be collaborative and require face-to-face meetings. Tele-consuming is more ambiguous and the main factor behind the perception of a dematerialized economy. For instance, many media such as books, newspapers, magazines, movies, and music used to be physically delivered and consumed; they are now mainly accessed (consumed) online. Software and operating systems that used to be distributed through physical means, such as on disks, can be downloaded directly. Still, telecommuting and tele-consuming require substantial telecommunication infrastructure and networks to be effective. Telecommuting has often failed to meet expectations, and its share of total commuting movements remained low and relatively unchanged; 3 to 5% of the total workforce can telecommute at least once a month, but this share appears to be growing slightly. Many reasons exist for this enduring low share, ranging from activities that cannot be easily substituted to a loss of direct control from management because workers are not present on site. One major factor is that if a job has the potential to be complemented by telecommuting, it is also a target to be **relocated to a low-cost location either through outsourcing or offshoring**. Thus, a large amount of telecommuting took place as offshoring instead. Also, many workers use telecommuting forms to work overtime, carry extra work at home, or perform other activities that may still require transportation. Therefore, telecommuting allows employers to impose longer work hours and ensure employees are more available for work on an on-call basis outside regular working hours. # 4. ICT and Location In addition to substitution and mobility issues, ICT impacts the location and the operations of economic activities. The most important forces are **decentralization and relocation**. Organizational structures are being transformed from a [hierarchy to a network of collaborators](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/information-technologies-corporate-structure/ "Information Technologies and the Corporate Structure"). This commonly results in management that is more flexible and able to adapt to market changes, including new sourcing strategies. ICT improves locational flexibility by offering a wider array of locational choices for administrative, retail, and freight-related activities. This helps [lower office and retail footprints](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=612) by decentralizing some tasks to a lower-cost environment, such as the suburbs or at home, or by permitting their complete relocation (offshoring) to low-cost locations. ICT is, therefore, a corporate strategy to improve the productivity of labor and assets through higher locational flexibility. **Central locations and larger building sizes** have dominated retailing and offices since the 1950s. Indeed, newer and larger stores overtook smaller rivals and established new distribution structures based on mass retailing. The standard 2,000 square feet market of the 1950s became the 20,000 square feet supermarket in the 1960s and evolved into the 50,000 square feet superstore of the 1990s and the 200,000 square feet supercenter of the 2000s. The retail real estate footprint increased substantially during that period, particularly in North America. Following a similar trend, the small office of a company has become several floors in a skyscraper located in the central business district. The amount of space devoted to administrative functions has increased significantly. While ICT initially allowed administrative functions to be more productive without much impacting the demand for office space, as ICT matured and became ubiquitous, its locational impacts became more apparent. ICT is changing retailing by rendering some location structures obsolete. The impacts of e-commerce are particularly salient since they permitted new forms of distribution and retailing. Since the distribution center is taking a core role in e-commerce, suburban locations are becoming the setting for [new types of facilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4487) such as **e-fulfillment and sortation centers**. Most corporations use **ICT to reduce costs**. For office-related activities, the costs of providing office space to employees are far more than just the cost of leasing or owning. It also concerns parking, which tends to be more expensive in high-density areas. It can sometimes run as high as 20 to 30% of disbursed salaries per employee. With these high costs, a common outcome was outsourcing or offshoring the job instead of focusing on telecommuting. If a job could be substituted by telecommuting, it could be more cost-effective to outsource it instead. However, the growth of teleconferencing technologies has widened options. The wide availability of teleconferencing technologies during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 allowed sectors such as education, civil service, and management to remain functional despite lockdowns. However, it was also realized that many jobs could remain offsite, leading to a substantial decline in the demand for office space once the pandemic ended. In the retail sector, the most important cost is **renting store space**. This leads to the conventional paradox that the locations that could generate the highest sales volumes also commanded the highest rents. A factor behind the competitiveness of online retailing firms is their [lower rent structure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4492) because their footprint is more focused on distribution centers in lower-cost locations. They are not burdened with maintaining a retail presence in high-cost locations. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/information_technologies_corporate.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "Information Technologies and the Corporate Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Information Technologies and the Corporate Structure![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_facilities_e_commerce.png?resize=900%2C438&ssl=1 "Logistics Facilities Supporting E-commerce | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistics Facilities Supporting E commerce![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_ecommerce_cost_structures.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "Comparison Between Retail and E-commerce Cost Structures | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Comparison Between Retail and E commerce Cost Structures for a $150 Apparel Piece![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/information_technology_drivers_freight.png?resize=900%2C394&ssl=1 "Key Information Technology Drivers in Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Key Information Technology Drivers in Freight DistributionICT has thus become a force **shaping land use and transportation**. Cheaper space in the suburbs is an important requirement for newer and smaller firms that are users of telecommunications technologies. A similar observation can be made concerning the distributional structures related to e-commerce, in which fulfillment centers have suburban and exurban locations. The most recent trends in teleconferencing provided an additional dimension with capabilities to undertake educational, conferences, and office work remotely. The growing capability of ICT allows businesses and other organizations locational flexibility and better [tracking, asset management, and regulatory compliance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4322) of transport systems. --- ## Related Topics - [B.23 – The Digitalization of Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/digitalization-of-mobility/ "B.23 – The Digitalization of Mobility") - [B.10 – Transportation and Blockchains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11189) - [8.3 – Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4617) - [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621) - [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1006) - [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1498) ## Bibliography - Birtchnell, T. (2016) “The missing mobility: friction and freedom in the movement and digitization of cargo”, Applied Mobilities, Vol. 1, pp. 85-101. - Cramer, J. and A.B. Krueger (2016) “Disruptive Change in the Taxi Business: The Case of Uber”, NBER Working Paper No. 22083. - Gossling, S. (2018) “ICT and transport behavior: A conceptual review”, International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 12(3), pp. 153-164. - International Transport Forum (2018) Blockchain and Beyond: Encoding 21st Century Transport, Paris: OECD. - Janelle, D.G and A. Gillespie (2004) “Space-time constructs for linking information and communication technologies with issues in sustainable transportation”, Transport Reviews, 24, 665-677. - Mokhtarian, P. L. (2009) “If Telecommunication is Such a Good Substitute for Travel, Why Does Congestion Continue to Get Worse?”, Transportation Letters, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1-17. - Mulligan, C. (2014) ICT and the Future of Transport, Ericsson, Networked Society Lab. - Schwanen, T. and M.P. Kwan (2008) “The internet, mobile phone and space-time constraints”, Geoforum, Vol. 39, pp. 1362-1377. - Thomopoulos, N., M. Givoni and P. Rietveld (eds) (2015) ICT for Transport: Opportunities and Threats, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar. - US Department of Transportation (2015) 2015 OST-R Transportation Technology Scan: A Look Ahead, Volpe National Transportation Systems Center. - Wang, Y. and J. Sarkis (2021) “Emerging digitalisation technologies in freight transport and logistics: Current trends and future directions” Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 148. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Space/Time Convergence: Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-circumnavigation-days/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/global_space_time_convergence2.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Global Space / Time Convergence: Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Space Time Convergence Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe*Note: Initial concept developed by McHale, J. (1969) The Future of the Future, New York: George Braziller.* Improvements in transport technology enabled a gradual [space/time convergence](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=201) within the global transport system. While distances remain the same in absolute terms, in relative terms (such as time-wise or cost-wise), distances are getting shorter. Before the Industrial Revolution, transport technology only permitted limited access to other regions of the world. Technological innovations in transportation were mainly used to increase the economic efficiency of European economies, enabling them to access resources and markets. This began with mercantilism and gradually shaped the global economy with declining transport costs and the ability to move passengers and freight over longer distances. **Circumnavigation** is a good proxy for assessing space/time convergence. Before the introduction of the steamship in the mid-19th century, circumnavigating the globe would take about one sailing year, a journey significantly delayed by rounding the Cape of Good Hope and the Strait of Magellan (A). The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a series of innovations that greatly improved circumnavigation, notably the construction of the Suez (1869) and Panama (1914) canals, as well as steam propulsion (B). The circumnavigation was reduced to about 100 days (the “Jules Verne effect”) at the beginning of the 20th century and 60 days by 1925 with fast liner services (C). In the second half of the 20th century, the introduction of the jet plane reduced circumnavigation to about 48 hours if three direct and connecting long-range flights could be booked (D). For instance, a flight sequence involving New York-Dubai, Dubai-Tokyo, and Tokyo-New York can be booked, allowing circumnavigation. Although it does not directly support the mobility of passengers and freight, digitalization has allowed, by the 2000s, the almost instantaneous transmission of information, supporting global telecommunication systems (E). However, global space/time convergence is not [spatially uniform](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8926 "Travel Time between London and the Rest of the World, 1914"), implying that some regions benefited more than others. For instance, space/time convergence in Western Europe and [North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7180), and over the [North Atlantic](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2135), has occurred faster than in other regions of the world, such as Latin America or Africa. As economic and infrastructure development occurs worldwide, space/time convergence is becoming more uniform. This is the case as economies in East and Southeast Asia have experienced substantial improvement in their transport infrastructure and connectivity. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-circumnavigation-days/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-circumnavigation-days/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-circumnavigation-days/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-circumnavigation-days/?share=reddit) - --- ### [George Washington Bridge](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/george-washington-bridge/) **Published:** June 5, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/george_washington_bridge.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "George Washington Bridge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")George Washington Bridge*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2022.* Completed in 1931 and operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the George Washington Bridge is one of the most extensively used suspension bridges in the world, with 51 million annual vehicle crossings, equivalent to 100 million people per year. When a second lower level was added in 1962, the bridge totaled 14 lanes. Eastbound crossings on the New Jersey side are subject to a toll, which generates revenue of about $1 million per day and $350 million per year (the author of these lines has contributed to some of this revenue). About 85% of the tolls are collected electronically with RFID tags. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/george-washington-bridge/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/george-washington-bridge/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/george-washington-bridge/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/george-washington-bridge/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Vehicle Use Indicators, World, 1950-2025](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/world-vehicle-use-indicators/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/vehicle_use_indicators_world-1.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Vehicle Use Indicators, World, 1950-2025 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Vehicle Use Indicators World 1950 2025*Source: Bureau of Transportation Statistics and Transportation Energy Data Book, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy.* Since the 1950s, the number of automobiles has considerably increased, especially in the developing world. Motorization significantly reduced the number of people per registered automobile, from 48.2 in 1950 to 6.9 in 2025. Consequently, there are more vehicles per capita, which is a good indicator of potential mobility. In 2017, the global registered automobile fleet was estimated to have surpassed 1 billion vehicles for the first time, with annual car production in the range of 60 to 70 million vehicles. There are more registered vehicles in the United States than there are licensed drivers. Along with the number of vehicles and their production, the distance traveled per vehicle is also rising. Each passenger vehicle travels around 12,500 miles (20,000 km) annually in the United States, up from about 9,000 miles (14,400 km) in 1980. This growing mobility reflects ongoing spatial changes in terms of the size and density of urban areas. However, as the example of the United States illustrates, “[peak mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1879)” can be reached even when average mileage per car has not changed, and has even dropped, since the 2000s. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/world-vehicle-use-indicators/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/world-vehicle-use-indicators/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/world-vehicle-use-indicators/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/world-vehicle-use-indicators/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Core Components of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-components-transportation/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/core_components_transportation2.png?resize=900%2C650&ssl=1 "Core Components of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Core Components of TransportationFor transportation to take place, four components are essential: - **Modes**. They represent the conveyances, mostly taking the form of vehicles used to support the mobility of passengers or freight. Some modes are designed to carry only passengers or freight, while others can carry both. - **Infrastructures**. The physical support of transport modes, where routes (e.g. rail tracks, canals, or highways) and terminals (e.g. ports or airports) are the most significant components. Infrastructures also include superstructures, which are movable assets that usually have a shorter lifespan. For an airport, the infrastructure would be assets such as the runways, while the superstructure would be the terminals and control equipment. For a port, the infrastructure would be piers and navigation channels, while the superstructure would be cranes and yard equipment. - **Networks**. A system of linked locations that represent the functional and spatial organization of transportation. This system indicates which locations are connected and how they are serviced. Some locations within a network are more accessible (more connections) than others (fewer connections). - **Flows**. Movements of people, freight, and information over their respective networks. Flows have origins, intermediary locations, and destinations. An intermediary location is often required to go from an origin to a destination. For instance, flying from one airport to another may require transit at the hub airport. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-components-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-components-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-components-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-components-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Scales of Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/the-scales-of-transport-geography/) **Published:** March 19, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/scales_transport_geography.png?resize=900%2C454&ssl=1 "The Scales of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Scales of Transport GeographyTransportation supports a range of **spatial constructs** associated with several scales of interaction investigated by transport geography. - **Local**. The [activity space](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5039) is a variable spatial construct at the local scale that represents the range of origins and destinations individuals undertake within a time frame (daily, weekly). For instance, commuting is the outcome of the activity space of individuals moving from their place of residence to their place of work. Deliveries could be the activity space of local freight distribution, such as from warehouses to stores or home addresses (e-commerce). Fixed spatial constructs are neighborhoods or terminals that encompass a range of passenger and freight flows. All of these can be considered within an [urban transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=136) framework. - **Regional**. At this level, the spatial constructs of networks and flows tend to become more ambiguous. They can take the form of metropolitan areas or [urban regions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7705) (a series of cities) articulated along corridors. Main terminal facilities, such as ports and airports, interact with [hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3136) (the joint location of all their customers or users). - **Global**. Several spatial constructs consider global networks and flows. For instance, a [landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7237) is a long-distance corridor dominantly serviced by rail. Trade areas are also a common frame of reference under which markets and transport systems are articulated. The setting of [global value chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4260) has led to one of the most complex spatial constructs involving manufacturing and freight distribution. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/the-scales-of-transport-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/the-scales-of-transport-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/the-scales-of-transport-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/the-scales-of-transport-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [2.1 - The Geography of Transportation Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Cesar Ducruet > Transportation networks are a framework of routes linking locations. The structure of any region corresponds to networks of economic and social interactions. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transport Networks](#1_Transport_Networks) - [2. The Topology and Typology of Networks](#2_The_Topology_and_Typology_of_Networks) - [3. Networks and Space](#3_Networks_and_Space) - [4. Network Expansion](#4_Network_Expansion) # 1. Transport Networks Transportation systems are commonly represented using networks as an analogy for their structure and flows. Transport networks belong to the wider category of spatial networks because their design and evolution are physically constrained instead of non-spatial networks such as social interactions, corporate organization, and biological systems, which are usually constrained by other factors and where space plays a lesser role. > The term **network** refers to the framework of routes within a system of locations, identified as nodes. A **route** is a single link between two nodes that are part of a larger network that can refer to tangible routes such as roads and rails, or less tangible routes such as air and sea corridors. Transportation networks are the outcome of a [trade-off](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-options/ "Network Options") between the goal to **connect as many locations as possible** and **cost and infrastructure development constraints**. The [territorial structure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=636) of any region is expressed as a network that includes all its economic interactions, but more realistically as sub-networks expressing one dimension. The implementation of networks is rarely premeditated, but the consequence of continuous improvements as opportunities arise, investments are made, and conditions change. The setting of networks results from strategies such as providing access and mobility to a region, reinforcing a specific trade corridor or technological developments, and making a particular mode and network more advantageous. A transport network denotes either a permanent track (e.g. roads, rail, and canals) or a scheduled service (e.g. airline, public transit, train). It can be extended to cover various links between points along which mobility can occur. The relevance of a network is related to its connectivity. **Metcalfe’s law** states that the value of a network is proportional to the square of connected nodes. Hence complex networks are exponentially more valuable than simple networks since they offer many options for connecting locations. Thus, economic development is commonly associated with network complexity. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/network_options2.png?resize=900%2C341&ssl=1 "Network Connectivity Options | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-options/network_options2/)Network Options[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/network_structures2.png?resize=900%2C328&ssl=1 "Network Structures | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure/network_structures2/)Network StructuresIn transport geography, it is common to identify [several types of transport structures](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transport-network-structural-components/ "Structural Components of Transport Networks") linked with transportation networks with key elements such as nodes, links, flows, hubs, or corridors. Network structure ranges from [centripetal to centrifugal](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/centripetal-centrifugal-networks/ "Centripetal and Centrifugal Networks") regarding the accessibility they provide to locations. A centripetal network favors a limited number of locations, while a centrifugal network does not convey specific locational advantages. Network structures can also be [direct or indirect in their connectivity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/point-to-point-versus-hub-and-spoke-network/ "Point-to-Point versus Hub-and-Spoke Networks"). The most directly connected networks are point-to-point networks where a service originates and ends in a single location. A more complex form involves a route network where intermediary locations are serviced along a linear sequence. The recent decades have seen the emergence of **[transport hubs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=653)**, a centripetal form, as a common network structure for many types of transport services, notably for air transportation. Although hub-and-spoke networks often improve network efficiency, they have drawbacks linked to their vulnerability to disruptions and delays at hubs due to the[ lack of direct connections](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=658). Evidence underlines that the emergence of hub-and-spoke networks is a transitional form of network development rationalizing limited volumes through a limited number of routes. When traffic becomes sufficient, direct point-to-point services tend to be established as they better reflect the preference of users. Therefore, the more traffic a network supports, the higher its propensity towards direct connections. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/components_transport_network.png?resize=900%2C380&ssl=1 "Structural Components of Transport Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transport-network-structural-components/components_transport_network/)Structural Components of Transport Networks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/centrifugal_centripetal_networks.png?resize=900%2C521&ssl=1 "Centripetal and Centrifugal Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/centripetal-centrifugal-networks/centrifugal_centripetal_networks/)Centripetal and Centrifugal Networks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/point_to_point_hub_networks.png?resize=900%2C442&ssl=1 "Point-to-Point and Hub-and-Spoke Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/point-to-point-versus-hub-and-spoke-network/point_to_point_hub_networks/)Point to Point and Hub and Spoke Networks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/detour_level_hub_network.png?resize=900%2C903&ssl=1 "Detour Level in a Hub-and-Spoke Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/detour-hub-and-spoke-network/detour_level_hub_network/)Detour Level in a Hub and Spoke NetworkTransport networks are better understood by the usage level (e.g. the number of passengers, tons, vehicles, capacity) than by their sole topology based on a binary state (presence or absence of links). Inequalities between locations can often be measured by the number of links between nodes and the related economic opportunities associated with connectivity and the level of traffic. Many locations within a network have higher accessibility, which is often related to better opportunities. However, economic integration processes tend to change inequalities between regions, mainly by reorientating the [structure and flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=665) within transportation networks at the transnational level. Economic and commercial changes are associated with changes in network configurations and connectivity. The [**efficiency of a network**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10473) represents its ability to support flows while operating conditions meet performance criteria such as speed, capacity, and safety. It can be measured through **graph theory** and **network analysis.** These methods rest on the principle that the efficiency of a network depends partially on its **topology**, which is the layout of nodes and links. Some network structures have a higher efficiency level than others, but careful consideration must be given to the basic relationship between the [revenue and costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=670) of specific transport networks. Rates thus tend to be influenced by the [structure of transportation networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=675) since the hub-and-spoke structure, particularly, had a notable [impact on transport costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=680), namely through economies of scale. The efficiency of transportation networks is also related to their [resilience](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10473), which is the ability to support disruptions while maintaining a level of service and connectivity. A resilient network remains connected after facing disruptions such as severed nodes or links. A network could be efficient but not very resilient, or the other way around. For instance, a hub-and-spoke network enables a high level of efficiency for air transportation through the consolidation of flows and better usage of airplane assets. Still, such a network is not very resilient, particularly if a hub is disrupted. Thus, depending on the location of the same disruption in a transportation network, its impact could differ widely if it concerns a hub or another node. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/integration_networks_flows.png?resize=900%2C615&ssl=1 "Impacts of Integration Processes on Networks and Flows | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/spatial-integration-networks-flows/integration_networks_flows-2/)Impacts of Integration Processes on Networks and Flows[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_efficiency_resilience.png?resize=900%2C307&ssl=1 "Transportation Network Efficiency and Resilience | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transportation-network-efficiency-and-resilience/transport_efficiency_resilience/)Transportation Network Efficiency and Resilience[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/cost_revenue_network_coverage.png?resize=900%2C749&ssl=1 "cost_revenue_network_coverage | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/cost-revenue-network-coverage/cost_revenue_network_coverage/)Cost Revenue and Level of Network Coverage[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_rates_network2.png?resize=900%2C425&ssl=1 "Transport Rates and Network Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure-transport-rates/transport_rates_network2/)Transport Rates and Network Structure[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/cost_structure_point_hub_networks.png?resize=900%2C594&ssl=1 "Cost Structure of Point-to-Point and Hub-and-Spoke Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/point-to-point-hub-and-spoke-network-cost/cost_structure_point_hub_networks/)Cost Structure of Point to Point and Hub and Spoke Networks# 2. The Topology and Typology of Networks Transportation networks, like many networks, are generally embodied as a set of locations and a set of links representing connections between those locations. The arrangement and connectivity of a network are known as its [topology](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=697), with each transport network having a [specific topology](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=702). The most fundamental elements of such a structure are the [network geometry](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=709) and the [level of connectivity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=714). Transport networks can be classified into specific categories depending on the topological attributes that describe them. It is thus possible to establish a basic [typology of transport networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=719) that relates to their geographical setting as well as their modal and structural characteristics. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/network_topology2.png?resize=900%2C582&ssl=1 "Topology of a Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/topology-network/network_topology2/)Topology of a Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/network_topologies2.png?resize=900%2C619&ssl=1 "Network Topologies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typenettopo-2/network_topologies2/)Network Topologies[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/network_geometry_number_links.png?resize=900%2C530&ssl=1 "Network Geometry and Number of Links | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-geometry-number-links/network_geometry_number_links/)Network Geometry and Number of Links[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/topology_network_connectivity2.png?resize=900%2C600&ssl=1 "Network Topology and Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-topology-connectivity/topology_network_connectivity2/)Network Topology and Connectivity[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/typology_transportation_networks2.png?resize=900%2C397&ssl=1 "A Typology of Transportation Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typology-transport-networks/typology_transportation_networks2/)A Typology of Transportation NetworksThe physical footprint of a network varies in relevance depending on the transport mode considered. [Roads and railways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=277) are composed of track infrastructure, while [maritime](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2067) and air transports remain vaguely defined due to their higher spatial flexibility. The exception is terminals, whereas maritime networks remain more constrained than airline networks because port sites are less abundant than airport sites. River networks typically form basins and can be classified as trees or dendrograms. Therefore, there are three types of physical spaces on which the typology of transport networks is set and where each represents a specific [mode of territorial occupation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=726): - **Clearly defined and delimited**. The space the transport network occupies is strictly reserved for its exclusive usage and can be identified on a map. Ownership can also be established with defined rights of way, privately or publicly owned. The most relevant examples include road, canal, and [railway networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-network-system/ "World Rail Network and Rail Systems"). - **Vaguely defined and delimited**. The space of these networks may be shared with other modes and is not the object of any ownership, only of rights of way. Examples include air and [maritime transportation networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/domains-maritime-circulation/ "Domains of Maritime Circulation"). - **Without definition**. With these networks, space has no tangible meaning, except for the distance it imposes, with nodes being the core structure. Little control and ownership are possible, but agreements must be reached for common usage. Examples are radio, television, WiFi, and cellular networks, which use specific frequencies granted by regulatory agencies. [![Map World Maritime Shipping Lanes Bottlenecks Chokepoints](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Domains-Maritime-Circulation.jpg?resize=900%2C457&ssl=1 "Domains of Maritime Circulation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/domains-maritime-circulation/map-domains-maritime-circulation-2/)Domains of Maritime Circulation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Network2.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World Rail Network and Rail Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-network-system/rail-network-map-png/)World Rail Network and Rail Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/mode_territorial_occupation_transport.png?resize=900%2C453&ssl=1 "Modes of Territorial Occupation by Transport Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/territorial-occupation-transportation-networks/mode_territorial_occupation_transport/)Modes of Territorial Occupation by Transport Networks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/network_strategies_service_locations.png?resize=900%2C439&ssl=1 "Network Strategies to Service a Set of Locations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-strategy-locations/network_strategies_service_locations/)Network Strategies to Service a Set of LocationsNetworks provide a level of transport service related to their costs, implying that levels of economic development are related to network density. An **optimal network** would service all possible locations, but such a service would have high capital and operational costs. Transport infrastructures are established over discontinuous networks since many were not built simultaneously, by the same entity, or using the same technology. A subway system could be built over a period of several decades with new segments using a different technology. Several railway companies could build a rail network and be subject to consolidation in later phases. An air transportation system could be composed of the networks of several carriers, each having its hubs and subject to mergers and new entrants. Therefore, operational networks rarely service all parts of the territory directly and homogeneously. Some compromise must often be found among a [set of alternatives](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=732) considering a variety of route combinations, levels of service, and competitiveness. Networks are also labeled depending on their overall properties: - **Regular network**. A network where all nodes have the same number of edges. In the same vein, a random network is a network that is formed by random processes. While regular networks tend to be linked with high levels of spatial organization (e.g., a city grid), random networks are linked with development opportunities such as resource access. - **Small-world network**. A network with dense connections among close neighbors and few but crucial connections among distant neighbors. Such networks are particularly vulnerable to catastrophic failures around large hubs. - **Scale-free network**. A network having a strong hierarchical dimension, with few vertices having many connections and many vertices having few connections. Such networks evolve through the dynamic of preferential attachment by which new nodes added to the network will primarily connect larger nodes instead of being connected randomly. Investigating the **interdependencies among different transport networks**, notably those of different natures and structures, is challenging. Some crucial aspects and problems related to inter-network relations may be as follows: - **Coevolution**. Different transport networks might follow similar or different paths based on spatial proximity and path-dependence of economic development, with a wider variety of networks in core regions than in peripheral regions. - **Complementarity**. Some locations may be central in one network but peripheral in another, depending on their specialization and function and the scale of analysis (terminal, city, region, country); the complementarity between networks can be measured based on the number of common nodes and links. - **Interoperability**. Typically, cargo flows from a maritime network to a road network shift from a scale-free structure to a regular structure, thus following different topologies that are not easily combined; air and sea terminals remain few in the world due to the difficulty combining and integrating technically air and sea networks physically at the same locations. - **Vulnerability**. How do changes in one network affect the other network, on a global level (entire network) or local level (single node or region)? This is particularly important for two networks sharing common nodes, such as global cities, logistics platforms, and multilayered hubs in the case of abrupt conjunctures (e.g. natural disasters, targeted attacks, labor disputes, security, and geopolitical tensions), thus posing the problem of rerouting flows through alternative routes and locations. # 3. Networks and Space Transportation networks underline the territorial organization of economic activities and the efforts incurred to overcome distance. These efforts can be measured in [absolute (distance) or relative terms (time)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=738) and are proportional to the efficiency and the structure of the networks they represent. Due to the operational and technical characteristics of their modes and terminals, transportation networks have distinct spatial configurations. By its structure and inherent properties, a transport network reveals information about the spatial structure it supports regarding the importance of locations, how they are connected, what is important, and what is of lesser importance. The relationships transportation networks establish with space and the information they reveal are related to their **continuity**, **topographic space,** and the **spatial cohesion** they form. The territory is a topological space with two or three dimensions depending on the transport mode. Roads are roughly set over a two-dimensional space, while air transport is set over a three-dimensional space. However, flows and infrastructures are linear, having one dimension since they conceptually link two points. Thus, establishing a network is a logical outcome for a one-dimensional feature to service a territory by forming a lattice of nodes and links. Long-distance links tend to connect nodes of high importance, while short-distance links tend to connect nodes of lower importance or low importance nodes with a hub higher in the hierarchy. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/absolute_relative_distance_network2.png?resize=900%2C412&ssl=1 "Absolute and Relative Distance in a Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/absolute-relative-distance-network/absolute_relative_distance_network2/)Absolute and Relative Distance in a Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_transportation_network_vulneratilities2.png?resize=900%2C559&ssl=1 "Types of Transportation Networks and Vulnerabilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transportation-networks-vulnerabilities/types_transportation_network_vulneratilities2/)Types of Transportation Networks and Vulnerabilities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/networks_spatial_continuity.png?resize=900%2C416&ssl=1 "Networks and Spatial Continuity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-spatial-continuity/networks_spatial_continuity/)Networks and Spatial ContinuityIn order to have [spatial continuity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=743) in a transport network, three conditions are necessary: - **Ubiquity**. The possibility to reach any location from any other location on the network, thus providing general access. Access can be a simple matter of vehicle ownership or bidding on the market to purchase a thoroughfare from one location to another. Some networks are **continuous**, implying that they can be accessed at any location they service. Roads are the most salient example of a continuous network. Other networks are discrete, implying that they can only be accessed at specific locations, commonly at a terminal. Rail, maritime, and rail networks are considered discrete networks since they can only be accessed through their terminals. - **Fractionalization**. The possibility for a traveler or a unit of freight to be transported without depending on a group. It balances the price advantages of economies of scale and the convenience of dedicated service. Road transportation has a high level of potential fractionalization since it allows a single passenger to travel independently (walking, micromobility, driving). Maritime shipping. Inversely, maritime shipping has conventionally required the grouping of cargo as a shipload. Containerization conveys the benefits of fractionalization since individual units (containers) can be carried. - **Instantaneity**. The possibility to undertake transportation at the desired or most convenient moment. There is a direct relationship between fractionalization and instantaneity since the more fractionalized a transport system is, the more likely time convenience can be accommodated. Many air and maritime shipping networks are subject to schedule, implying that a connection between two nodes could only be serviced by, for instance, a daily flight or a weekly port call. The benefit of mobility-on-demand services is their instant availability. These three conditions are never entirely met as **some **transport modes fulfill them better than others****. For instance, the automobile is the most flexible and ubiquitous mode of passenger transportation. However, it has important constraints, such as low capacity and high space and energy consumption. In comparison, public transit is more limited in the spatial coverage of its service, implies batch movements (busloads, trainloads), and follows specific schedules (limited instantaneity). However, it is more cost and energy-efficient if its volume is high enough. Freight transportation also varies in its **spatial continuity**, ranging from massive loads of raw materials (oil and ores) that can be handled in a few ports to highly flexible parcel movements carried by vans. Containerization has been a remarkable attempt to address the issue of ubiquity (the system permits intermodal movements), fractionalization (each container is a load unit), and instantaneity (units can be loaded by trucks at any time of the day, and containerships make frequent port calls). An important cause of discontinuity is linked to the **spatial distribution of economic activities**, notably industrial and urban, which tend to agglomerate. Congestion may also alter these conditions. Road congestion in a metropolitan area may impair ubiquity as some locations may be challenging to reach since their accessibility is reduced. Fractionalization may also be reduced under such circumstances as people would consider public transit and carpooling and would thus move as batches. Further, as commuters cope with increasing congestion, several trips may be delayed or canceled altogether, reducing instantaneity. Transportation networks have always been a **tool for spatial cohesion and occupation**. The [Roman](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/ "The Roman Empire, c125 CE") and [Chinese](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/grand-canal-china/ "Grand Canal System") empires relied on transportation networks to control their respective territories, mainly collecting taxes and moving goods and military forces. During the colonial era, [maritime networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ship-log-density-1750-1810/ "Density of Ship Log Entries, 1750-1810") became an essential tool of trade and political control, which was later expanded by developing modern transportation networks within colonies. In the 19th century, transportation networks also became a tool for nation-building and political control. For instance, the [extension of railways in the American hinterland](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-rail-network-1861/ "American Rail Network, 1861") organized the territory, extended settlements, and distributed resources to new markets. In the 20th century, road and highway systems, such as the Interstate system in the United States and the autobahn in Germany, were built to reinforce this purpose. In the later part of the 20th century, air transportation networks played a significant role in weaving the connectivity of the global economy. In the early 21st century, telecommunication networks have become a means of **spatial cohesion and interactions fulfilling the requirements of global supply chains.** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Roman-Empire-125AD.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Roman Empire, c125 AD | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Roman Empire c125 AD![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/China_grand_canal.png?resize=734%2C913&ssl=1 "Grand Canal System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Grand Canal System![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-ShippingDensity1750_1810.png?resize=900%2C507&ssl=1 "Density of Ship Log Entries, 1750-1810 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Density of Ship Log Entries 1750 1810![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US_Rail_1861.png?resize=900%2C788&ssl=1 "American Rail Network, 1861 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")American Rail Network 1861# 4. Network Expansion The expansion of transportation networks is a common strategy to deal with technological change, economic growth, and develop new opportunities. During the industrial revolution in England, the **co-evolution** of roads, canals, and ports revealed noticeable **network interdependencies** over time based on spatial and functional proximity. Initial network developments are often done to **support and complement** an existing network. Then, the new network **competes** with the existing network by expanding geographically and topologically in ways unavailable to the prior network. This was particularly the case when rail networks expanded the opportunities created by canal networks. Later, highway and air networks expanded the opportunities offered by rail networks. As transport networks expand, existing transport infrastructures are being upgraded to cope with spatial changes. Airports and ports are being transformed, expanded, or relocated. In the air transport sector, the emphasis is being given to integrating airports within fully-fledged **multimodal transport systems**, connecting air with rail and road transport. In maritime transport, networks are also being modified by expanding the Panama and Suez Canal, increasing traffic on inland waterways, and developing inland corridors. The global land transport network structure is a function of the **density and intensity of economic activities**, a system of interconnected cities, and efforts to access inland resources. Regional network length tends to be a function of the population and the level of economic development, with networks shifting from linear corridors to grids. While at first glance, the global road and rail networks appear to be integrated and interconnected, this is far from being the case. Road networks are designed to service local and regional flows, and only a few corridors are used for long-distance trade. Most rail networks are national in scope with limited international services except for Europe and North America. The growing competition between the sea and land corridors reduces transport costs, promotes international trade, and prompts many governments to reassess their land-based connections and seek shorter transit routes. Existing land routes are also being extended. Passages through difficult terrain are being investigated to create fully-fledged land-based **continental connections**, notably through railways. These land network expansions are driven by economic globalization and inter-regional cooperation and eventually become multimodal transcontinental corridors for rail, road, pipelines, and trunk telecommunications routes. Still, the impact of increasing world trade on land network expansion, notably over railways, is scale specific. The development of railways has permitted inter and intra-continental connections, namely landbridges in [North America](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transcontinental-bridges/north-america-landbridge/ "The North American Landbridge") and [Eurasia](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/ "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge)"). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA-Landbridge.png?resize=900%2C666&ssl=1 "The North American Landbridge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transcontinental-bridges/north-america-landbridge/map-na-landbridge/)The North American Landbridge[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-New-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/map-new-silk-road/)The Trans Asian Railway Eurasian Landbridge[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/effect_border_transport_network.png?resize=900%2C653&ssl=1 "The Effect of a Border on a Transportation Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/border-transport-network/effect_border_transport_network/)The Effect of a Border on a Transportation NetworkNew rail routes have been developed in North America, Eurasia, Latin America, and Africa. These developments linked to integrating regional economies into the world market are part of the rationalization and specialization of rail traffic. However, the success of these rail network expansions depends on the speed of movement and general cargo unitization through containerization. Railways servicing ports tend to consolidate container flows, which allows an increase in capacity and the establishment of inland terminals. New links establish and reshape trade flows, underpinning cargo movements and the distribution of goods. As some coastal gateways emerge as logistics centers to fit new trading patterns, land network development and [cross-border crossings](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3984) worldwide have far-reaching geopolitical implications. --- ## Related Topics - [2.1 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/ "2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization") - [1.1 – What is Transport Geography?](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/ "1.1 – What is Transport Geography?") - [1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/ "1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment") - [A.5 – Graph Theory: Definition and Properties](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5976) - [A.16 – Graph Theory: Measures and Indices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5981) - [A.7 – Network Data Models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7585) ## Bibliography - Barthelemy, M. (2010) Spatial networks, Physics Reports, No. 499, pp. 1-101. - Briggs, K. (1972) Introducing Transportation Networks, London: University of London Press. - Dalton, R., J. Garlick, R. Minshull and A. Robinson (1978) Networks in Geography, London: George Philip & Son Ltd. - Gastner, M. and M. Newman (2006) “The spatial structure of networks”, Eur. Phys. J. B, 49, pp. 247-252 - Leinbach, T. (1976) “Networks and Flows”, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 8, pp. 179-207. - Newman, M. (2010) Networks: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. - O’Kelly, M. (1998) “A geographer’s analysis of hub and spoke networks”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 6(3), pp. 171-186. - Scott, D., D.C. Novak, L. Aultman-Hall, and F. Guo (2006) “Network robustness index: A new method for identifying critical links and evaluating the performance of transportation networks”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 14 (3), pp. 215- 227. - Taaffe, E.J., H.L. Gauthier and M.E. O’Kelly (1996) Geography of Transportation, Second Edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Atomization versus Massification in Transportation Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/atomization-massification-modes/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/atomization_massification.png?resize=900%2C311&ssl=1 "Atomization versus Massification in Transportation Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Atomization versus Massification in Transportation ModesFor transport modes, atomization represents the **smallest load unit** that can be effectively transported. The individual is the smallest load unit for passenger transportation, while a parcel (box, bag, drum, pallet) or a part is the smallest load unit for freight transportation. Atomization is less relevant for bulk since the smallest load unit is a flexible concept; it can be subdivided without any changes in the characteristics of the product. Still, the smallest bulk trade transactions rarely go under a ton (except for retail, where the goods are bought in “bulk”). Massification for transportation modes involves the growing capacity to move load units in a single trip. The relationship between atomization and massification can be paradoxical, as individuals and customers often prefer the convenience of atomization. At the same time, carriers favor massification and the economies of scale it confers. Transportation systems are therefore a compromise between atomization and massification and the context-appropriate load unit for a given flow. The passenger train is the most massified land passenger transportation mode, carrying about 1,000 passengers. In contrast, the Airbus A380, the largest operating passenger plane, has a standard configuration for about 550 passengers. Still, these massified forms are not suitable for a large share of passenger flows. The largest passenger conveyance is the cruise ship, with the biggest ships carrying about 7,000 passengers. For bulk transportation, tanker ships can carry up to 400,000 tons, while some bulk carriers can carry up to 350,000 tons. These flows are suitable for the largest trades between importers and exporters and can only be handled by a limited number of terminal facilities. Containerization offers a unique advantage since the container is a relatively small (atomized) load unit that can carry, on average, 15 to 25 tons. In contrast, containers can be massified on large containerships, carrying up to the equivalent of 24,000 standard 20-foot containers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/atomization-massification-modes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/atomization-massification-modes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/atomization-massification-modes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/atomization-massification-modes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Representations of Distance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/distance-representations/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/representations_distance.png?resize=900%2C629&ssl=1 "Representations of Distance | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Representations of DistanceThree major representations of the friction that distance imposes on transportation can be considered: - **Euclidean distance**. The most basic manner to represent distance as a simple function of a straight line between two locations, where distance is expressed in geographical units such as kilometers. Commonly used to provide an approximation of distance, but rarely has a practical use. - **Transport distance**. A more complex representation that accounts for the existing structure of the transport network. A simple form involving only one mode is a routing exercise that considers the shortest path between two points, navigating the network. In a more complex form, it concerns the set of physical activities related to transportation, such as loading, unloading, and transshipment. In the above figure, the transport distance between locations A and B includes pickup, travel by mode 1, transshipment, travel by mode 2, and delivery. The same applies to the movement of people, though the activities involved will differ. For instance, air travel between two locations requires going to an airport, potentially transiting through an intermediate hub airport, and finally reaching the destination from the airport terminal. Transport distance is jointly expressed in geographical units, cost, and time. - **Logistical distance**. A complex representation that encompasses all the tasks required for a movement to take place between two locations. Logistical distance includes the physical flows and activities necessary to manage them. Among the most significant tasks for freight movements are order processing, packing, sorting, and inventory management. Geographical distance units are less relevant to this assessment, but cost and time factors are significant. Time not only involves the delay related to management and circulation but also how it is used to service the transport demand, namely the scheduling of pickups and deliveries. In the figure above, the logistical distance between locations A and B includes an order from B that is processed, packed, and scheduled for pickup. At the intermediate transshipment location, sorting and warehousing are performed, and finally, at the destination, the delivery will be unpacked and used. For passenger transportation, the logistical distance also encompasses a range of tasks. Using air travel as an example, a ticket would first need to be purchased, commonly several weeks in advance, which requires advance planning. Other common time- and cost-related tasks include checking in, security checks, boarding and disembarking, and picking up luggage. Thus, a three-hour flight often requires to be planned several weeks in advance, and its full realization can take twice as much time if all the related logistical activities are considered. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/distance-representations/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/distance-representations/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/distance-representations/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/distance-representations/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Automobile Production, Selected Countries, 1950-2024](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/automobile-production-world/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_production_world.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Automobile Production, Selected Countries, 1950-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Automobile Production Selected Countries 1950 2024*Source: International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers.* The second half of the 20th century has seen a major shift in car production. In 1950, the United States accounted for more than 80% of global car production, excluding commercial vehicle production. However, this share declined to approximately 4.6% in 2010 and 2.7% in 2021, reflecting a decline in competitiveness within the American car manufacturing system. The United States, even if it represents the largest car market in the world, has been thoroughly motorized. This implies that the American market is primarily one of replacement, characterized by intense competition among manufacturers for market share. Roughly the same number of cars was produced in the United States during the 1990s as during the 1950s. In the 1960s, two major players in the car industry emerged: Japan and Germany. By 1990, they accounted for 27.4% and 12.7% of global car production. However, like the United States, the market share of Japan and Germany declined to 11.6% and 5.4% of global car production in 2021. This highlights that a growing share of car manufacturing is occurring in newly industrialized economies. However, the main consumption market remains in the developed world, and production is controlled by American, Japanese, and German car manufacturers. Car manufacturing in China has experienced spectacular growth, reaching 37.5% of global production in 2021. Still, the United States remains the largest producer of commercial vehicles, such as trucks and vans. The 2008 financial crisis substantially impacted global car production, with production in the United States, Japan, and Germany plummeting. However, production recovered afterward, in part due to latent demand in some advanced economies (consumers often postpone purchasing a vehicle during a recession). Still, North America, Western Europe, and Japan are replacement markets, implying that the majority of car sales are for people replacing their existing cars. Between 2005 and 2021, China was the most significant driver of global car production growth, accounting for 26.3% of the additional car production. This is indicative of the rapid motorization of the economy and rapid [highway construction](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1869). Still, since 2017, global car production has been in a steep decline, partly attributed to the peaking of motorization in China and the manufacturing lockdowns imposed during the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/automobile-production-world/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/automobile-production-world/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/automobile-production-world/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/automobile-production-world/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Density of Ship Log Entries, 1750-1810](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ship-log-density-1750-1810/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-ShippingDensity1750_1810.png?resize=900%2C507&ssl=1 "Density of Ship Log Entries, 1750-1810 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Density of Ship Log Entries 1750 1810*Source: Ship log data from CLIWOC Project. Data geocoded by David Hopp.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_ShippingDensity1750_1810.pdf) Officers on board sailing vessels maintained detailed logbooks of the ships’ activities. These observations, which could be made several times per day, mostly included the ship’s position and weather conditions (temperature, wind intensity, and direction). Their main purpose was to assist navigation, particularly since it was difficult to estimate the longitude accurately. As many vessels were engaged in military and commercial activities, such as for trading companies (e.g. English East India Company, Dutch East India Company), a large number of ship logs have been kept in national archives. Between 2000 and 2003, a project financed by the European Union, labeled Climatological Database for the World’s Oceans 1750-1850, digitized a large sample of log entries, including their location. The above map plots the density of a large sample of ship logs, which is indicative of the global trade network structure of the 18th century. Due to differences in the number of log entries geocoded, such as only 7,698 entries for French-flagged ships instead of 83,036 entries for the UK-flagged ships, density variations are not necessarily reflective of the size of nationally flagged fleets and their level of commercial activity. Limited shipping is observed over the Pacific Ocean, mostly due to the limited scale of European involvement in this part of the world at that time. The second half of the 19th century saw an intensification of maritime trade to and across the Pacific, with the First Opium War of 1838-42 being the turning point. The China trade was mostly serviced by Portuguese-flagged ships, which were not covered by the sample. The following observations can be made regarding the respective trade patterns of nationally flagged ships for the 1750-1810 period: - **Spain**. The Spanish trade was mainly focused on their American colonies, particularly Mexico (which was linked to the transpacific trade through an overland route), Cuba, and Hispaniola. The [transatlantic triangular trade system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1094) follows the pattern of wind and sea currents that incites the use of the southern part of the North Atlantic for westbound travel and the northern part of the North Atlantic for eastbound travel. The second main component of the Spanish maritime trade network concerns the Argentinian trade. The connections to Chile and Peru through the Magellan Strait are less visible. - **The Netherlands**. The Dutch maritime trade network is mostly associated with the activities of the [Dutch East India Company](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1089) (VOC), with a long-distance network heading toward VOC’s main trade ports of Batavia (Indonesia) and Galle (Sri Lanka) and using Cape Town as an intermediary staging point (a Dutch colony between 1652 and 1806). Dutch interests were also involved in the triangular transatlantic trade with their colonies of the Caribbean and Guyana (a Dutch colony between 1616 and 1814). - **United Kingdom**. Its trade network is the most extensive as it reflects the emergence of the UK during that period as the world’s dominant maritime power with colonial interests in the Americas and South Asia. The Arctic trade segment is mainly related to the activities of the Hudson Bay Company, established in 1670 for the fur trade around Rupert’s Land. - **France**. The trade network depicted by French-flagged ships is the simplest and limited to the triangular trade structure between France, its Caribbean colonies (Haiti, Guadeloupe, and Martinique), and New France (St. Pierre and Miquelon after 1763). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ship-log-density-1750-1810/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ship-log-density-1750-1810/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ship-log-density-1750-1810/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ship-log-density-1750-1810/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Energy Density of some Combustibles](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/combustibles-energy-content/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/chemical_energy_content_fuels2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in MJ/kg) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels in MJkg*Source: adapted from Energy density Extended Reference Table, Wikipedia.* Different fuels have different energy density levels, which can be measured in terms of equivalent energy released through combustion. Energy density is the amount of energy that can be released by a given mass or volume of fuel. It can be measured in **gravimetric energy density** (per unit of mass) or **volumetric energy density** (per unit of volume). Gravimetric energy density is relevant when comparing the energy efficiency of fuels. At the same time, volumetric energy density is relevant when comparing transportation modes as storage space (fuel tank) must be present to carry the fuel propelling a vehicle. The higher the energy density, the higher the fuel quality, which is inversely proportional to its chemical complexity. High-quality fuels are gases, while low-quality fuels are solids, with liquids in between. The highest energy density fuel is hydrogen, the simplest chemical component. Gasoline, which is derived from refining crude oil, contains much more energy than coal (twice the lower grade bituminous) or wood (three times). Liquid natural gas (LNG) is almost entirely composed of methane, while natural gas has about 85% of its mass accounted for by methane. Jet A-1 is the standard fuel used by commercial jet planes. It mostly comprises kerosene and several additives (antifreeze, antioxidant, and antistatic) since the fuel must meet rigorous specifications as it will be exposed to high altitudes and low temperatures. Conversely, Bunker C fuel, the primary fuel used for maritime shipping, can be considered one of the lowest quality fuels in liquid form but suitable for vast ship engines. Although methane and hydrogen have higher energy density than gasoline, their gaseous form creates storage difficulties. Furthermore, hydrogen must be synthesized, which requires energy. At a conversion rate of 100%, it would require 100 hours to capture the solar energy equivalent of 1 kg of gasoline on a surface of one square meter. Ammonia (NH3) has been advocated as an alternative fuel, particularly for maritime shipping, as it can be stored as a liquid. Still, it has about half the energy density of fossil fuels such as gasoline. One of the most efficient energy storage devices for electricity, the lithium battery, can only hold about the equivalent of 0.5 MJ per kilogram, underlining the challenge of developing electric vehicles. Still, the performance is improving, with some lithium batteries getting close to 1 MJ/kg. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/combustibles-energy-content/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/combustibles-energy-content/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/combustibles-energy-content/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/combustibles-energy-content/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Average Hourly Traffic on George Washington Bridge, 2016](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/george-washington-bridge-traffic/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hourly_traffic_gwd.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Hourly Traffic on George Washington Bridge, 2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Average Hourly Traffic on George Washington Bridge 2016*Source: US DOT.* The George Washington Bridge (GWB), linking Manhattan to New Jersey, is one of the most heavily used bridges in the world, with daily traffic between 275,000 and 300,000 vehicles. This accounts for more than 100 million vehicles per year. Completed in 1931, a second level containing six lanes was added in 1962, making George Washington the world’s only 14-lane suspension bridge. The bridge is facing two major types of congestion problems: - First, it supports **commuting flows between Manhattan and the New Jersey suburbs**. This pattern is clearly shown in the above figure, where eastbound flows (New Jersey to Manhattan) are more prevalent in the morning, while westbound flows (Manhattan to New Jersey) are more prevalent in the afternoon and the evening. - Second, the bridge is one of the **crucial links along the Boston – Washington corridor** (Interstate I-95), which imposes a substantial amount of truck traffic (above 23,000 trucks per day). There is thus an overlap of local and regional traffic flows, stressing the physical capacity of the bridge. In addition, the eastbound access to the bridge is subject to toll, which creates a significant backlog and delays; the users are forced to assume both the monetary (toll) and time (delays) costs of toll collection. To mitigate the situation, an electronic toll system was established with reserved toll lanes. About 85% of the vehicles using the toll now have an electronic tag. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/george-washington-bridge-traffic/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/george-washington-bridge-traffic/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/george-washington-bridge-traffic/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/george-washington-bridge-traffic/?share=reddit) - --- ### [4.1 - Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/) **Published:** July 31, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transportation activities are significant energy consumers, providing mobility to passengers and freight, which accounts for about 25% of world energy use. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Energy](#1_Energy) - [2. Transportation and Energy Consumption](#2_Transportation_and_Energy_Consumption) - [3. Petroleum: The Transport Fuel](#3_Petroleum_The_Transport_Fuel) - [4. Transportation and Peak Oil](#4_Transportation_and_Peak_Oil) - [5. Transportation and Alternative Fuels](#5_Transportation_and_Alternative_Fuels) # 1. Energy Human activities depend on using several [forms and sources of energy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5832) to perform work. The more available and affordable energy sources are, the more capabilities and opportunities can be mobilized. The [energy content](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5837) (or energy density) of an energy source is the available energy per unit of weight or volume. Still, the challenge is to extract and use this energy effectively. Thus, the more energy consumed, the greater the amount of work realized, with [economic development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/primary-energy-consumption-countries-1965-2020/ "Primary Energy Consumption, Selected Countries, 1965-2020") correlated with higher energy consumption levels. There are four [types of physical work](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-and-work/ "Energy and Work") related to human activities: - **Modification of the environment**. Activities involved in modifying the landscape to make it suitable for human activities, such as clearing land for agriculture, modifying the hydrography (irrigation), constructing infrastructures such as roads, and building and conditioning (temperature and light) enclosed structures. - **Appropriation of resources**. Involves the extraction of agricultural resources from the biomass and raw materials (minerals, oil, lumber, etc.) for human needs. It also includes waste disposal, which is, in advanced economies, very work-intensive to dispose of safely (e.g. collection, treatment, and disposal). - **Processing resources**. Concerns the modification of products from biomass, raw materials, and goods to manufacture according to economic needs. Since the Industrial Revolution, work related to processing resources was considerably mechanized, initially with simple machines, then assembly lines, and currently with automation. - **Transportation**. The mobility of passengers and freight aims to attenuate the spatial inequalities in the location of resources and markets by overcoming distance. The lower the energy costs per ton or passenger-kilometer, the less transportation is an economic burden. Overcoming space in a global economy requires a substantial amount of energy and has consequently been subject to economies of scale. Vehicles and terminal equipment consume energy, while cargo needs to be bundled, sorted, and unbundled. Lower energy prices in terms of efforts to extract and ease of application involve more opportunities to perform physical work. There are enormous reserves of energy able to meet the future needs of humanity. However, one of the leading contemporary issues is that many of these reserves are not necessarily widely available at competitive costs or are unevenly distributed worldwide. Oil reserves, solar energy, and wind energy are distributed according to well-defined criteria. The **geography of energy** reveals complex differences in the availability of energy sources and supply and demand patterns. Still, the availability or the competitiveness of an energy source can improve with technological development, implying dynamics in the geography of energy. Even if some energy sources are extracted far from where they are consumed, the massification of transportation enables their mobility, particularly for petroleum and coal. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/source_energy.png?resize=900%2C360&ssl=1 "Sources of Energy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Sources of Energy![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/chemical_energy_content_fuels2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in MJ/kg) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels in MJkg![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/primary_energy_consumption.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Primary Energy Consumption | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Primary Energy Consumption Selected Countries![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/primary_energy_gdp.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Primary Energy Consumption and GPD Per Capita, 2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Primary Energy Consumption and GPD Per Capita 2019![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/energy_and_work.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "Energy and Work | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Energy and WorkThroughout the [history of energy use](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5844), the choice of an energy source depended on several **utility factors** that involved a [transition in energy systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5849) from solid, liquid, and eventually to gas sources. Since the industrial revolution, efforts have been made for work to be [performed by machines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5860), which considerably improved industrial productivity. The energy sources used for this mechanization substantially impacted energy demand patterns. The development of the steam engine and the generation and distribution of electric energy over considerable distances have also altered the spatial pattern of manufacturing industries by liberating production from a direct connection to a fixed power system. While in the earlier stages of the industrial revolution, factories located close to sources of energy (a waterfall or a coalfield) or raw materials, mass conveyances, and new energy sources (petroleum and electricity) enabled much greater locational flexibility. Industrialization placed considerable demands on fossil fuels through its processes and outcomes. At the turn of the 20th century, the invention and commercial development of the internal combustion engine, notably in transport equipment, expanded the mobility of passengers and freight and incited the development of a global trade network. The setting of **industrial and energy systems** is interrelated. With globalization, transportation accounts for a growing share of the total energy spent on implementing, operating, and maintaining the international range and scope of economic and social activities. Energy consumption strongly [correlates with the level of development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/primary-energy-consumption-gpd-per-capita/ "Primary Energy Consumption and GPD Per Capita, 2019"), with transportation accounting for between 20 and 25% of consumed energy among developed economies. The benefits conferred by additional mobility, notably in terms of better comparative advantages and resource access, have required a growing amount of energy to support this expanded spatial system. At the beginning of the 21st century, the transition reached a stage where [fossil fuels](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5865), such as petroleum, dominate. Of the [world’s total power production](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5855), 80% is derived from fossil fuels, a share that has been steadily declining as an **energy transition unfolds**. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_energy_sources2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Evolution of Energy Sources | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Evolution of Energy Sources![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/energy_consumption_england_1560_1850.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Annual Energy Consumption in England and Wales, 1560s to 1850s | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Annual Energy Consumption in England and Wales 1560s to 1850s![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/power_steam_europe2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Power Generated by Steam Machines, Europe, 1840-1888 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Power Generated by Steam Machines Europe 1840 1888![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_energy_systems_transition.png?resize=900%2C490&ssl=1 "Global Energy Systems Transition | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Energy Systems Transition![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_energy_consumption2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Energy Consumption, 1965-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Energy Consumption![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_energy_production2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Energy Production, 2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Energy Production 2019# 2. Transportation and Energy Consumption Transportation and energy can be seen from a cost-benefit perspective, where giving momentum to a mass (passengers, vehicles, cargo, etc.) requires a proportional amount of energy. The matter is how effectively this energy is [captured to practical use](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/final-energy-consumption-by-fuel-type-by-transport-sector/ "Final Energy Consumption by Fuel Type by Transport Sector"), which has a strong modal characteristic. The relationship between transport and energy is direct but subject to different interpretations since it concerns different transport modes, each having its utility and level of performance. There is often a compromise between **speed and energy consumption** related to the desired economic returns. Passengers and high-value goods can be transported by fast but energy-intensive modes since the time component of their mobility tends to have a high value, which conveys the willingness to use more energy. Economies of scale, mainly those achieved by maritime transportation, are linked to low energy consumption per unit of mass transported but at a slower speed. This fits freight transport imperatives relatively well, particularly for bulk, where time is less critical and buffer stock can be accumulated. Comparatively, air freight has high energy consumption levels linked to high-speed services with limited buffer stocks. The transportation market has a broad spectrum of energy consumption, which is particularly impacted by three issues: - The [**price level and volatility**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5880) of energy sources are dependent on the [processes used in fuel production](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/fuel-production-processes/ "Fuels Production Processes"). Stable energy sources are preferred as they enable long-term investments in transportation assets and a constant market supply. Volatile energy prices are not contingent on investments in transport technology. - **Technological and technical changes** in the [level of energy performance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5872) of transport modes and terminals. An important goal is thus to improve this energy performance since it is linked with direct economic benefits for operators (lower operating costs) and users (lower rates). Technological improvements allow access to new motive technologies such as electric vehicles and automation. - **Environmental externalities** related to energy use by transport modes, particularly their emissions. Externalities are conducive to regulations related to using specific modes and energy sources and the goal of reducing them. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/final_energy_consumption_transport_sector.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Final Energy Consumption by Fuel Type by Transport Sector | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Final Energy Consumption by Fuel Type by Transport Sector![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/energy_efficiency_transport_mode.png?resize=900%2C589&ssl=1 "Energy Efficiency by Transportation Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Energy Efficiency by Transportation Mode![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/wti_spot_oil_price.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "West Texas Intermediate, Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price (1970-2022) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")West Texas Intermediate Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fuel_production_processes.png?resize=900%2C521&ssl=1 "Fuels Production Processes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fuels Production Processes![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/energy_consumption_oecd.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Energy Consumption by Sector, OECD Countries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Energy Consumption by Sector OECD Countries![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/energy_use_factors_transportation.png?resize=900%2C578&ssl=1 "Energy Use Factors by Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Energy Use Factors by TransportationA trend that emerged since the 1950s concerns the growing share of transportation in the world’s [total oil consumption](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5885); transportation accounts for approximately 29% of world energy demand and about 61.5% of all the oil used each year. The impacts of transport on energy consumption are diverse, including activities that are necessary for the provision of transport infrastructures and facilities: - **Vehicle manufacture, maintenance, and disposal**. The energy spent on manufacturing and recycling vehicles is a direct function of vehicle complexity, the material used, fleet size, and vehicle life cycle. Assembling a ship can take up to two years and requires substantial materials and energy consumption. - **Vehicle operation**. Mainly involves energy used to provide momentum to vehicles, namely as [fuels](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5890), as well as for intermodal operations at terminals. The [fuel markets](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5895) for transportation activities are well-developed. - **Infrastructure construction and maintenance**. Building roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, terminals, ports, and airports and providing lighting and signaling equipment require substantial energy. They directly relate to vehicle operations since extensive networks are associated with large amounts of traffic. - **Management of transport operations**. The expenses involved in planning, developing, and managing transport infrastructures and operations require time, capital, and skill that must be included in the total energy consumed by the transport sector. This is particularly the case for public transit. - **Energy production and trade**. Exploring, extracting, refining, and distributing fuels or generating and transmitting energy also require power sources. The transformation of 100 units of primary energy in the form of crude oil produces only 85 units of energy in the form of gasoline. Any changes in transport energy demand influence the pattern and flows of the world’s energy markets. Energy consumption has substantial modal variations: - **Land transportation** accounts for the vast majority of energy consumption. Road transportation alone consumes, on average, 85% of the total energy used by the transport sector in developed economies. This trend is not uniform within the land transportation sector, as road transportation has been almost the sole [mode responsible for additional energy demands](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5905) over the last 25 years. Despite a falling market share, rail transport, on the basis of 1 kg of oil equivalent, remains four times more efficient for passengers and twice as efficient for freight movement as road transport. Rail transport accounts for 6% of global transport energy demand. - **Maritime transportation** accounts for 80% of cross-border world trade, as measured by volume. The nature of water transport and its economies of scale make it the most energy-efficient mode since it uses only 7% of all the energy consumed by transport activities, a figure way below its contribution to the mobility of goods. Still, fuel consumption is an important input in maritime shipping, which is related to ship design (hydrodynamics), utilization level, operational speed, idle time (waiting at ports), and even weather conditions. For terminal operations, figures vary, but a container terminal usually has 70% of its energy consumption provided by fossil fuels (e.g. yard equipment) and 30% by electricity (e.g. portainers). - **Air transportation** plays an integral part in the globalization of transportation networks. The aviation industry accounts for 8% of the energy consumed by transportation. Air transport has high energy consumption levels linked to high speeds. Fuel is the second most significant cost for the air transport industry, accounting for 13-20% of total expenses. Technological innovations, such as more efficient engines and better aerodynamics, have [continuously improved the energy efficiency of each new generation of aircraft](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/aircraft-energy-efficiency/ "Trends in Fuel Efficiency, Selected Passenger Jet Planes"). Further distinctions in the energy consumption of transport can be made between the mobility of passengers and freight, relying on different modal configurations: - **Passenger transportation** accounts for 50 to 60% of the energy consumption derived from transportation activities. The private car is the dominant mode but has a [poor energetic performance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5911), although this performance has seen [substantial improvements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5916) since the 1970s, mainly due to growing fuel efficiency. Only 12 to 30% of the fuel a car uses provides momentum, depending on the type of vehicle. A close relationship exists between rising income, automobile ownership, and vehicle distance traveled. The United States has one of the highest levels of car ownership in the world, with one car for every two people. Another trend has been the increased ownership of minivans, sport utility vehicles, and light-duty trucks for personal use and the corresponding decline in fuel economy. However, fuel consumption is impacted by [diminishing returns](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/fuel-consumption-efficiency/ "Fuel Consumption and Fuel Efficiency"), implying that higher levels of fuel efficiency involve declining marginal gains in fuel consumption. Also, changes in vehicles-miles traveled are correlated with changes in energy prices, underlining an elasticity for vehicle use. The transition toward electric cars emphasized their disruptive effects on local electric grids, as most vehicles are recharged at home. Urban micro-mobility modes, such as electric bicycles and scooters, also demand additional electric energy on local grids. - **Freight transportation** accounts for 40 to 50% of energy consumption derived from transportation activities. Road transportation dominates, accounting for 80% of domestic energy consumption in most economies. Rail and maritime shipping, the two most energy-efficient modes, have more marginal energy consumption levels. Coastal and inland waterways also provide an energy-efficient method of transporting passengers and cargo. Because of these energy advantages, short-sea shipping is considered a transport alternative and part of the transport policies of countries with extensive coastlines. The rationale for favoring coastal and inland navigation is based on lower energy consumption rates and the overall lower externalities of water transportation. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/energy_consumption_transport_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Energy Consumption by Transportation Mode in the United States, 1960-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Energy Consumption by Transportation Mode in the United States![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/energy_use_car.png?resize=900%2C403&ssl=1 "Typical Energy Use for a Car | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Typical Energy Use for a Car![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/motor_fuel_consumption_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Total Motor Vehicle Fuel Consumption and Travel in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Motor Vehicle Fuel Consumption and Travel in the United States![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_fuel_consumption.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Fuel Consumption and Fuel Efficiency | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fuel Consumption and Fuel Efficiency![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fuel_efficiency_passenger_jet.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Trends in Fuel Efficiency, Selected Passenger Jet Planes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Trends in Fuel Efficiency Selected Passenger Jet Planes![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/annual_vehicle_miles_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Change in Vehicle-Miles Traveled in the United States and Nominal Spot Oil Prices | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Vehicle Miles Traveled in the United States and Spot Oil Prices# 3. Petroleum: The Transport Fuel Almost all transportation modes depend on variations of the **internal combustion engine**, with the two most salient technologies being the **diesel engine** and the **gas turbine**, since they are the linchpin of globalization. While ship and truck engines are adaptations of the diesel engine, jet engines are an adaptation of the gas turbine. Transportation is almost entirely reliant (90%) upon petroleum products, except for railways using electrical power. While the use of petroleum for other economic sectors, such as industrial and electricity generation, has remained relatively stable, the growth in oil demand is mainly attributed to the [growth in transportation demand](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5934). Still, the share of oil used in the transportation sector is steadily declining with the introduction of alternative sources such as electric cars. What varies is the type and quality of petroleum-derived fuel being used. While maritime transportation relies on low-quality bunker fuel, air transportation requires Jet-A, a specialized fuel with additives. Road transportation is highly fragmented, with 85% of automobiles depending on gasoline, while 90% of trucks rely on diesel. The chemical **combustion principle of hydrocarbons** is worth looking at. For the majority of internal combustion engines, gasoline (C8H18; four strokes Otto-cycle engines) serves as fuel, but other sources like methane (CH4; gas turbines), diesel (mostly trucks), bunker fuel (for ships), and kerosene (turbofans of jet planes) are used. Gasoline produces around 46,000 Btu per kilogram combusted, requiring 16 to 24 kg of air. The energy released by combustion causes a rise in the temperature of combustion products. Several factors and conditions influence the level of combustion in an internal combustion engine to provide momentum and keep efficient operating conditions. The temperature attained depends on the rate of release and dissipation of the energy and the number of combustion products. Air is the most available source of oxygen, but because air also contains vast quantities of nitrogen, nitrogen becomes the principal constituent of combustion products. The combustion rate may be increased by finely dividing the fuel to increase its surface area and, hence its reaction rate and mixing it with the air to provide the necessary amount of oxygen. If combustion were perfect, emissions and thus local environmental impacts of transportation would be negligible, except for carbon dioxide emissions. The challenge is that combustion in internal combustion engines is **imperfect** and **incomplete** for two reasons: - First, the **fuel and the oxidizer are not pure**, causing imperfect combustion. Although the refining process provides a “clean” fuel, gasoline is known to have impurities such as sulfur (0.1 to 5%) and other hydrocarbons (like benzene and butadiene). In comparison, air is composed of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. Thus, other chemical components are part of the combustion process. - Second, in part because of the first reason and in part because of the engine technology, **incomplete combustion emits other residuals**. Combustion in an engine occurs at an average rate of 25 times per second, leaving limited time for a complete combustion process. Besides carbon dioxide and water, a typical internal combustion engine will produce carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (benzene, formaldehyde, butadiene, and acetaldehyde), volatile organic compounds (VOC), sulfur dioxide (SO2), particulates, and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These combustion products are the primary pollutants emitted into the environment by transportation. In addition to the imperfect and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons, [three major factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5939) influence the rate of combustion and thus emissions of pollutants, which are the **characteristics of the vehicle** (where technological improvements can play a role), **driving characteristics** (where planning and regulation can play a role), and **atmospheric conditions**. The internal combustion engine converts less than a third of the energy consumed into momentum, primarily due to friction. For electric motors, this figure is above 80%. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/demand_petroleum_products_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector in the United States, 1960-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector in the United States![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_emission_factors2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Automobile Emission Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Automobile Emission Factors# 4. Transportation and Peak Oil The extent to which conventional non-renewable fossil fuels will continue to be the primary resource for nearly all transportation fuels is subject to debate. But the gap between demand and supply, once considerable, is **narrowing**, an effect compounded by the possibility that [global oil production will eventually peak](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5944). The steady surge in demand from developing economies, particularly China and India, requires additional outputs. This raises concerns about the capacity of major oil producers to meet this rising and enduring global demand. The producers are not running out of oil, but the existing reservoirs may not be capable of producing on a daily basis the increasing volumes of oil that the world requires. Reservoirs do not exist as underground lakes from which oil can easily be extracted. There are geological limits to the output of existing fields. This suggests that [additional reserves](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6828) need to be found to compensate for the declining production of existing fields. Reserves additions may not be enough to offset this growing demand, but technological improvements allowed to tap bitumen and oil shale reserves. However, extracting such reserves necessitates much energy and water. Producing 1 barrel of bitumen requires burning the equivalent of 10-20% of its energy content. Others argue that the history of the oil industry is marked by **cycles of shortages and surpluses**. The rising price of oil will render cost-effective oil recovery in difficult areas. Deepwater drilling and extraction from tar sands and oil shale should increase the supply of oil that can be recovered and extracted. Still, there is a limit to the capacity of technological innovation to find and extract more oil around the world, and the related risks can be very high. Adding oil extraction, distribution, and refinery capacity is slow, complex, capital-intensive, and highly regulated. If technically and economically viable, carbon sequestration in CO2 capture and storage could enhance oil recovery from conventional wells and prolong the life of partially depleted oil fields well into the next century. [High fuel prices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5880) usually stimulate the development of alternatives, but automotive fuel oil demand is relatively inelastic. Higher prices result in very marginal changes in demand for fuel. The equivalent of $100 per barrel was considered a threshold that would limit demand for automotive fuel and lead to a decline in passenger and freight km. Evidence suggests that higher oil prices had a limited impact on the average annual growth rate of global motorization. The analysis of the evolution of the use of fossil fuels suggests that in a market economy, the introduction of alternative fuels is leading to an increase in the global consumption of both fossil and alternative fuels and not to the substitution of crude oil by alternative fuels. This suggests that in the initial phase of an energy transition cycle, introducing a new energy source complements the existing supply until the new energy source becomes price competitive to be an alternative. The presence of renewable and non-renewable fuels stimulates the energy market with the concomitant increase in greenhouse gas emissions. The production of alternative fuels adds up to the existing fossil fuels and does not replace them. The main concern is the amount of oil that can be pumped to the surface on a daily basis, especially where major oil fields have reached peak capacity. Under such circumstances, oil prices are bound to rise in the medium to long term, sending significant price signals to the transport market. How the transport system responds and adapts to higher energy prices is subject to much debate and interpretation in terms of the scale and timing of the transition. The following potential consequences can be noted: - **Road**. As far as the automobile is concerned, higher oil prices could trigger changes in several phases. Initially, commuters would absorb higher costs by cutting their discretionary spending. Depending on their level of productivity, many economies could show remarkable resilience. The next phase would see changes in commuting patterns (e.g. ridesharing, carpooling), attempts to use public transit, rapid adoption of vehicles with high gasoline efficiency, and a search for other transport alternatives. The existing spatial structure could also show signs of stress as the unsustainability of car-dependent areas become more apparent. There is evidence of an [inverse relationship between fuel prices and vehicles -miles traveled in the United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/vehicle-miles-united-states/ "Annual Vehicle-Miles Traveled in the United States and Year-over-Year Changes, 1971-2022"). As high commuting costs and the inflationary effects of high oil prices on the economy become apparent, many would no longer be able to afford to live in a suburban setting. Cities could start to implode. The trucking industry would behave similarly, first by lowering their profits and their operating expenses (e.g. scheduling, achieving full truckload). Still, higher prices will be passed on to their customers eventually. - **Rail**. This mode is set to benefit substantially from higher energy prices as it is the most energy-efficient land transportation mode. Rail is about three times more energy-efficient than trucking. The substitution level for passengers and freight remains uncertain and will depend on the current market share and the level of service they offer. In North America, passenger rail has limited potential, while in Europe, and Pacific Asia, passenger rail already assumes a significant market share. North American freight distribution has an advantage for rail freight since rail accounts for a dominant share of tons-km. At the same time, this figure is less significant for other regions of the world, mainly due to the distances involved and the fragmentation of the system. There could be a push toward the electrification of strategic long-distance corridors and the development of more efficient cargo handling facilities. Thus, growing energy prices are likely to affect long-distance rail transportation differently depending on the geographical setting and the conditions of the existing system. - **Air**. This mode could be significantly impaired, both for passengers and freight. Air transportation is a highly competitive industry with low profit margins. Fuels account for about 40% of the operating expenses of an air carrier. Still, because most of the other costs are fixed, any variations in energy prices are reflected directly on airfares. A long-term increase in energy prices, reflected in [jet fuel](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/jet-fuel-prices/ "Jet Fuel Prices, 1990-2022"), is likely to impact discretionary air travel (mainly tourism), but air freight, due to its high value, can be less impacted. Technological developments are helping to maintain the competitiveness of air transportation with more fuel-efficient planes. - **Maritime**. This mode is likely to be relatively unaffected as it is the most energy-efficient, but fuel is an important component of a ship’s operating costs. The response of maritime shippers to higher energy prices tends to be lowering speed (slow steaming), which may impact port call scheduling. In the long run, higher energy prices may indirectly impact maritime transportation by lowering demand for long-distance cargo movements and inciting port calls at ports having the most direct and efficient hinterland connections. In addition, this context may favor the development of short coastal and fluvial services where possible. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/peak_oil.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Annual Oil Production (1900-2021) and Peak Oil | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Annual Oil Production 1900 2021 and Peak Oil 2005 2020 Scenarios![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/major_crude_oil_reserves.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Major Crude Oil Reserves, 2000-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Crude Oil Reserves 2000 2020![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vehicle_miles_usa2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Annual Vehicle-Miles Traveled in the United States and Year-over-Year Changes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Annual Vehicle Miles Traveled in the United States and Year over Year Changes![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/impacts_high_energy_prices_transportation.png?resize=900%2C567&ssl=1 "Potential Impacts of High Energy Prices on Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Potential Impacts of High Energy Prices on Transportation![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/jet_fuel_prices.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Jet Fuel Prices, 1990-2026 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Jet Fuel Prices![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fuel_consumption_containership.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Fuel Consumption by Containership Size and Speed | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fuel Consumption by Containership Size and SpeedHigher energy prices can trigger notable changes in usage, modes, networks, and supply chain management. From a macro perspective, and since transportation is a very complex system, assessing the outcome of higher energy prices remains hazardous. What appears very likely is a strong rationalization, a shift towards more energy-efficient modes, as well as a higher level of integration between modes to create multiplying effects in energy efficiency. As higher transport costs play in, namely for [containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5960), many manufacturing activities will reconsider the locations of production facilities to sites closer to markets (near-sourcing). While cheap and efficient transport systems favored globalization, the new relationships between transport and energy will likely restructure the global structure of production and distribution towards **regionalization**. This process is also favored by less acute differences in labor costs and a push toward automation. # 5. Transportation and Alternative Fuels The energy source with the lowest cost is usually preferred. The dominance of petroleum-derived fuels results from the relative **simplicity** with which they can be stored and used in internal combustion engines. Other fossil fuels (natural gas, propane, and methanol) can also be used as transportation fuels but require a more complicated storage system. The main issue concerning the large-scale uses of alternative vehicle fuels is the **significant capital investments** required in distribution facilities compared with conventional fuels. Another issue is that in terms of **energy density**, these alternative fuels have lower efficiency than gasoline and thus require a greater volume of onboard storage to cover the equivalent distance as gasoline-propelled vehicles if performance is kept constant. Alternative fuels in the form of non-crude oil resources are drawing considerable attention due to the **non-renewable character of fossil fuels** and the need to reduce emissions of harmful pollutants and carbon. The most prevalent alternatives being considered are: - **Biofuels** such as ethanol, methanol, and biodiesel can be produced from the fermentation of food crops (sugar cane, corn, cereals; often called first-generation biofuels) or biomass (such as wood and grasses; called second-generation biofuels). Their production, however, requires large harvesting areas that may compete with other types of land use. This limit is related to the capacity of plants to absorb solar energy and transform it through photosynthesis. This low biomass productivity does not meet the energy needs of the transportation sector. Besides, the production of ethanol is an energy-intensive process. Biodiesel can also be obtained from a variety of crops. The choice of biomass fuel will largely depend on the sustainability and energy efficiency of the production process. - **Natural gas** is a more efficient and environmentally sustainable fuel for the transportation sector, namely in its compressed form. Although natural gas has been used as a transportation fuel since the early 20th century, its use remained marginal until the late 20th century. It is better fitted for large fleets of vehicles that travel extensively from service points (depots, warehouses), such as public transit buses or delivery trucks. As of 2021, natural gas accounted for 4% of transportation fuel use. - **Hydrogen and ammonia** are often mentioned as potential alternatives. The steps in using hydrogen as a transportation fuel consists of producing hydrogen by electrolysis of water or extracting it from hydrocarbons (there are other methods as well). Then, compressing or converting hydrogen into liquid form and storing it onboard a vehicle. Finally, using a fuel cell to generate electricity on demand from the hydrogen to propel a motor vehicle. Hydrogen fuel cells are more energy-efficient than gasoline and generate near-zero pollutants. However, hydrogen suffers from several problems, particularly since much energy can be wasted in production, transfer, and storage. Hydrogen manufacturing requires electricity production. Besides, storing hydrogen requires low-temperature/high-pressure storage tanks, adding weight and volume to a vehicle. This suggests liquid hydrogen fuel would be a better ship and aircraft propulsion alternative. This is where ammonia offers an option as a liquid hydrogen fuel at ambient temperatures that can be easily synthesized with the Haber-Bosch process (invented in the early 20th century) using the nitrogen contained in the air. - **Electricity** is being considered an alternative to petroleum fuels as an energy source. A pure battery electric vehicle is considered a more efficient alternative to a vehicle propelled by hydrogen fuel. There is no need to convert energy into electricity since the electricity stored in the battery can directly power the electric motor. Besides, an all-electric car is easier and cheaper to manufacture than a comparable fuel-cell vehicle. The main barriers to the development of electric cars are the lack of storage systems capable of providing driving ranges and speeds similar to those of conventional vehicles. The low energy capacity of batteries makes the electric car less competitive than internal combustion engines using gasoline, but the situation is rapidly evolving to the advantage of electric cars. As of 2022, commercially available electric vehicles had a range of around 550 kilometers (less in real driving conditions), which is steadily increasing with each generation. This is not yet suitable for long-distance travel as their charges are limited, and the charging time can be significant (up to 8 hours for a full charge and 30 minutes for a fast 80% charge), particularly compared with the standard refueling of a gasoline vehicle (5 to 10 minutes). They are better suited for short commuting trips with the residence as the main charging station. As technology improves, the energy and cost-effectiveness of batteries are getting better. For instance, between 2010 and 2020, the cost of lithium-ion batteries fell by 85%. Electric vehicles are eminently suitable for urban transportation for both passenger and freight because of the shorter ranges involved and the availability of recharging stations. - **Hybrid vehicles** consisting of a propulsion system using an internal combustion engine supplemented by an electric motor and batteries provide opportunities to combine the efficiency of electricity with the long driving range of an internal combustion engine. A hybrid vehicle still uses liquid fuel as the primary source of energy. Still, the engine provides the power to drive the vehicle or is used to charge the battery via a generator. Alternatively, the propulsion can be provided by the electricity generated by the battery. When the battery is discharged, the engine starts automatically without intervention from the driver. The generator can also be fed by using the braking energy to recharge the battery. Such a propulsion design significantly contributes to overall fuel efficiency, particularly in urban areas where vehicles accelerate and brake frequently. The successful development and commercialization of hybrid vehicles appear as the most sustainable option for conventional gasoline engine-powered vehicles in the medium term. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_ev_sales.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Electric Vehicles Sales, 2010-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Electric Vehicles Sales 2010 2022The diffusion of non-fossil fuels in the transportation sector has **serious limitations**. While oil prices have increased over time, they have been subject to significant fluctuations. The comparative costs of alternative energy sources to fossil fuels are higher in the transportation sector than in other types of economic activities. This suggests higher competitive advantages for the industrial, household, commercial, electricity, and heat sectors to shift away from oil and to rely on solar, wind, or hydro-power. Transportation fuels based on renewable energy sources might not be competitive with petroleum fuels unless significant energy price increases coupled with substantial technological improvements. A risk concerns the imposition of specific fuels through regulations causing disruptions in capacity and cost. Energy should be a resource available in abundance and effectively managed. If energy becomes scarce, particularly through policy, a whole array of opportunities may be lost, including those related to lower mobility levels. An emerging trend involves **decarbonizing transport** intending to make transportation systems carbon neutral. Achieving such an outcome requires measures advocated for decades, such as low-carbon fuels, vehicle and equipment efficiency, and modal shift. It remains unclear if carbon-neutral transportation is achievable in the medium term since it involves capital-intensive energy transitions. Modes such as maritime shipping have a much lower potential, mainly for technical reasons, as ship engines are massive. Technology other than the internal combustion engine cannot readily provide this power level. Urban transportation with a shorter lifespan of vehicles and a reliance on public transit has a better potential to become carbon neutral. --- ## Related Topics - [B.8 – Petroleum: A Transportation Resource](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6757) - [4.2 – Transportation and the Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/ "4.2 – Transportation and the Environment") - [4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5721) - [4.4 – Transport, Sustainability and Decarbonization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5725) - [A.20 – Transport Environmental Management](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) ## Bibliography - Bradford, T. (2018) The Energy System: Technology, Economics, Markets, and Policy, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. - Chapman, J.D. (1989) Geography and Energy: Commercial Energy Systems and National Policies, New York: Longman Scientific & Technical. - Davis, S. and R.G. Boundy (2019) Transportation Energy Data Book, Edition 31.1, US Department of Energy, ORNL-5198. - Epstein, A. (2022) Fossil Future: Why Global Human Flourishing Requires More Oil, Coal, and Natural Gas–Not Less. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. - Gilbert, R. and A. Perl (2008) Transport revolutions. Moving people and freight without oil, London: Earthscan. - Kutscher, C.F., J.B. Milford, F. Kreith (2018) Principles of Sustainable Energy Systems, Third Edition, New York: CRC Press. - Nersesian, R.L (2016) Energy Economics: Markets, History and Policy, New York: Routledge. - Potter, S. et al. (2013) “Transport and Energy Use”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Rhodes, R. (2018) Energy: A Human History, New York: Simon & Schuster. - World Energy Council (2007) Transport Technologies and Policy Scenarios, World Energy Council. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Four Main Locational Influences of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/locational-influences-transportation/) **Published:** February 10, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/locational_influences_transportation.png?resize=900%2C715&ssl=1 "The Four Main Locational Influences of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Four Main Locational Influences of TransportationThe influence of transportation over the location of economic activities takes place over four main aspects, at times interdependent: - **Transport costs**. One of the most straightforward influences involves the costs that transport imposes on the mobility of passengers and freight. Location is, therefore, influenced by the goal of minimizing the total cost of transportation, which is the foundation of [classic location theory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1548). - **Agglomeration economies**. Lower input costs with [clustering](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1565) economic activities are permitted by the accessibility that transportation infrastructures, such as roads, can provide to a user/customer base. - **Economies of density**. Based on the general benefits of higher densities, such as a higher level of accessibility to labor, goods, and services and lower unit distribution costs. Higher densities are only possible with high-capacity transportation infrastructures. - **Co-location**. The benefits that economic activities derive from being located [directly adjacent to a transport terminal facility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1570) such as a port, airport, rail terminal, or public transit station. The efficiency of the economic activity is in part derived from the transport capacity offered by the terminal. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/locational-influences-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/locational-influences-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/locational-influences-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/locational-influences-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Final Energy Consumption by Fuel Type by Transport Sector](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/final-energy-consumption-by-fuel-type-by-transport-sector/) **Published:** August 1, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/final_energy_consumption_transport_sector.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Final Energy Consumption by Fuel Type by Transport Sector | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Final Energy Consumption by Fuel Type by Transport Sector*Note: Numbers represent estimated Exajoules. Source: adapted from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change.* The above chart depicts the respective share of energy consumption by type of fuel, transportation mode, type of transport (passenger or freight), and the level of energy efficiency. It also depicts the primary energy flows between sectors. Oil-related fuels accounted for 94% of the energy used by transportation modes, with gasoline being the most used fuel (42.5%; 39 Exajoules), followed by diesel (34.5%; 32 Exajoules) heavy oil, biofuels, and kerosene (21.8%; 20 Exajoules). Electricity and gases (e.g. LNG) account for marginal use as fuels. Gasoline is mainly used for light road vehicles (cars and vans) for passenger transportation. Diesel is the prevalent fuel for heavy road vehicles for freight transportation. Water transportation relies on heavy oils, and most of the fuel is used for freight transport. Kerosene is the primary fuel for air transport, mostly used to carry passengers. The energy conversion level for the transport sector is around 32%, which is higher for freight transport than passenger transport. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/final-energy-consumption-by-fuel-type-by-transport-sector/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/final-energy-consumption-by-fuel-type-by-transport-sector/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/final-energy-consumption-by-fuel-type-by-transport-sector/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/final-energy-consumption-by-fuel-type-by-transport-sector/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Long Wave Cycles of Innovation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/innovation-long-wave-cycles/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/waves_innovation.png?resize=900%2C353&ssl=1 "Long Wave Cycles of Innovation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Long Wave Cycles of Innovation*Source: Adapted from Hargroves, K. and M. Smith (2005) Natural Advantage of Nations: Business Opportunities, Innovation and Governance for the 21st Century. London: Routledge.* Technological innovation and economic growth are closely related and can be articulated within the concept of **cycles or waves**. Each wave represents a diffusion phase of a series of technological innovations creating entirely new economic sectors and opportunities for investment and growth. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the late 18th century, six waves have been identified: - **1st wave (1785-1845)**. Leaned on innovations such as water power, textiles, and iron. The beginning of the Industrial Revolution mainly focused on simple commodities such as clothes and tools that could benefit many people. The conventional maritime technology relying on sailships was perfected, supporting large colonial and commercial empires, mainly Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, and Spain. Significant inland waterway systems were also constructed. The costs of production and transportation were significantly reduced. - **2nd wave (1845-1900)**. Involved the massive application of coal as an energy source, mainly through the steam engine. This induced the development of rail transport systems, opening new markets, and giving access to a wider array of resources internationally and inland. The steamship had a similar impact on maritime transportation and permitted expanded commercial opportunities in global trade. Also, the mass production of cotton substantially improved the opportunities of the textile industry by making articles of clothing much more affordable. - **3rd wave (1900-1950)**. Electrification was a major economic change as it permitted the usage of a variety of machines and appliances. It also permitted the development of urban transit systems such as subways and tramways. Another significant improvement was the internal combustion engine, around which the whole automotive industry was created and expanded the mobility of passengers and freight. - **4th wave (1950-1990)**. The post-World War II period represented significant industrial changes with new materials such as plastics (petrochemicals) and new sectors such as electronics (television). The jet engine expanded the aviation industry toward the mass market, and mobility could be realized globally. - **5th wave (1990-2020)**. The development of information systems substantially improved the transactional environment with new communication methods and more efficient forms of management of production and distribution systems (logistics). This spawned new industries related to personal computing devices, mainly computer manufacturing and software programming, but more recently, e-commerce platforms. - **6th wave (2020?-)**. The key technologies that are likely to be the drivers of the 6th wave are already in place and mainly include robotics, automation, digitalization, and sustainability. Digitalization implies a high level of information technologies in goods and services as well as for their management and operations. The 6th wave has also been labeled as the [fourth industrial revolution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1363). These waves are related to the [phases of development of the world economy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1348). As time progressed, the lapse between each wave got shorter. For instance, the first wave lasted 60 years, while the fourth wave lasted 40 years. This reflects a growing potential for innovation and the capacity of economic systems to derive commercial opportunities from an innovation once it has been adopted. Innovations are much less the result of individual efforts but are organized and concerted actions whose results are rapidly diffused. Also, at the end of a cycle, the rate of innovation usually declines as most of the main innovations in the driving sector have already occurred, and the industry has been captured by commercial and regulatory interests that focus more on rent-seeking than innovation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/innovation-long-wave-cycles/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/innovation-long-wave-cycles/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/innovation-long-wave-cycles/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/innovation-long-wave-cycles/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chapter 3 - Transportation, Economy and Society](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** Transport systems, by the mobility they provide, are closely related to socioeconomic changes. Economic opportunities will likely arise where transportation infrastructures can ensure access to markets and resources. From the industrial revolution in the 19th century to globalization and economic integration processes of the late 20th and early the 21st centuries, world regions have been affected differently by economic development. International, regional, and local transportation systems have become fundamental components of economic activity. A growing share of the wealth is thus linked to trade and distribution. However, even if transportation positively impacts socioeconomic systems, there are also negative consequences, such as congestion, accidents, and mobility gaps. Transportation is also a commercial activity that benefits from operational attributes such as costs, capacity, efficiency, reliability, and speed. Transportation systems are evolving within a complex set of relationships between the transport supply, reflecting the operational capacity of the network, transport demand, and the mobility requirements of an economy. --- ## Contents ### [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/ "3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development") ### [3.2 – Transportation and Society](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/ "3.2 – Transportation and Society") ### [3.3 – Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/ "3.3 – Transport Costs") ### [3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/ "3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services") --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Digitalization of Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-mobility/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/digitalization_mobility2.png?resize=900%2C479&ssl=1 "The Digitalization of Mobility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Digitalization of Mobility*Source: Adapted from World Economic Forum, SIMSystem: Designing Seamless Integrated Mobility.* Contemporary mobility systems are supported by physical, digital (information) and regulatory (rules) foundations. While physical (e.g. infrastructures) and regulatory (governance, policies) issues are well understood, the digital dimension has considerably evolved in recent years with the introduction of new information technologies. Among the most significant: - **Access devices**. A whole array of computing devices, such as computers and smartphones, can access telecommunication networks and retrieve, process, and send information. - **Geospatial services**. Computing devices able to provide real-time locational information that can be used for a variety of purposes including vehicle tracking and navigation. They can also include other sensors that can be used to supply visual information (optical character recognition or environment processing) or attribute information (temperature, pressure, humidity). - **Connectivity networks**. A range of telecommunication systems enabling components of the information system to communicate, which include wired and wireless networks. - **Open data exchanges**. A set of standards allowing information exchange and storage that all devices can handle. - **Integrated payments**. A system that allows actors, such as financial institutions, to settle transactions, such as contracts, purchases, tolls, or fares. - **Cloud services**. A distributed network of servers is able to offer massive storage, retrieval, and processing of data. - **Digital ledgers**. An encrypted digital ledger system, such as a blockchain, is able to accurately record events and transactions. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-mobility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-mobility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-mobility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-mobility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Basic Location Factors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-factors-basic/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_location_factors-scaled.png?resize=900%2C501&ssl=1 "Basic Location Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Basic Location FactorsLocation factors can be subdivided into three general functional categories, each related to a scale of analysis: - **Socioeconomic environment**. Specific macro-geographical characteristics that can apply to jurisdictional units, such as the nation-state, the state/province, or the municipality. The nation-state is the most common unit that offers consistency in the socioeconomic environment. The location factors consider capital availability, (investment capital, venture capital, [exchange rates](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/yuan-usd-exchange-rate/ "Yuan Exchange Rate, 1981-2021 (Monthly)")), subsidies and incentives, regulations, taxation, and available technology. A firm looking at global expansion is evolving at this scale of analysis to seek suitable locations to allocate its production and distribution assets as well as the potential demand for its output. - **Accessibility**. It includes a number of opportunity factors related to a location, mainly labor (average wages, availability, level of qualification), materials (mainly for raw materials dependent activities), energy, markets (local, regional, and global), and accessibility to suppliers and customers (important for intermediate activities). These factors tend to have a meso (regional) connotation and will be the focus of a firm looking at national expansion. - **Site**. Specific micro-geographical (local) characteristics of the site, including the availability of land, basic utilities, visibility (for activities related to retail or prestige such as head offices), amenities (quality of life), and the level of access to local transportation (such as the proximity to a highway or a public transit station). These factors affect the costs associated with a location and are the priority for firms looking at local expansion strategies. The **suitability** of each factor depends on the nature of the activity for which locational behavior is being investigated. This explains the highly diverse locational behavior of firms in the global economy. Firms involved in the gathering and processing raw materials will tend to locate close to the sources of these materials or next to major transit points such as ports. Firms involved in high added-value activities, namely information technologies, will tend to cluster around suppliers and institutions providing qualified labor (e.g. universities and technical colleges). Each locational decision results from different criteria, not always apparently rational. This is particularly where non-visible incentives are provided, such as taxation abatement. Most firms, such as retail stores, are of small size and tend to be solely concerned with local considerations by finding a suitable site. As a firm grows and seeks expansion, it will then likely look at regional location factors offering additional opportunities and suitability. A few firms can achieve a global expansion strategy that will need to adapt to different socioeconomic conditions. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-factors-basic/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-factors-basic/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-factors-basic/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-factors-basic/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Transportation Networks and Vulnerabilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transportation-networks-vulnerabilities/) **Published:** March 8, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_transportation_network_vulneratilities2.png?resize=900%2C559&ssl=1 "Types of Transportation Networks and Vulnerabilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Transportation Networks and VulnerabilitiesDepending on the mode they represent, transportation networks have different configurations: - **Air networks**. Such networks are commonly a **nodal hierarchy** often organized around a [hub-and-spoke](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2416) structure, underlining that nodes (airports) are the core elements of air networks. The importance of a node is usually related to the traffic (passengers and freight) it handles and the level of connectivity (links to other nodes). There is a hierarchy of flows ranging from regional (short-distance feeders) to international (inter-hub). Due to its high degree of hubbing, air transportation networks are particularly vulnerable to disruptions at major hubs, while disruptions at smaller hubs will have limited consequences. - **Maritime networks**. Such networks are a **circuitous nodal hierarchy**, implying that services are commonly arranged along a sequence of nodes (ports) with [inter-range services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2290) that loop back to the port of origin. While [point-to-point](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=653) services are reflective of bulk shipping, container shipping is organized between deep-sea and feeder services, with transshipment hubs acting as the interface. The vulnerability of maritime networks has different considerations depending on whether the node is a hub or a gateway. Disruptions at a hub will mostly impact maritime shipping networks, while disruptions at a gateway will mostly impact the hinterland. - **Logistical networks**. Such networks are a **sequential multi-nodal hierarchy**, implying that there are separate networks within networks. A typical logistics sequence is organized along [three stages](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4260); raw materials and parts, manufacturing, and distribution, each supported by a specific network (manufacturing network, [distribution network](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4540)). They represent sourcing relationships between actors, and such networks are vulnerable to disruptions impacting one actor (e.g. a manufacturing plant, a distribution center) and the connected activities (upstream and downstream). This is commonly known as the cumulative effect, where a small disruption could result in significant impacts along a supply chain since a product is often made of numerous components. If a part is missing, a supply chain could come temporarily to a halt. - **Road networks**. Such networks are **hierarchical meshes**, each servicing a different scale. They have no tangible nodes but fixed paths with known capacity. While an [interstate highway system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1869) is designed to connect a nation or a large region, local streets only connect adjacent activities to a wider framework. Because of their mesh structure, road networks are not highly vulnerable to disruptions, unless this disruption is wide-scale (e.g. a major snowstorm or a hurricane) or impacts a strategic connector such as bridges or tunnels. High-connectivity road networks can be disrupted if a high-level connection is closed, which forces traffic on lower-level connections that may not be able to handle the load. - **Rail networks**. Such networks are a **linear nodal hierarchy** with nodes related to intermodal yards, trains, and transit stations. Because of the fixed character of their paths and capacity, they are allocated usage windows during which grouped units circulate. While linear rail networks are vulnerable to disruptions, complex rail and transit networks have a mesh-like structure, making them more resilient. - **Power grids**. Such networks have a **sequential linear hierarchy** where the main nodes are power generation facilities from which electricity is distributed across high-voltage transmission lines to stations for regional distribution. These substations transform electricity from high to low voltage, which is distributed to facilities for final use. Very close to the final consumer, transformers may further reduce the voltage to safer levels. Power grid networks are usually highly redundant but subject to a hierarchical vulnerability where the higher up in the hierarchy, the more extensive the disruption. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transportation-networks-vulnerabilities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transportation-networks-vulnerabilities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transportation-networks-vulnerabilities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transportation-networks-vulnerabilities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A Typology of Transportation Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typology-transport-networks/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/typology_transportation_networks2.png?resize=900%2C397&ssl=1 "A Typology of Transportation Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")A Typology of Transportation NetworksMany criteria can be used to classify transportation networks. Its **level of abstraction** can be considered with tangible network representations closely matching reality (such as a road map). Conversely, an abstract network would only symbolize the nodes and flows (such as an airline network). Since transportation networks have a geographical setting, they can be defined according to their **relative location** to the main elements of a territory, such as a coastal network. Networks also have an **orientation** and an **extent** that approximates their geographical coverage or their market area. The **number of nodes and edges** is relevant to express the complexity and structure of transportation networks with a branch of mathematics, [graph theory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5976), developed to infer structural properties from these numbers. Since networks support movements, they can be considered from a modal perspective. Their edges are an abstraction of routes (roads, rail links, maritime routes), and their nodes are an abstraction of terminals (ports, airports, railyards). Specific modes can further be classified in terms of **types of road** (highway, road, street, etc.) and **level of control** (controlled access, speed limit, vehicle restrictions, etc.). Flows on a network have a **volume** and a **direction**, enabling to rank links by their importance and evaluating the general direction of flows (e.g. centripetal or centrifugal). Each segment and network has a **physical capacity** related to the volume it can support under normal conditions (traffic above capacity is labeled as congestion). The **load** (or volume-to-capacity ratio) is the relation between the existing volume and the capacity. The closer a network is to its full load (a ratio of 1), the more it is congested. Since capacity is often a theoretical estimation, networks can operate above design capacity. The **structure** of some networks imposes a hierarchy reflecting the importance of each of its nodes and a pattern reflecting their spatial arrangement. Finally, networks have a **dynamic** where their nodes and links can change due to new circumstances. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typology-transport-networks/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typology-transport-networks/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typology-transport-networks/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typology-transport-networks/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Relevance of Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/relevance-logistics/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/relevance_logistics.png?resize=900%2C349&ssl=1 "The Relevance of Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Relevance of LogisticsThere are several factors that underline the growing importance that logistics plays in the global economy: - **The friction of distribution.** Distributing goods, parts, and raw materials has an economic cost, which usually accounts for [10 to 15% of the GDP](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4418). This share can reach 25% for developing economies and 6 to 8% for advanced economies. Transporting, holding inventories, and processing orders all involve a cost. Any improvement in logistics, such as lower costs, less time, or higher reliability, thus has direct commercial benefits. - **Growing materials demand.** Social and economic factors have favored the growth of consumption and the associated material flows. Economic development involves a significant accumulation of infrastructure investments and related freight flows. Further, rising incomes, as well as differences in consumer preferences, involve a wide variety of consumption patterns the logistics aim to fulfill. - **Complexity of value chains.** Many consumption goods are getting more complex, a trend associated with the growing number of parts and the requirement to manage these inventories effectively. All the tasks involved in making goods available to the final consumer (research and development, fabrication, distribution, marketing) are increasingly [embedded](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4265). - **Spatial division of production and consumption**. The ability to use global comparative advantages has favored a spatial division of production with processes such as outsourcing and offshoring. Similarly, the global division of production requires more complex distribution capabilities to markets that can be distant. Crossing international jurisdictions involves additional managerial and operational complexity. Many retailers have regional or national distribution strategies requiring the management of vast inventories. - **Sustainability**. Environmental concerns permeate freight distribution with incentives for better energy and material efficiency. The issue of recycling, often labeled as [reverse logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6502), is also gaining importance. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/relevance-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/relevance-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/relevance-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/relevance-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation and Logistics Multinationals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transportation-logistics-multinationals/) **Published:** February 12, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_logistics_multinationals.png?resize=900%2C391&ssl=1 "Transportation and Logistics Multinationals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation and Logistics MultinationalsDue to the nature of the market, there are a wide variety of transportation and logistics multinationals: - **Carriers**. Responsible for transporting passengers and freight across borders with equipment that they own or lease and for which they derive revenue. Their main assets are mobile fleets of oceangoing ships, aircraft, or rail equipment that are made available through negotiated contracts or at a current market (spot) rate if they are able to make capacity available on short notice. Carriers such as [Maersk](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-container-shipping/major-inter-range-routes-serviced-maersk/ "Maersk") (the largest container shipping line), [Emirates](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/largest-passengers-freight-airlines/ "Emirates") (a world-class air passenger and freight carrier based in Dubai) and [BSNF](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/intermodal-rail-terminals-north-america/ "BSNF") (a major North American rail carrier) are among the world’s largest in their respective modes. - **Terminal operators**. Responsible for transshipping passengers or freight at terminal facilities such as ports, airports, and intermodal yards. Some terminal facilities are privately owned and operated, while others, particularly in the port and airport sector, are publicly owned and leased to private operators through concessions. Terminal operators such as HPH (headquartered in Hong Kong) have a substantial portfolio of assets positioned across the world. - **Logistics service providers**. Firms offer a variety of transport and warehousing services through the arrangement of supply chains. Some own assets, such as warehouses and vehicles, while others contract third parties, such as carriers and terminal operators to handle their cargo. [DHL](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/largest-third-party-logistics/ "DHL") is the world’s largest third-party logistics services provider. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transportation-logistics-multinationals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transportation-logistics-multinationals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transportation-logistics-multinationals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transportation-logistics-multinationals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chapter 5 - Transportation Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** Transportation modes are essential components of transport systems since they are the means of supporting mobility. Modes can be grouped into three broad categories based on the medium they exploit: land, water, and air. Each mode has its own requirements and features and is adapted to serve specific freight and passenger traffic demands. This gives rise to marked differences in how the modes are deployed and utilized in different parts of the world. More recently, there has been a trend towards integrating the modes through intermodality and linking the modes ever more closely into production and distribution activities. At the same time, however, passenger and freight activity is becoming increasingly separated across most modes. --- ## Contents ### [5.1 – Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/ "5.1 – Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift") ### [5.2 – Road Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/ "5.2 – Road Transportation") ### [5.3 – Rail Transportation and Pipelines](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/ "5.3 – Rail Transportation and Pipelines") ### [5.4 – Maritime Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/ "5.4 – Maritime Transportation") ### [5.5 – Air Transport](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/ "5.5 – Air Transport") ### [5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/ "5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization") --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Sustainable Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/sustainable-transportation/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sustainable_transportation2.png?resize=900%2C323&ssl=1 "Sustainable Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Sustainable TransportationAs a concept, sustainable transportation is intricately linked with developing sustainable transport modes, infrastructures, and operations. Three major dimensions are considered: - **Environment**. A reduction of the environmental impacts of transportation is a likely strategy for sustainability. Transportation contributes to harmful emissions, noise, and climate change. About 15% of the total greenhouse gases and 22% of the CO2 emissions are attributed to transportation. However, as vehicles are becoming more environmentally efficient, the [global fleet of vehicles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1874) is also increasing. Improving the footprint of transportation, especially the impacts of infrastructure construction and maintenance, is also a strategic goal to achieve. Transportation systems are waste generators (vehicles, parts, packaging, etc.) that must be reduced, reused, and recycled. - **Economy**. Transportation is a factor in economic growth, development, and employment. It requires materials for modes and infrastructure and energy for operations, which can be used more efficiently. Transportation should also have a fair pricing strategy, meaning that users bear the full costs (direct and indirect) of using the transport system. A transport system where competition is fair and open is likely to promote modal choice and efficiency. In a system where transport is a public or private monopoly, price distortions and misallocations of capital can be created, which in the long run, are likely to render the system unsustainable. - **Society**. Sustainable transportation should benefit society, be safe, not impair human health, and minimize community disturbance. Further, access and equity are two important principles, as transportation should promote access to goods and services for as many people as possible. Sustainable transportation fits within the [sustainable development goals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/three-e-development/ "Sustainable Development Goals") (SDG). Some SDGs are **core to sustainable transportation**, such as: - **(3) Health and well-being**. Ensuring transportation safety and the provision of opportunities through improved mobility. - **(9) Industry and infrastructures**. Supply chains and the mobility of passengers and freight. - **(11) Sustainable cities**. Urban mobility and logistics. Other SDGs are more secondary to sustainable transportation, including (7) energy systems, (8) work and economic growth, (12) consumption and production, (13) climate change, (14) water ecosystems, and (15) land ecosystems. The matter is often that reconciling all these goals, which individually appear logical and straightforward, may lead to unsustainable transportation systems because they are too costly, inflexible, and regulated. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/sustainable-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/sustainable-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/sustainable-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/sustainable-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Mean Sea Level Change, 1880-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-mean-sea-level-change/) **Published:** March 10, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_mean_sea_level_change2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Mean Sea Level Change, 1880-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Mean Sea Level Change 1880 2021*Source: adapted from Church, J. A. and N.J. White (2011), Sea-level rise from the late 19th to the early 21st Century. Surveys in Geophysics. Dataset maintained and updated by EPA. Lower and higher margins are estimated measurement errors related to the average.* Through geological times, sea levels have fluctuated, implying that there is no optimal (or ideal) sea level, but one reflective of climatic and geological conditions of the time. Therefore, arbitrary points of reference must be set to measure sea-level changes. The most prevalent factors behind sea level are the quantity of water in the oceans (share of water retained as polar ice), temperature (warmer water has lower density; expands in volume), salinity (higher salinity increases water density), and the geological configuration of ocean bottoms (e.g. deep trenches). The above figure depicts annual sea level variations in relation to the reference year of 1880, initially measured from tide gauges (subject to error ranges) and, more recently, from satellite measurement. The main factors contributing to the observed rise in global mean sea level for the last century are an increase in the quantity of water in the oceans and an increase in the [global average temperatures](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9827). This increase is [not uniform across oceans](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6421) and is mainly attributed to differences in salinity. This rise increases the risk of flooding and damage to coastal transportation infrastructure. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-mean-sea-level-change/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-mean-sea-level-change/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-mean-sea-level-change/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-mean-sea-level-change/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by the Transportation Sector](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/greenhouse-gas-emissions-transportation/) **Published:** August 3, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/greenhouse_transport_sector.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by the Transportation Sector | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by the Transportation Sector*Source: International Energy Association. IEA and IPCC (2014) Summary for Policymakers.* Several activity sectors contribute to the emission of greenhouse gases, with **energy generation** being the most significant. Each source of carbon emission is the outcome of specific processes and technologies that cannot be collectively addressed. For instance, carbon emissions derived from electric power generation based on fossil fuels (coal or gas) cannot be mitigated in the same manner as carbon emissions related to cement manufacturing. Transportation accounts for about 20% of greenhouse gas emissions, with road transportation accounting for three-quarters of this share. Aviation and maritime transportation account for 11%, respectively. Each of the main transportation modes requires its own mitigation strategy. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/greenhouse-gas-emissions-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/greenhouse-gas-emissions-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/greenhouse-gas-emissions-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/greenhouse-gas-emissions-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Average Global Temperature and Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning, 1880-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/average-global-temperature-world-carbon-emissions-fossil-fuel/) **Published:** February 27, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/average_global_temperature_carbon_emissions.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Global Temperature and World Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning, 1880-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Average Global Temperature and World Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning 1880 2022*Source: Adapted from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division.* *Note: The Land-Ocean Temperature Index considers the deviation in degrees Celsius from the 1951-1980 temperature average.* The association between carbon emission, temperature, and climate change is complex and controversial. Two main categories are used to measure global temperature; sea and land surface. In the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution saw a gradual increase in CO2 emissions from the combustion of a growing quantity of fossil fuels, particularly coal. However, it was not until the second half of the 20th century that CO2 emissions increased sharply, followed by an increase in average global temperatures. This association is one of the core arguments for the impact of greenhouse gas emissions, particularly CO2, on climate change. The growth in carbon emissions continued in the early 21st century as global CO2 emissions continued to rise in relation to the fast growth taking place in economies such as China and India, which have become the world’s largest carbon emitters. Further, the changes in sea surface temperature have much less volatility than land temperatures, mostly because ocean masses have a similar albedo and the capability of large pools of water to redistribute heat. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/average-global-temperature-world-carbon-emissions-fossil-fuel/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/average-global-temperature-world-carbon-emissions-fossil-fuel/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/average-global-temperature-world-carbon-emissions-fossil-fuel/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/average-global-temperature-world-carbon-emissions-fossil-fuel/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chapter 4 - Transport, Energy and Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** Transportation systems are linked with a wide range of environmental considerations from the global to the local. Environmental impacts are related to transport modes, their energy supply systems, their emissions, and the infrastructures over which they operate. While consuming large quantities of energy, especially oil, vehicles emit numerous pollutants such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and noise, and transport infrastructures have damaged many ecological systems. Several environmental impacts of transport systems have been externalized, implying that a few realize the benefits of mobility while the whole society assumes the costs. The spatial structure of economic activities, notably their land use, is also increasingly linked with environmental impacts. The sustainability of transport systems has become one core issue in the provision of mobility, particularly decarbonization. --- ## Contents ### [4.1 – Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/ "4.1 – Transportation and Energy") ### [4.2 – Transportation and the Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/ "4.2 – Transportation and the Environment") ### [4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/ "4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation") ### [4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/ "4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization") --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Standard Transport Demand / Supply Function](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-demand-function/) **Published:** December 7, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_demand_supply_function.png?resize=900%2C594&ssl=1 "Standard Transport Demand / Supply Function | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Standard Transport Demand Supply FunctionMany transport systems behave in accordance with the relationships between supply and demand, which are **influenced by cost variations**. In line with microeconomic theory, the Law of Demand states that the demand for transport services decreases when the price of this service increases. This is reflected in the transport demand curve, which plots the aggregate quantity of a transport service that users are willing to buy at different prices, holding constant other demand drivers such as prices of other transport services and goods, budget or income, and quality aspects such as reliability. Any change in another factor that affects the users’ willingness to pay for the transport service results in a shift in the demand curve. Exceptionally, where an increase in price leads to an increase in demand or, alternatively, where a price decrease leads to a decrease in demand, the transport demand curve does not slope down with quantity (i.e. a perverse demand curve). In the above figure, the **demand curve** assumes that if transport costs are high, demand is low as the users of transport services (either freight or passengers) are less likely to use them. If transport costs are low, the demand would be high as users would get more services for the same cost. The supply curve behaves inversely. If costs are high, transport providers would be willing to supply high quantities of services since high profits will likely arise under such circumstances. If costs are low, the quantity of transport services would be low as many providers would see little benefits operating at a loss. The **equilibrium point** represents a compromise between what users are willing to pay and what providers (e.g. carriers) are willing to offer. Under such circumstances, an amount of traffic T1 would flow at an operating cost C1. If, because of an improvement, a larger amount of service is possible for the same cost (the supply curve moves from S1 to S2), a new equilibrium will be reached with a quantity of traffic T2 at a price C2. **Elasticity** refers to the variation of the demand in accordance with the variation of the price. The higher it is, the more the traffic in a transport system is influenced by cost variations. Discretionary demand, such as travel for tourism, is usually more elastic than transport demand for commuting. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-demand-function/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-demand-function/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-demand-function/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-demand-function/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Growth Factors in Transport Demand](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-demand-growth-factors/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/growth_factors_transport_demand2.png?resize=900%2C613&ssl=1 "Growth Factors in Transport Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Growth Factors in Transport DemandThe realized transport demand, expressed in passenger or ton-km, is the multiplication of transported volume and the distance it is carried over. It can increase for two reasons: - The first is a **growth in the volumes** of passengers or freight being carried. This is an outcome of growth in population, production, consumption, and income, which is illustrative of aggregate demand. - The second is a growth in the **average distance** over which passengers or freight are carried. Outsourcing, offshoring, economic specialization (factors linked with globalization), and suburbanization are all relevant factors behind this trend. These two factors often occur concomitantly, creating multiplying effects on transport demand. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-demand-growth-factors/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-demand-growth-factors/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-demand-growth-factors/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-demand-growth-factors/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Selected International Commercial Terms (Incoterms)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/incoterms-commercial/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/incoterms2.png?resize=900%2C494&ssl=1 "Selected International Commercial Terms (Incoterms) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Selected International Commercial Terms Incoterms*Source: adapted from International Chamber of Commerce.* International Commercial Terms, or **Incoterms**, are pre-defined commercial terms used to define the transport component and the share of costs and risks for international commercial transactions. They are part of the documentation accompanying cargo, which used to be in a printed form and is now increasingly digital. They were initially set by the International Chamber of Commerce in 1936 and became a standard set through the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the Sale of Goods (CISG). It defines a consistent framework of the expected transport service to be provided, removing uncertainty and defining legally enforceable responsibilities across international jurisdictions. Incoterms set a named place where the responsibility switches from the supplier to the buyer. This location and the conditions are summarized in three-letter words. By 2020, there were 11 different Incoterms, with the most common being: - **EXW** (Ex Works). The buyer virtually takes care of all the transport responsibilities. The seller’s only obligation is to have the cargo available at an agreed-upon time and premise (factory, distribution center). It often refers to the factory price since it excludes all transportation costs, such as insurance and duties. EXW can be complex to enforce since it technically does not include the tasks related to cargo assembly into load units at the seller’s facility. The buyer becomes the cargo owner once the goods have been picked up. - **FCA** (Free Carrier). The seller’s responsibility is simply to provide the cargo cleared for export (duties paid) at a specific delivery point. This is common for intermodal transport since the transport load, such as a container, has been assembled and is ready to be picked up. - **FAS** (Free Alongside Ship). Usually used for maritime bulk cargo (resources and raw materials) for which the seller provides the cargo at the dock, which is ready to be loaded on a ship. For instance, a grain seller would make available bulk grain at a dockside grain elevator, and it would be the buyer’s responsibility to charter a bulk cargo ship and load the cargo. This allows the buyer to use the point of export as a warehouse and organize sales and distribution according to its quantity and destination market requirements. - **FOB** (Free On Board). The seller provides, transports, and loads the cargo on board a vessel, which the buyer usually selects. Once on board, the responsibility then shifts to the buyer. Common for bulk cargo as it allows the buyer to decide the routing and the destination market of the cargo, allowing for additional flexibility. - **CFR** (Cost and Freight). The seller brings and unloads the cargo at a port of destination, but the buyer assumes the risk as soon as the cargo is loaded at the port of origin. The buyer is responsible for picking up the cargo at the destination port. - **CIF** (Cost, Insurance, and Freight). Same as above, but the seller also provides insurance for the cargo up to the port of destination. It usually applies to bulk cargo. - **CIP** (Carriage and Insurance Paid). Common in intermodal transport chains where the seller takes complete responsibility for bringing the cargo to the point of destination (e.g. the door of a distribution center) as well as providing insurance. The buyer is responsible for unloading the cargo at the point of destination. This is convenient when the buyer has a known and stable demand that can be organized from known distribution points (e.g. an import warehouse or a series of distribution centers). Although, for many transactions, it is either the seller’s or the buyer’s responsibility to carry the cargo, this task is often attributed to a shipper or a third-party logistics provider that will act on their behalf. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/incoterms-commercial/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/incoterms-commercial/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/incoterms-commercial/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/incoterms-commercial/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Different Components of Transport Time](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-time-components/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/components_transport_time.png?resize=900%2C551&ssl=1 "Different Components of Transport Time | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Different Components of Transport Time*Source: adapted from Woxenius, J. (2006) “Temporal Elements in the Spatial Extension of Production Networks”, Growth and Change, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp. 526-549.* Transport time is also important in evaluating transport costs, particularly since logistics involves cost and time management. The major time-related elements are: - **Transport time.** Concerns the real duration of transport, which tends to be easily understood since commonly a proportional function of distance. Geographical constraints such as weather or technical limitations (e.g., operational speed) directly impact transport time. Transport time on roadways is technically limited to legal speed limits. The limitation of maritime and air concerns fuel economy and design speed. Although rail can accommodate a variety of speeds, schedules impose limited variations. - **Order time** (not shown). Almost all transport requires advance preparation, mainly to secure a capacity, an itinerary, and a rate. In some cases, the order time is short and a matter of queuing on a first-come, first-served basis. In other cases, particularly large shipments, orders must be secured months in advance so that capacity can be made available. This is the case for maritime shipping, where capacity usually needs to be booked (reserved) weeks in advance. There is also the presence of a spot market where capacity can be booked with limited advance notice, but subject to higher rates and the likelihood that there will be no capacity available. - **Timing**. Involves the usage of a specific departure time, which can have a level of flexibility depending on the mode. While air and rail travel timing is commonly tight due to fixed schedules and access to a terminal capacity (such as a gate and a takeoff time), commuters and trucking have more flexibility. If there is congestion either at the origin, destination, or in between, trucking companies may elect to modify their schedule accordingly (earlier or later delivery). - **Punctuality**. Represents the ability to keep a specified schedule, representing an average deviation from a scheduled arrival time. The longer the distance, the more likely potential disruptions may affect schedule integrity. Some movements may have a level of tolerance to disruptions in punctuality. In contrast, others have a limited tolerance, such as heading to a business meeting or deliveries in a just-in-time supply chain. - **Frequency**. The number of departures for a specific time range. The higher the frequency, the better the level of service. However, a high frequency ties up a larger quantity of vehicles and the risk of lower asset utilization. Distance is also a factor for lower frequency since transport demand tends to decline accordingly. Combining long-distance travel and high frequency is an expensive undertaking for transport providers as a greater number of vehicles must be assigned to a specific route, as in the case of maritime container shipping. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-time-components/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-time-components/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-time-components/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-time-components/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Friction of Distance Functions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/friction-distance-functions/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/friction_distance_functions2.png?resize=900%2C530&ssl=1 "Friction of Distance Functions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Friction of Distance FunctionsThere are four major categories of friction of distance functions: - **No effects of distance (1)**. Economic activities on which distance has no effect are uncommon. However, the distance-cost function of telecommunication networks, and the virtual space of the Internet have such a cost structure. Telephone calls and data roaming charges, postal fees, and public transit fares can be included in this category. All those activities generally have a fixed cost unrelated to distance but often to a service zone. A new cost structure applies once a new zone is entered (such as for international phone calls). - **Linear effects of distance (2)**. Transport costs are increasing proportionally to distance. Fuel consumption can be included in this category since it directly affects the distance traveled. For simplicity, a step-wise approach is often used to establish transport rates by using administrative units as distance units. - **Non-linear effects of distance (3)**. Freight distribution costs are growing non-linearly with distance from the terminal or the distribution center, particularly because of empty back-hauls (a). Inversely, international air transportation costs are not usually higher than regional air transportation costs because long-haul planes have more capacity and fuel efficiency (b). - **Intermodal transport chain (4)**. A combination of linehaul and terminal costs where transshipment costs at terminals (e.g. ports and airports) increase the friction of distance as efforts must be spent at loading or unloading when passing from one mode to another. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/friction-distance-functions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/friction-distance-functions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/friction-distance-functions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/friction-distance-functions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Impacts on Economic Opportunities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/economic-opportunities-transport-impacts/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_impacts_economic_opportunities.png?resize=900%2C504&ssl=1 "Transport Impacts on Economic Opportunities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Impacts on Economic OpportunitiesThe expectation is that transport infrastructure investments will result in transport improvements in terms of **capacity**, **efficiency,** and **reliability**. The related lower transport costs, shorter transit times, and business expansion make economic activities more productive and competitive. Transport improvements can impact **commodity and labor markets** by making resources, parts, customers, and labor more accessible. The outcome is an increase in the efficiency and market effectiveness of existing firms, leading to an expansion of output and employment. For a regional economy, this implies growth. Transport improvements can also influence the locational behavior of firms, attracting investments at locations of improved accessibility. Although investing in improving the regional transport system will likely have direct and indirect consequences on the regional economy, the spatial and sectoral distribution of these impacts is difficult to evaluate. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/economic-opportunities-transport-impacts/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/economic-opportunities-transport-impacts/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/economic-opportunities-transport-impacts/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/economic-opportunities-transport-impacts/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Diminishing Returns of Transport Investments](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-diminishing-returns/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/diminishing_returns_transport_investments.png?resize=900%2C488&ssl=1 "Diminishing Returns of Transport Investments | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Diminishing Returns of Transport InvestmentsA common fallacy in understanding and assessing the economic impacts of transport investments is the lack of consideration of the diminishing returns these investments can face. Three main geographical contexts in which similar transport investments can have [different multiplying effects](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5318) are identified: - **High multiplying effects (A).** New investments usually have a high impact level in a context with limited existing infrastructure (an underdeveloped region, for example). They bring new forms of mobility and connectivity and add transport capacity in an area where it was previously limited. Specific opportunities that were beforehand unavailable become available. This can involve access to labor (or labor being able to access new employment), resources (more production), and markets (more consumption). Such high multiplying effects were observed in the early stages of constructing the Interstate highway system in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s. For China, these multiplying effects were observed during the 1990s and early 2000s as many manufacturing activities began to be outsourced from North America and Europe and the development of port infrastructure. - **Average multiplying effects (B).** When there is an existing level of transport infrastructure, additional investments start to result in fewer benefits. Still, there are notable gains to be derived from better capacity, connectivity, and reliability, which makes existing activities more productive and competitive. The regional transport system starts to be organized along corridors of circulation, which are the focus of transport investments. Significant differences in regional connectivity are starting to emerge. The majority of developing economies are in this situation. - **Low multiplying effects (C).** In regional transportation systems that are mature, congested, and long-established, a core issue becomes infrastructure upgrade and maintenance, which can be highly capital-intensive. Thus, investment efforts do not yield significant changes in the connectivity and efficiency of the system but are made to maintain or improve its operating conditions marginally. This is also taking place in a high-cost environment (land and labor) that can also be subject to the pressures of several interest groups, imposing additional compliance and regulatory costs. There are limited multiplying effects, but high-cost investments must be made to ensure the transport system does not lose the capacity and reliability it conveys to the regional economy. Therefore, making transport infrastructure investments in this context and expecting significant multiplying effects is fallacious. This low multiplying effect environment is mainly observed in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The impacts of transport investments are thus highly influenced by the geographical context they are taking place in. Inferring the impacts of transport investments across regions is, therefore, prone to fallacies if these regions have a different economic composition and level of accumulation of transport infrastructure. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-diminishing-returns/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-diminishing-returns/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-diminishing-returns/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-diminishing-returns/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/substitution-generation-information-technologies-mobility/) **Published:** May 27, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ict_substitution_generation.png?resize=900%2C511&ssl=1 "The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on Mobility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on Mobility*Source: Dr. Alison Conway (City College of New York*) *and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue*. Undertaking a virtual activity has the potential to the **substitution** or **generation** of mobility. - **Substitution**. The diffusion of ICT within the social and economic life of individuals has allowed the growth of activities such as telecommuting, distance learning, online banking, and teleconferencing. The core assumption is that virtual activity is considered an adequate substitute for the physical equivalent, which is not commonly the case. The outcome of these virtual activities is the substitution of passenger trips to locations where they are normally taking place, such as the workplace or an educational institution. An emerging trend concerns virtual forms of entertainment, such as live video streaming, allowing participants to avoid a trip to the venue. The most significant substitution effect on mobility resulting from ICT involves electronic documents, which profoundly impacted courier trips and mail deliveries. - **Generation**. Because of the substitution effect, it is assumed that individuals have additional time to undertake other activities that could generate movements. For instance, once physical work trips are eliminated, shopping activity is no longer part of a trip chain, an individual can participate in new local activities during time saved from an eliminated commute trip to work, and leisure travel may occur to an independent destination. Alternatively, virtual activities can result in a net decline in mobility as several individuals may decide not to undertake additional travel and transfer time saved during transportation into personal time. **E-commerce** represents a unique form of substitution and generation of mobility since it simultaneously impacts passengers and freight. On one side, e-commerce allows for substituting trips to stores as the transaction is undertaken online. On the other, the number of purchases taking place online results with fewer store deliveries as they are being replaced by home deliveries. E-commerce contributes to generating logistics activities as new facilities, such as fulfillment centers, are established in new locations. **Monitoring** is a multidimensional group of virtual activities that rely on sensors to capture information that can be acted upon. For instance, monitoring equipment such as containers (e.g. temperature) can reduce the number of professional trips they were previously required to capture this information (technicians that need to be physically present). CCTV and sensors can be used for security purposes and reduce the number of personnel and rounds required to monitor a facility. Electronic toll collection reduces (or eliminates) the number of workers necessary to be on-site (tollbooths). Electronic gates at transport terminals are able to inspect vehicles remotely, verify documentation, and grant access to the facility. Self-checkout lanes in markets are also part of this category, reducing the number of workers necessary to process purchases. Last, a wide array of traffic monitoring applications supported by mobile devices have allowed these applications to gather real-time traffic conditions that can be used to change the timing and the routing of passengers and freight trips. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/substitution-generation-information-technologies-mobility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/substitution-generation-information-technologies-mobility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/substitution-generation-information-technologies-mobility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/substitution-generation-information-technologies-mobility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Mail Carried by USPS and Parcels Carried by Major Carriers, United States, 2004-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mail-parcels-carried-united-states/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mail_parcels_carried_united_states.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Mail Carried by USPS and Parcels Carried by Major Carriers, United States, 2004-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mail Carried by USPS and Parcels Carried by Major Carriers United States 2004 2022*Sources: USPS. UPS and FedEx, Annual Reports. Packages shipped by FedEx Ground and FedEx Express. UPS involves US domestic parcel operations. First-class mail is used for postcards, letters, large envelopes, and small packages weighing less than 13 ounces. Total mail volume includes standard mail (or bulk), usually consisting of flyers, circulars, advertising, newsletters, bulletins, or catalogs.* Mail delivery in economies such as the United States undertook a notable transition. Despite economic and demographic growth, total mail volume declined by 39% between 2005 and 2020. This is partly attributable to the substitution of electronic forms of communication and a decline in the use of mail for marketing purposes (e.g. adverts). Inversely, the emergence of e-commerce is associated with the strong growth of parcel deliveries, including USPS (United States Postal Services), which delivered more than 7.3 billion parcel units in 2020, a growth of 135% from 2010. The parcel delivery segment has been the most significant growth sector for USPS, underlining that conventional postal services can gain from the e-commerce revolution. The two other major carriers, UPS and FedEx, experienced respective growth of 59% and 128% during the same time frame. The growth of home deliveries has incited online retailers such as Amazon to enter the parcel delivery market since they can generate enough cargo to offer their own account transport services. In 2022, it was estimated that Amazon delivered close to 4.8 billion parcels in the United States. Amazon delivers about 60% of the parcels it ships through its own distribution and delivery system. However, it owns only 4.5% of the square footage of the facilities (e.g. fulfillment centers) it uses for its distribution. The rest are leased. The Covid-19 pandemic substantially impacted e-commerce, as parcel deliveries surged in 2020 and 2021 while mail deliveries continued their decline. This is linked to shifting consumer demand patterns as lockdowns, social distancing, and related disruptions incited additional e-commerce demand. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mail-parcels-carried-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mail-parcels-carried-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mail-parcels-carried-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mail-parcels-carried-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Location Spectrum](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/the-location-spectrum/) **Published:** February 10, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/location_spectrum2.png?resize=900%2C411&ssl=1 "The Location Spectrum | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Location SpectrumThe location spectrum of an economic activity is the set of requirements enabling it to be profitable. Profit is simply defined as what an output (a product\\ or a service) fetches on the market compared to the total costs of the inputs required to provide it. Therefore, each activity has different requirements and a related location spectrum considering the involved factors. They include: - **Material inputs**. What the activity requires as physical inputs, including energy, and raw materials, as well as the suitable amount of land (real estate) for its operations. - **Non-material inputs**. Relates to supporting conditions such as labor and capital requirements. - **Outputs**. The general market conditions generating the demand for the output. This involves who will consume the outputs generated by the economic activity, particularly at which location, quantity, and frequency. Evaluating a location spectrum helps identify the combination of specific [location factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1526). Due to technological changes, the respective importance of inputs and outcomes can evolve. For instance, an activity highly dependent on low labor costs could change its location with automation since it would reduce the importance of labor as an input. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/the-location-spectrum/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/the-location-spectrum/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/the-location-spectrum/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/the-location-spectrum/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Passenger Traffic at the World's Largest Airports, 2018](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-passengers-airports/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Passengers-Airports-2018.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Passenger Traffic at the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Passenger Traffic at the Worlds Largest Airports 2018*Source: Airports Council International. Note: airports having traffic above 4 million passengers.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Passengers-Airports-2018.pdf) Passenger air travel is linked with the level of economic development and the structure of the regional urban system. The world’s air traffic is articulated in three major concentrations of airports: [North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3760), [Western Europe](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3765), and [East Asia](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3771). The key airports of these platforms, or rather the main [airport cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3805) since they count more than one airport, are New York, London, and Tokyo. They correspond to the world’s most prominent cities and financial centers. Yet, this supremacy is being challenged by new hubs of activity such as Beijing and Dubai. Thus, there is a direct relationship between the level of air passenger traffic and the primacy of a city in the world urban system. In some cases, the level of passenger activity is related to a pronounced touristic or resort function of an area (e.g. Las Vegas, Orlando, Cancun, Venice, Palma de Mallorca). Global air traffic has a high concentration level, with the 25 largest airports accounting for 20% of the traffic. [Large airport terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3730) also see a substantial concentration of related activities such as distribution centers, just-in-time manufacturers, office parks, hotels, restaurants, and convention centers. Airport traffic figures must be considered cautiously, as a passenger can be counted several times depending on a trip sequence. For instance, a passenger flying roundtrip between New York and Copenhagen by transiting through Amsterdam would count for a total of 8 passenger movements for the respective airports; 2 for New York and Copenhagen (arriving and departing) and 4 for Amsterdam (arriving and departing for both inbound and outbound trips). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-passengers-airports/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-passengers-airports/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-passengers-airports/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-passengers-airports/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Locational Changes in Manufacturing](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/manufacturing-locational-changes/) **Published:** December 27, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/locational_changes_manufacturing.png?resize=768%2C442&ssl=1 "Locational Changes in Manufacturing | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Locational Changes in ManufacturingLocational change is a process according to which the number, capacity, nature, and location of production are modified to make a production unit more productive, cost-effective, and accessible. The above figure represents a simplification of the process with four locations and four products with their respective markets and four possible outcomes: 1. **Intensification**. Based on the more intensive use of the same labor to increase production, or a reduction of labor to produce the same quantity. It is often the result of changes in labor practices, technological innovation, and more capital-intensive production (e.g. mechanization). Locations and markets do not change, only the intensity of each location. 2. **Specialization**. With growing competitive pressures, a locational specialization process may occur where each location produces the most comparative advantages in the sector. The resulting productivity gains are often accompanied by labor reductions (sometimes more labor if the location has low labor costs). Specialization also forces market expansion and flows between regional markets as the geography of distribution is modified. This is the type of locational change that relies the most on transportation and supply chains as parts need to be distributed. 3. **Concentration**. This implies the closing of the least productive units. If the same level of output is required, then other units will have to increase their production accordingly. Additional production often takes place at the most productive location, allowing it to further its economies of scale. It is also common for concentration to take place when demand is declining as the least productive unit is closed. 4. **Rationalization and relocation**. Represents the most important locational change, as several existing production units are closed, and production moves to a new lower-cost location. The market often becomes global for the production unit. While low labor costs have been a dominant driver in recent decades, it can be the outcome of a notable technological change, such as automation, that allows entirely new locations to be considered. These four processes are not exclusive, as firms can apply more than one strategy at once. For instance, concentration and specialization are often concurrent. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/manufacturing-locational-changes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/manufacturing-locational-changes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/manufacturing-locational-changes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/manufacturing-locational-changes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Gateways and Hubs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/gateways-hubs/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gateways_hubs2.png?resize=900%2C414&ssl=1 "Gateways and Hubs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Gateways and HubsGateways and hubs are locations where flows converge and are the foremost expression of global connectivity. However, they differ in terms of the nature of their connectivity. While a hub is a central location in a transport system with many inbound and outbound connections of the same mode, a gateway commonly implies a **shift from one mode to another** (such as maritime / land). A gateway performs an intermodal function (between modes), while a hub is mostly transmodal (within a mode) in nature. The meaning of gateways and hubs can vary according to the transport mode, with each mode having its technical characteristics, economies of scale, and commercial relations. Transport corridors are commonly linking gateways to their hinterland. Gateways tend to have temporal stability as they commonly emerge at the convergence of inland transport systems and through the long-term accumulation of infrastructure and investments. The importance of a hub can change depending on the **commercial strategies** of its users. For instance, a transport company (e.g. maritime shipping or air carrier) may switch from one hub to another if it improves its operations or commercial opportunities. Flows, origins, destinations, and the modes used can therefore change. In this context, a hub can lose a share of its connectivity as the network it is part of is reorganized. The functions of gateway or hub are not mutually exclusive since a location can assume both functions if it fits the commercial strategies of carriers. The functions of **centrality and intermediacy** are particularly relevant to the emergence of a global nodal space since centrality focuses on nodes as the origin or destination of flows. In contrast, intermediacy focuses on nodes as intermediate locations where transshipment is performed. While central locations correspond to large metropolitan areas, intermediate locations have developed unique geography where the importance of a location is more derived from its relative accessibility (in terms of other locations) than its intrinsic characteristics. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/gateways-hubs/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/gateways-hubs/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/gateways-hubs/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/gateways-hubs/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Financial Centers, 2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/) **Published:** November 26, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Map Financial Centers World](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Financial-Centers-2021.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global Financial Centers, 2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Financial Centers 2021*Source: Z/Yen Group, Global Financial Centers Index, 2021.* *Note: The index considers five major factors; human resources, the business environment, market access, infrastructure (e.g. real estate), and general competitiveness.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Financial-Centers-2021.pdf) The global economy and its [commercial geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/ "1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography") are coordinated by major financial centers, many of which correspond to the most important cities in the world in terms of economic, financial, and political influence. Cities are important drivers of global commercial activity since they are locations where decisions are made regarding investment and the management of trade flows. They are also conducive to innovation, have a strong institutional setting, high productivity, and high wages. The most important consumer markets are also found in prominent commercial centers. Due to the overlapping of market opening hours across several time zones, it becomes possible for financial markets to trade 24 hours per day. As one market closes, another takes over. Telecommunications make this process virtually instantaneous. Major financial centers usually correspond to global cities managing the capital of their economic spheres. Most North American (e.g. New York, Boston), European (London, Geneva, Zurich), and Asian (Beijing, Shanghai, Tokyo, Seoul, Hong Kong, Singapore) financial centers are linked with the commercial activities of their regions. A significant cluster has recently emerged in the Middle East (e.g. Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Doha), with centers mainly managing the wealth generated by petroleum exports, with the setting of large sovereign wealth funds. They are also dominant offshore centers with financial importance unrelated to their economic importance or connectivity to the global trade network. These offshore financial centers offer tax advantages, such as little or no capital gain taxes, and several operating niche activities, such as insurance, banking, ship registry, or fund management. Among the most noticeable are small nation-states at the periphery of Europe (e.g. Jersey, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Malta, Gibraltar, Cyprus) or in the Caribbean (e.g. Bermuda, Bahamas, Panama, Cayman Islands). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Cities, 2012](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-city-index/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Cities-Index-2012.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World Cities, 2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Cities 2012*Source: AT Kearney, 2012 Global Cities Index and Emerging Cities Outlook.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_World_Cities.pdf) World Cities can be defined by their role in global economic, financial, cultural, transportation, and political affairs. They have achieved a first-name familiarity since a global city is recognized without using a political subdivision (e.g. London, UK, or Paris, France). Each world city has a unique mix of strengths representing a specialization in the global realm. Some cities have a dominant political influence, while others have a strong financial or cultural sphere that spans continents. The above map represents a four tiers classification of the world’s 65 most significant cities in terms of a World City Index. The top five global cities include New York (6.35), London (5.79), Paris (5.48), Tokyo (4.99), and Hong Kong (4.58). Many of the world’s more prominent cities are port cities. The World City Index is calculated according to the following criteria (from AT Kearney report): **Business activity**The economic weight of the city; headquarters of major multinational corporations, locations of top business services firms, the value of capital (stock) markets, the number of international conferences, and the flow of goods through ports and airports.**Human capital**Capacity to attract and train talent; size of foreign-born population, quality of universities, number of international schools, international student population, and number of residents with university degrees.**Information exchange**The effectiveness of information flows; accessibility to major TV news channels, internet presence, number of international news bureaus, level of censorship, and broadband subscriber rate.**Cultural influence**The cultural weight of the city; number of major sporting events, number of museums, performing arts venues, culinary establishments, number of international travelers, and number of sister-city relationships.**Political engagement**The level of influence on global politics; number of embassies and consulates, major think tanks, international organizations, and local institutions with international reach, and the number of political conferences.### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-city-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-city-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-city-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-city-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Scales of Spatial Organization for Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-spatial-organization-scale/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/scale_spatial_transportation.png?resize=900%2C364&ssl=1 "Scales of Spatial Organization for Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Scales of Spatial Organization for TransportationThere is a hierarchy in the spatial organization of transportation at the local, regional, and global levels, mainly through its **nodes**, **links**, and **relations**. While gateways, supported by port, airport, and telecommunication activities, are the major nodes impacting spatial organization at the global level at the local level, the main nodes are employment and commercial activities, which tend to cluster. These scales are also characterized by specific links and relations ranging from local commuting to global trade flows and supply chains. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-spatial-organization-scale/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-spatial-organization-scale/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-spatial-organization-scale/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-spatial-organization-scale/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation Network Efficiency and Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transportation-network-efficiency-and-resilience/) **Published:** April 15, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_efficiency_resilience.png?resize=900%2C307&ssl=1 "Transportation Network Efficiency and Resilience | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Network Efficiency and ResilienceA transportation network connecting five locations can be developed and structured differently if efficiency or resilience is the goal. On an **efficient network**, the priority is to develop capacity, which commonly leads to selecting main corridors that will be the focus of investments. On a **resilient network**, the priority is the number of links to offer alternative routes if one or more segments are disrupted. With a higher level of planning and investment, networks can be developed to be at the same time efficient and resilient. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transportation-network-efficiency-and-resilience/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transportation-network-efficiency-and-resilience/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transportation-network-efficiency-and-resilience/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transportation-network-efficiency-and-resilience/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Point-to-Point versus Hub-and-Spoke Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/point-to-point-versus-hub-and-spoke-network/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/point_to_point_hub_networks.png?resize=900%2C442&ssl=1 "Point-to-Point and Hub-and-Spoke Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Point to Point and Hub and Spoke NetworksPoint-to-point and hub-and-spoke networks are at opposite ends of the connectivity spectrum. A point-to-point network connects directly to a set of locations without interrupting services (e.g. pick up or drop off), even if the route may not be direct. A (pure) hub-and-spoke network connects every location through a single intermediary location called a hub. As a network structure, hub-and-spoke allows greater flexibility within the transport system through a concentration of flows. In the above figure, a point-to-point network involves 16 independent connections, each serviced by conveyances (cars, trucks, planes, trains, ships) and infrastructures. By using a hub-and-spoke structure, only 8 connections are required. The main advantages of the hubs are: - **Economies of scale on connections** by offering a high frequency of services. For instance, four services per day could be possible instead of one service per day between any two pairs in a point-to-point network. - **Economies of scale at the hubs** enable the potential development of an efficient distribution system since the hubs handle larger quantities of traffic. - **Economies of scope in the use of shared transshipment facilities**. This can take several dimensions, such as lower costs for the users as well as higher quality infrastructures. Many transportation services have adapted to include a hub-and-spoke structure. The most common examples involve air [passenger](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-passengers-airports/ "passenger") and [freight](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-freight-airports/ "freight") services, which have developed global, national, and regional hubs, such as those used by parcel carriers such as UPS, FedEx, and DHL. However, potential disadvantages may also occur, such as **additional transshipment** as fewer point-to-point services are offered, which may involve delays and potential **congestion** for some connections as the hub becomes the major transshipment point. As the demand and the network load grow, more point-to-point services become feasible. Thus, hub-and-spoke networks are an intermediate stage in network development as the service preference remains direct connections. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/point-to-point-versus-hub-and-spoke-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/point-to-point-versus-hub-and-spoke-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/point-to-point-versus-hub-and-spoke-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/point-to-point-versus-hub-and-spoke-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Network Connectivity Options](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-options/) **Published:** December 7, 2021 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/network_options2.png?resize=900%2C341&ssl=1 "Network Connectivity Options | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Network OptionsThe setting of a transportation network is the outcome of decisions about connecting locations. Using a simple example involving four locations, three general network connectivity options can be considered: - **Least cost to use**. This network seeks maximum connectivity by linking all locations directly. Assuming a distance of 10 km between each node, the network will have a total length of 60 km. This is the most convenient network for users, as each location can be reached in the shortest possible manner. However, this is the most expensive network for infrastructure providers to build and operate. Such networks usually cannot be built because of high costs and redundancy. - **Least cost to build**. This network seeks the minimum construction costs by providing minimal connectivity. Each location is connected, but with a high level of detour for some connections. In the above example, the least cost to build a network is a length of 20 km, three times less than the least cost to use. This network configuration comes at a high cost for the users that spend, on average more time and energy traveling between locations. - **Hybrid**. Most existing networks result from a compromise between the least cost to use and the least cost to build. In the above case, the compromise has a length of 30 km with moderate connectivity. For instance, a least-cost air transportation network would be a pure hub and spoke network. However, such networks are also complemented by direct connections between major destinations. Economic development has an important impact on network connectivity, as the higher the density of economic activities, the better the incentives to increase connectivity. A regional network could begin as a least-cost-to-build network and evolve to become a least-cost-to-use network because the demand has increased. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-options/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-options/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-options/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-options/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chapter 2 - Transportation and Spatial Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** Transportation strongly influences the spatial structure at the local, regional, and global levels. Contemporary economic processes have been accompanied by a significant increase in mobility and higher levels of accessibility. Such conditions are closely related to the development of transportation networks, both in capacity and spatial extent. It also underlines the importance of specific dimensions, such as nodes, locations, networks, and interactions. The impacts of transport on the spatial structure became multiscalar. Transportation systems are composed of complex relationships between the demand, the locations they service, and the networks that support movements. The introduction of information technologies is changing mobility and its relations with geography since it can support, modify, substitute, or expand transportation activities. --- ## Contents ### [2.1 – The Geography of Transportation Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/ "2.1 – The Geography of Transportation Networks") ### [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/ "2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization") ### [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/ "2.3 – Transport and Location") ### [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/ "2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility") --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Transportation Bottlenecks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/bottlenecks-types-transportation/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bottlenecks_types.png?resize=900%2C629&ssl=1 "Types of Transportation Bottlenecks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of BottlenecksBottlenecks impose delays and restrictions in the normal flow of transportation. There are three major types of bottlenecks: - **Infrastructure bottlenecks**. Infrastructure bottlenecks can be the outcome of chronic or temporary conditions. Climate change can be a factor altering conditions that could damage transport infrastructure and shorten its useful life. Physical restrictions such as a bridge or port can form bottlenecks as traffic expands. Under-investment in infrastructure can produce **chronic bottlenecks** when rapid economic growth takes place, implying that the capacity is insufficient to keep up with the demand. **Temporary bottlenecks** can be caused by natural or market forces. Weather disruptions, such as a storm, are among the most prominent, as well as construction, accidents, and labor conflicts (strikes). These events are usually expected, but cannot be predicted. A surge in demand can also create a bottleneck as infrastructures are designed to convey a constant level of service. Dis-investment, often through the lack of maintenance, can cause temporary bottlenecks. - **Regulatory bottlenecks**. Regulations that delay goods movements for security or safety inspections create bottlenecks as a direct consequence. If international movements are concerned, custom procedures for passengers and freight are a common source of delays. Even if the intention is not to convey delays, regulations inevitably cause delays and disruptions. There is also corruption, imposing uncertainty and a burden on transport operations. Three sources of bottlenecks created by the indirect effects of regulation are cabotage restrictions, competition policies, and fiscal policies. Cabotage restrictions prevent foreign carriers from carrying freight within a country; their capacity is thus not available. Competition policies can create bottlenecks by supporting a monopoly where the operator engages in rent-seeking strategies or by complete deregulation. Many carriers will compete with similar transport segments. Fiscal policies can deter investments through taxation and create bottlenecks. - **Operational bottlenecks**. Relate to specific tasks and procedures in managing transportation modes and terminals that trigger bottlenecks. From a **capacity** perspective, the availability of equipment and vehicles can create bottlenecks as the necessary conveyances may not be where their capacity is needed. Further, labor availability may impose time-dependent capacity shortages, such as work shifts. From an **efficiency** perspective, the productivity of modes and terminals can vary along the transport chain and can create bottlenecks. This is particularly the case when tasks and sequences along a transport chain are not properly coordinated or when labor skills are lacking, which can create bottlenecks. Different information exchange protocols can delay information processing and shipments (or transshipment). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/bottlenecks-types-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/bottlenecks-types-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/bottlenecks-types-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/bottlenecks-types-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Economic, Transport and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/economic-transport-commercial-geography/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/economic_transport_commercial_geogaphy.png?resize=900%2C479&ssl=1 "The Commercialization of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Economic, Transport and Commercial Geography An understanding of the economic aspects of transportation relies on three interdependent fields of geography, each based on a set of considerations: - **Economic geography** is concerned with the location, distribution, and spatial organization of economic activities, particularly regarding their supply and demand requirements for energy, resources, goods, capital, and labor. - **Transport geography** is concerned with the circulation of passengers and freight. It seeks to understand their spatial organization by linking spatial constraints and attributes with the origin, destination, extent, nature, and purpose of movements. - **Commercial geography** investigates the spatial characteristics of trade and transactions in terms of their nature, causes, and consequences. Economic, transport, and commercial geography are interrelated. There is a close relationship between the sphere of **locations** (the geographical setting of supply and demand), the sphere of **transactions** (the geographical setting of exchanges), and the sphere of **circulation** (the geographical setting of movements). This implies **location costs**, **transaction costs,** and **transportation costs**. The main **transaction costs** investigated by commercial geography are: - **Search and information costs**. Costs related to finding the appropriate goods on the market, such as their availability and price. - **Negotiation costs**. Costs involved in reaching an agreement with the other party to the transaction, a contract being the outcome. - **Policing and enforcement costs**. Costs related to ensuring that both parties respect the terms of the contract and, if not the case, taking legal actions to correct the situation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/economic-transport-commercial-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/economic-transport-commercial-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/economic-transport-commercial-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/economic-transport-commercial-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Cumulative Waves of Transport Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/transport-development-waves/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/waves_transport_development.png?resize=900%2C459&ssl=1 "Cumulative Waves of Transport Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Cumulative Waves of Transport DevelopmentTransportation is often referred to as an enabling technology since its modes, terminals, and infrastructure support and expand economic and social interactions. Transport development tends to be a **cumulative process** as each new transport technology adds to the capacity and mobility potential of the previous technologies. Larger quantities of freight and more people can be moved more quickly and efficiently. Developments in transport may also lead to the obsolescence and decline of prior technologies when serving similar markets. Since the modern era, five major waves of transport developments can be identified, each with a transport technology that had fundamental impacts on the mobility of passengers and freight: - **First wave; sailships**. The mastery of high sea navigation in the mid-16th and early 17th centuries led to the gradual setting of a [global trade network](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1083) supported by the emergence of colonial empires. Long-distance transportation became reliable, but still subject to dominant wind and sea current patterns. - **Second wave; canals**. The early stages of the industrial revolution in the 19th century were accompanied by the setting of canals complementing existing rivers or linking them. They provided the first level of inland access with the economies of scale they could confer, but such accessibility was highly punctual, where canals could be built. Although canal systems have historically been set in other parts of the world ([China](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1065) being the most salient example), their impacts on economic development are the most significant in Western Europe and [North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1128). Even if, later on, canal systems were supplemented by railways for many commercial relations, they remained active transport modes, particularly in Europe, China, and North America. - **Third wave; railways and steamships**. In the second half of the 19th century, the setting of rail systems permitted the first effective forms of inland accessibility and concomitantly of cohesive national transport systems, but [interconnecting](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1152) different rail systems took time. At the beginning of the 20th century, rail systems were the dominant mode of supporting passengers and freight flows. The structure of railway systems took different shapes depending on the population density and the distribution of resources such as mining and agriculture. Although their relative importance has declined with the setting of highways, railways are far from being an obsolete technology with the setting of [high-speed rail systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1921) around the world as well as their conversion to [intermodalism](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8658). On the maritime side, in the late 19th century, the [steamship](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1196) would mark the demise of the sailship, but not of commercial maritime shipping networks that continued to expand to support more comprehensive international trade volumes and the long-distance mobility of passengers. - **Fourth wave; highways**. The diffusion of the internal combustion engine and the availability of cheap oil supplies enabled the setting of individual mobility as well as trucking. This, however, could not occur without the construction of national highway systems, such as the [Interstate](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1869) in the United States. Another important impact of the highways was the setting of lower density forms of urbanization, namely suburbs. - **Fifth wave; airports and containerships**. The introduction of jet services in the late 1950s permitted for the first time the setting of true global mobility systems where locations could be reached within hours. Airports became important nodes in the national and global systems of passenger flows as well as freight flows. On the maritime side, the containership, including the massification of bulk shipping, would strengthen global commercial relations to an unparalleled level by setting global distribution systems. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/transport-development-waves/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/transport-development-waves/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/transport-development-waves/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/transport-development-waves/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Evolution of Powered Transatlantic Passenger Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/powered-transatlantic-passenger-modes/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/powered_transatlantic_passengers.png?resize=900%2C433&ssl=1 "Evolution of Powered Transatlantic Passenger Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Powered Transatlantic Passenger ModesThe Atlantic represented for long-distance passenger transportation modes an important challenge to test technologies due to the long distances involved and the limited intermediary locations where a technical stop could be made. Both sides of the North Atlantic have substantial levels of economic activity, implying that a mode able to cross the North Atlantic non-stop safely would be a commercial success. The steamship was the first powered mode to set regular passenger services from the late 1830s, initially taking more than 10 days, but technical improvements reduced the transit time to about 6 days by the 1870s. By the time transatlantic liner services started to be abandoned in the 1950s, transit times were reduced to 4 days. Dirigibles were seriously considered in the 1930s, with the setting of the first transatlantic air passenger flights. Their slow speeds and the Hindenburg’s destruction during a landing accident in 1937 marked the end of airships as long-distance passenger transportation modes. Both propeller and seaplane (“flying boat”) transatlantic services began in the mid-1930s. The seaplane initially got an advantage with its capacity to land on water. Still, this advantage was impeded as technical improvements were made to propeller planes, which left the seaplane with limited range. It was later abandoned as a long-distance transport mode. The introduction of pressurized propeller planes (e.g. Constellation) in 1945 permitted the first regular transatlantic services with two technical stops, Gander (Newfoundland) and Shannon (Ireland), and a flight time of about 11 hours. The introduction of passenger jet planes (e.g. [Boeing 707](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1288)) in transatlantic services in 1958 marked the downfall of long-distance propeller plane services. The flying time was reduced to 8 hours with one technical stop in Gander, Newfoundland. Technical improvements in the 1960s removed the necessity of technical stops and enabled, for the first time, direct long-distance transatlantic services. Fast transatlantic supersonic services were introduced in 1976 and remained operational for a quarter of a century. However, high cost and high energy consumption made supersonic services commercially nonviable, and the technology was retired in 2003. Therefore, transatlantic flight times have remained relatively constant for more than half a century. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/powered-transatlantic-passenger-modes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/powered-transatlantic-passenger-modes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/powered-transatlantic-passenger-modes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/powered-transatlantic-passenger-modes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Geographical Impacts of the Suez and Panama Canals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/suez-panama-canal-geography-impacts/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Panama-Suez-Shortcuts-1.png?resize=768%2C384&ssl=1 "Geographical Impacts of the Suez and Panama Canals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Geographical Impacts of the Suez and Panama Canals[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Panama-Suez-Shortcuts.pdf) The construction of the Suez and Panama canals substantially impacted global trade, mainly over two factors. The first and most obvious concern is the **reduction of travel distances** between regions of the world. The second relates to the introduction of the steamship during the same time period, which was able to use more direct routes at a faster and more consistent speed, compounding the gains from shorter travel distances. The Suez Canal opened in 1869 and represented, along with the Panama Canal, one of the most significant maritime “shortcuts” ever built. It brought a new era of European influence in Pacific Asia by reducing the journey from Asia to Europe by about 6,000 km by skipping a detour around the Cape of Good Hope. Asia became more commercially accessible, and colonial trade expanded due to increased interactions because of reduced friction of distance. Great Britain, the maritime power of the time, benefited substantially from this improved access. The strategic importance of the Suez Canal endures, mainly because of the Middle Eastern oil trade and the Pacific Asian commercial trade. The journey from the Persian Gulf to the Northern European range is particularly impacted by the Suez Canal. A 21,000 km journey around Africa, taking 24 days, is reduced to a 12,000 km journey taking 14 days. Therefore, the Suez Canal saves between 7 to 10 days of shipping time, depending on the ship’s speed. The Panama Canal, completed in 1914, considerably shortened the maritime distances between the American East and West coasts by 13,000 km. Both the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal reduced maritime shipping distances and cost considerably. For instance, the Suez Canal shortened the distance on a maritime journey from Rotterdam to Mumbai (Bombay during colonial India) by 41%. It shortened the distance on a journey from London to Shanghai by 32%. For the Panama Canal, improvements were even more dramatic, with the strategic New York – Los Angeles route reduced by 60%. Major commercial centers could thus be serviced in less time, and the ships could be used more effectively (more trips per year). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/suez-panama-canal-geography-impacts/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/suez-panama-canal-geography-impacts/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/suez-panama-canal-geography-impacts/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/suez-panama-canal-geography-impacts/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Canals Built in the 19th Century, American Northeast](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-canals-19th-century/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Map Canals 19th Century United States](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Northeast-Canal-System-19th-Century-1.png?resize=768%2C566&ssl=1 "Major Canals Built in the 19th Century, American Northeast | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Canals Built in the 19th Century American Northeast[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Northeast-Canal-System-19th-Century.pdf) In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the construction of canals was considered to improve inland transportation in North America, which was limited to trails and coastal navigation. The setting of such canals faced strong constraints as no navigable river system from the East Coast reached far inland, except for the St. Lawrence, which was navigable up to Montreal. The Appalachian Mountains limited the inland reach to just a few hundred miles, with navigation often blocked by rapids or waterfalls (the Fall Line). The Great Lakes offered significant agricultural potential, but their access was blocked by the Lachine Rapids and the Niagara Escarpment. Segments between navigable waterways involved a costly portage where freight was carried by horses. Canal construction performed by private companies was closely following the course of rivers, with some river segments being essentially canalized (replaced by the canal). Rivers provided water supply to be used in locks as well as a path of minimal friction. The issue was that canals never followed a direct path. The exception was when a “cut” was needed, which was done with the straightest path possible but at great expense. As the first major canals were being constructed in the 1820s and 1830s, they provided significant economies of scale for North American inland transportation. While a horse could carry one-eighth of a ton, a canal barge could carry 30 tons. Two canal systems emerged, one east of the Appalachians along the East Coast and one west of the Appalachians in the Midwest: - The first canal system attempted to connect the interior from a set of coastal cities and go as far inland as technically possible. It took place from two main corridors. The first went from Montreal and along the St. Lawrence to Lake Erie with the completion of the Lachine Canal in 1825 and the Welland Canal in 1829, which overcame the Niagara Escarpment between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. The second was the Erie Canal system, completed in 1825 and connecting Albany, Syracuse, and Buffalo. A connection to Lake Ontario was provided to the Oswego branch, completed in 1828. Many other branch canals were built to carry coal from the Appalachian to the cities of the East Coast. - The second canal system in the Midwest was mostly connecting the Ohio River to Lake Erie, enabling access to the agricultural resources of the region and carrying them back to the East Coast through the Erie Canal. The two most important canals were the Ohio & Erie Canal completed in 1833 linking Cleveland, Columbus, and the Ohio River, and the Wabash & Erie Canal, completed in 1853, linking Toledo to Evansville. A canal completed in 1848 between Chicago and the Illinois River was an important factor in the subsequent role of the city as the most important transportation hub in North America. The first canals were constrained by several technical limitations related to their draft (4 to 10 feet) and the lift that locks could provide. Early locks could elevate a barge by only 8 to 10 feet, implying that a climb of 100 feet required 10 to 15 locks. For instance, the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal that linked Washington DC to Cumberland, Maryland, climbed 605 feet and required 74 locks (average of 8.2 feet per lock). By the late 19th century, improvements in lock technology permitted a single lift of 30 to 40 feet. For instance, a lock system at the town of Lockport climbing the Niagara Escarpment along the Erie Canal was modernized into one lock offering a lift of 40 feet instead of five locks lifting 8 feet each. The first barges were propelled manually by pushing a pike and using a rudder (mostly downstream) or hauled by horses along the towpath (mostly upstream). Later, barges were motorized but tended to be larger and used for canals having deeper drafts. Paradoxically, the setting of canals also induced the construction of the first rail lines to compete with an existing transport market or for **portage** between unserviced segments. For instance, one of the first rail lines to be established in the United States in 1834, the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, was built to complement the Schuylkill and Union canals between Harrisburg and Philadelphia. Another important rail line completed the same year was the Allegheny Portage Railroad, which was the first railroad constructed through the Allegheny Mountains (part of the Appalachian Range), linking two canal cities; Johnstown (east of Pittsburgh) and Hollidaysburg (west of Harrisburg). The first railroad in Canada, the Champlain & St. Lawrence Railroad, completed in 1838 between La Prairie and St. Jean-sur-Richelieu, was also built with the same rationale; a portage between the St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain. By the late 19th century, most canals were abandoned as they lost their commercial utility. Many had limited draft, high upkeep, and could no longer compete effectively with railways. Those left today, such as the Erie Canal, the Rideau Canal, and the Champlain Canal, are used for recreational purposes and managed by state or federal governments as parks. Portions of some canals have been restored, again for recreational purposes. The only commercial exceptions are the Welland Canal, upgraded several times, which is now part of the St. Lawrence Seaway that was completed in 1959, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal, which links Chicago to the Illinois River and which has been supplemented by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal in 1900. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-canals-19th-century/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-canals-19th-century/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-canals-19th-century/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-canals-19th-century/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation as a Derived Demand](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportation-derived-demand/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transportation_derived_demand.png?resize=900%2C600&ssl=1 "Transportation as a Derived Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation as a Derived DemandIn economic systems, what occurs in one sector impacts another; the demand for a good or service in one sector is derived from another. For instance, a consumer buying a good in a store will likely trigger the replacement of this product, generating demands for activities such as manufacturing, resource extraction, and related transport. What is different about transportation is that it cannot exist alone, and a movement cannot be stored. An unsold product can remain on the shelf of a store until bought (often with discount incentives), but an unsold seat on a flight or unused cargo capacity on the same flight remains unsold. It cannot be brought back as additional capacity later. In this case, an opportunity has been missed since the transport offered exceeded its demand. The derived demand for transportation is often very difficult to reconcile with an equivalent supply. Transport service providers prefer additional capacity to accommodate unforeseen demand (often at much higher prices). There are two major types of derived transport demand: - **Direct derived demand**. This refers to movements that directly affect economic activities, without which they would not take place. For instance, work-related activities commonly involve commuting between the place of residence and the workplace. There is a supply of work in one location (residence) and a demand for labor in another (workplace), transportation (commuting) being directly derived from this relationship. Shopping requires physical travel to a store or home deliveries for online purchases. For freight transportation, all the components of a supply chain require movements of raw materials, parts, and finished products on modes such as trucks, rail, or containerships. Thus, transportation is directly the outcome of production and consumption functions. - **Indirect derived demand**. Considers movements created by the requirements of other movements. For instance, fuel consumption from transportation activities must be supplied by an energy production system requiring movements from extraction zones, to refineries and storage facilities and, finally, to places of consumption. Warehousing can also be labeled as an indirect derived demand since it is a “non-movement” of a freight element. Warehousing exists because moving cargo directly from where it is produced to where it is consumed is virtually impossible. Passenger movements also generate service-related movements such as roadside assistance (in case of an accident or mechanical problem). Transportation can also be perceived as an **induced** (or latent) demand, representing a demand response to a price reduction. This is particularly the case when the addition of transport infrastructures results in traffic increases due to higher levels of accessibility. Roadway congestion is partially the outcome of induced transport demand as additional road capacity results in mode shifts, route shifts, redistribution of trips, generation of new trips, and land use changes that create new and longer trips. However, the induced demand process does not always take place. For instance, additional terminal capacity does not necessarily guarantee additional traffic, as freight forwarders are free to select terminals they transit their traffic through, as is the case for maritime shipping. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportation-derived-demand/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportation-derived-demand/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportation-derived-demand/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportation-derived-demand/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Ancient Trade Issues](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ancient-trade-issues/) **Published:** August 30, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ancient_trade.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Ancient Trade Issues | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Ancient Trade IssuesLong-distance trade is an enduring characteristic in the history of civilizations. Even if limited, it played an important role in the diffusion of ideas, religions, and cultures. However, up to the 16th century, the extent of trade was limited for two major reasons: - **Nature of trade**. Markets tended to be small, even in areas with large populations. Income levels were low, and discretionary income was limited beyond what the elite could afford. Therefore, many trade items were high-value luxury commodities (e.g., spices, gems, perfumes) that conferred the joint advantages of greater mobility and a focus on demand. Still, when maritime transportation and river shipping were available, long-distance trade of bulk commodities such as grain, wine, and olive oil was possible. There were many intermediaries involved in long distance trade since it was uncommon that the full transport leg was assumed by a single actor. This created a multiplicity of additional transaction costs since each actor was levying a margin. - **Limiting factors**. The main technical constraint on trade was the limited capacity and speed of inland transportation, implying a maritime focus for long-distance trade. This maritime focus, however, was a risk factor due to unreliable navigation and the related risks of losses. Various currencies and units of measure further impeded trade, even if gold- or silver-based. The high value of trade goods provides a strong incentive to tax them, so each time a good entered a jurisdiction such as a city-state, a tariff was levied. Further, the high value of goods also posed a risk of piracy and the additional security costs this entails. There were exceptions to these general conditions that made long-distance trade more prevalent. The [Chinese](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/grand-canal-china/ "Chinese") and [Roman](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/ "Roman") empires maintained extensive transportation systems, supporting an active trade related to their relative prosperity. A few notable ancient trade routes include: - The **incense route** (from 1800 BCE) connected the Indian subcontinent with the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula through coastal navigation. Black pepper and cinnamon were collected from India and carried to ports such as Aden, the commodities combined with incense (a tree product) were placed on caravans across the peninsula, from which they reached Egypt (Alexandria) and the Mediterranean. - The [Silk Road](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/ "Silk Road") and Arab sea routes (from 100 BCE). - The **Hanseatic League** (from 1400) established a network of maritime routes connecting city-states (around 200, including Lubeck, Danzig, Antwerp, Malmo) around the Baltic and the North Sea, which supported practices such as free trade and extraterritoriality. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ancient-trade-issues/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ancient-trade-issues/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ancient-trade-issues/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ancient-trade-issues/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Early European Sailships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/early-sailships/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mathewcarav.jpg?resize=550%2C478&ssl=1 "Early European Sailships | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Early European Sailships*Source: Unknown.* The **caravel** was the first major breakthrough in European maritime technology. In Spain and Portugal, the earliest known caravels were constructed starting from the 13th Century. These early caravels were small, three-mast vessels with a crew of 5 or 6 sailors and were about 50 tons in size. They were used as fishing boats or coastal cargo ships, since navigation did not permit high-seas sailing until the middle of the 14th century. From the 1430s to the 1530s, caravels were used for trade and exploration. By that time, many caravels were between 100 and 200 tons and armed with cannons. The most famous caravels were the *Nina* and the *Pinta,* which sailed with Columbus on his maiden voyage to the New World, but were small (50 and 75 tons, respectively). The third ship, the Santa Maria, was a small-sized carrack of 100 tons. Caravels gradually disappeared in the late 16th century, and carracks in the early 17th century. They were replaced by the **galleon**, a much larger ship averaging 400 tons, with some reaching 1,000 to 1,500 tons. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/early-sailships/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/early-sailships/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/early-sailships/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/early-sailships/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Steps in Intermodal Integration](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-integration-steps/) **Published:** January 21, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/intermodal_integration.png?resize=900%2C350&ssl=1 "Major Steps in Intermodal Integration | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Steps in Intermodal IntegrationMoving cargo from one mode to another has always been challenging, since the size of conveyances, such as ships, often exceeds the capacity to load and unload them quickly. Time spent at terminals such as ports and railyards was substantial. Historically, various systems were used to handle breakbulk cargo, such as crates, barrels, and even amphorae (Antiquity). Still, hoisting loads was labor-intensive, even when cranes were available. Loads larger than those handled by a crew of 3 to 4 people could not be conveniently used for commercial transportation. True forms of intermodalism could not be set until the 20th century. The emergence of intermodal transportation systems is the result of several phases of the application of key technologies, operational improvements, and regulatory changes. - **Inventing intermodalism**. The first significant intermodal innovation was the use of pallets handled by forklifts. Even if the pallet is a simple device, it could not be invented until a mechanical device could lift and move it. Paradoxically, palletization benefited trucking more than rail, since large truckloads could be handled effectively at any location, enabling trucking to gain market share. With the growth of trucking, trailer-on-flatcar (TOFC) services were adopted in the 1950s, enabling a preliminary integration of rail and truck services. - **Setting intermodal standards**. Although there were several attempts to establish container-like services in the 1920s and 1930s, particularly by railways, those services were punctual and short-lived. By the late 1950s, containerization triggered a series of innovations related to the more effective handling of containerized cargo, initially at port terminals and maritime shipping, but later over intermodal rail services. The first container crane, built by Pacific Coast Engineering Company, began operating in 1959. Its design reduced ship turnaround time from three weeks to less than a day. An important step was the standardization of container sizes and latching systems in the late 1960s, which spurred the construction of cellular containerships and the establishment of container-on-flatcar (COFC) services, mostly for domestic containers. - **Operationalizing intermodalism**. The 1980s marked significant changes for intermodal transportation, particularly with the onset of rail deregulation, enabling railways to reorganize their services along with more commercially driven imperatives. Long-distance [doublestack rail services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1960) were established across North America, enabling maritime containers to reach inland destinations. More efficient intermodal equipment, such as reachstackers and rubber-tired gantries, were developed. As the scale of the operations and the volumes rapidly increased, new intermodal facilities emerged, such as satellite terminals, inland container depots, and inland ports, each fulfilling a specialized role in the continuity of intermodal transport chains. - **Massification and automation of intermodalism**. By the late 1990s, ships larger than the standard Panamax design were being introduced, driving economies of scale on both the maritime and inland sides. Automation, as opposed to mechanization, had been the driving force of intermodalism until then; it was implemented at a few large intermodal terminals, but comprehensive automation would not begin until the 2010s. Information technologies also became one of the driving forces of intermodal integration, a process that took many dimensions. By the 2000s, electronic bill of lading systems (after some unsuccessful attempts in the 1990s) enabled more effective handling of the crucial documentation related to intermodalism, thereby making intermodal transportation increasingly multimodal. The container itself was improved with RFID, sensors, and positioning systems, enabling it to track its location and conditions (particularly important if it is a refrigerated container). The expansion of the Panama Canal in 2016 set the stage for a new container shipping standard called new-Panamax (2014). The ongoing massification of containerships reached the MGX-24 standard in 2019, with carrying capacities above 21,000 TEU. Along with the ongoing and potential automation of the modes and terminals involved with intermodalism, the implementation of [automated ledger technologies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8517) shows the potential to substantially improve the transactional effectiveness of intermodal transportation. Therefore, intermodal transportation has undergone ongoing integration through technical means, while managerial and information technologies are playing an increasing role. An important aspect of the evolution of intermodalism is its **path dependency**. Once a technology has been selected, it locks further system developments in a specific dimension. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-integration-steps/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-integration-steps/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-integration-steps/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-integration-steps/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Roman Empire, c125 CE](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Roman-Empire-125AD.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Roman Empire, c125 AD | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Roman Empire c125 AD[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Roman_Roads_c125.pdf) The transport system of the Roman Empire reflected the geographical characteristics and constraints of the Mediterranean basin. The Mediterranean Sea played a central role in supporting trade among a network of coastal cities, the most important of which were the Empire’s (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Carthage, etc.). These cities were served by a maritime and road network that permitted trade within their respective hinterlands. Little fluvial transport took place because the major pan-European rivers, the Rhine and the Danube, were military frontiers rather than the core of the empire. The road served numerous functions, such as military movements, political control, and cultural and economic (trade). Road management and maintenance fell into four categories: via publica (main public roads crossing provinces), via militaris (maintained for military purposes), via vicinalis (provincial roads connecting towns to main roads), and via privata (managed by private landowners but open to the public). To improve travel speed, posthouses with fresh horses were spaced every 15 kilometers along the route, and lodgings for travelers were available about every 40 kilometers. This 40 km corresponded to the average distance a traveler could cross each day. Courier services could travel twice that daily distance. Since maritime transport was more efficient than road transport, it was less costly to ship grain from Egypt to Rome than to transport grain from other nearby areas of Italy to Rome by road. The notable exceptions were the Nile and the Rhone rivers. The [Appian Way](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1846) (Via Appia), about 560 kilometers in length, was one of the first Roman roads (Via) to be constructed (around 312 BC) under the initiative of consul Appius Claudius Caecus. It linked Rome to Brundisium (Brindisi). As the empire grew, this system was expanded to cover 80,000 kilometers of first-class roads at the height of the Roman Empire (around 200 AD). Most of the roads were constructed by soldiers, prisoners of war, and slaves. The minimum requirements for a first-class road were a width of 5 meters and a drained stone surface. The Romans also built the world’s first dual carriageway, the Via Portuensis, between Rome and its port, Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. The Roman Road network covered most of the conquered provinces, with Rome as the focal point (thus the saying “All roads lead to Rome”). At the center of Rome was located the *milliareum aureum* (the golden milestone), from which the Roman roads radiated. Way stations where travelers could rest and eat dotted the network. The system collapsed during the Middle Ages due to neglect and the plundering of construction materials. However, the remains of the Roman network provided transportation in Europe for a thousand years. Only small segments of this system are left today. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried, 1950-2024](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-travel-freight/) **Published:** November 12, 2017 **Author:** John Bowen **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_air_travel_freight.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried, 1950-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried 1950 2024*Source: Airlines for America. IATA.* Air transportation has experienced rapid growth since the 1970s, with air freight growth similar to that of passenger traffic. The growth of air traffic has also been characterized by several setbacks linked with recessions (1973-1975; 1980-1984; 1990-1991; Asian Crisis of 1997; the Financial Crisis of 2008-2009), geopolitical instability (Gulf War of 1991; September 11, 2001) and even the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-21). The latter represents the most significant singular event affecting the airline industry, notably the passenger segment, which experienced a 65% drop in 2020. Despite these setbacks, the rapid rebound in traffic in some markets points to buoyant air traffic demand. Growth resumed its pre-pandemic trajectory and will level off as developing economies such as China, India, and Brazil mature into mature markets. The main factors behind the growth in passenger and freight traffic, as measured in passenger-km or ton-km, are linked to greater volumes carried and the average distance over which passengers and freight are carried. The changing structure of air transport networks is also at play, as the development of hubs involves fewer direct connections and, therefore, longer average distances between airport pairs. The development of passenger services tends to increase freight supply, since each additional plane typically offers additional cargo capacity that can be made available on the market. This additional capacity can catalyze new cargo demand. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-travel-freight/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-travel-freight/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-travel-freight/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-travel-freight/?share=reddit) - --- ### [5.5 - Air Transport](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/) **Published:** November 4, 2017 **Author:** John Bowen **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. John Bowen and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Air transportation is the mobility of passengers and freight by any conveyance that can sustain controlled flight. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Rise of Air Transportation](#1_The_Rise_of_Air_Transportation) - [2. Civil Aviation and Activity Spaces](#2_Civil_Aviation_and_Activity_Spaces) - [3. The Geography of Airline Networks](#3_The_Geography_of_Airline_Networks) - [4. Airlines, Hubs, and Alliances](#4_Airlines_Hubs_and_Alliances) - [5. The Future of Flight](#5_The_Future_of_Flight) # 1. The Rise of Air Transportation Air transportation was slow to take off after the [Wright Brothers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1273) breakthrough at Kitty Hawk in 1903. More than a decade passed before the first faltering efforts to launch scheduled passenger services. On January 1, 1914, the world’s inaugural scheduled flight with a paying passenger hopped across the bay separating Tampa and St. Petersburg, Florida. In its earliest years, the airline industry had a symbiotic relationship with military aviation. World War I, which began just months after that first flight from Tampa, provided a powerful spur to the development of commercial aviation as air power began to be used strategically, and better aircraft were quickly introduced. The war left a legacy of thousands of unemployed pilots and surplus aircraft, along with an appreciation for the future significance of aviation. After the war, civilian airliners improved rapidly. The [non-stop crossing of the North Atlantic in 1927](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/lindbergh-great-circle-path-first-transatlantic-flight-1927/ "Lindbergh Great Circle Path, First Transatlantic Flight, 1927") was a key event as the range and navigational capabilities of the emerging air transport system were tested. For instance, the 8-12 passenger Dutch-built Fokker Trimotor, the most popular airliner in the early interwar years, had a top speed of 170 kilometers per hour and a range of 1,100 kilometers, which is less than the distance between Amsterdam and Rome. By the eve of World War II, airlines worldwide were adopting the USA-built Douglas DC-3 with a capacity of 28 passengers, a speed of 310 kilometers per hour, and a range of more than 2,400 kilometers nonstop, able to [fly across the US](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2313) with just three stops. The DC-3 made its maiden commercial flight in 1936 between New York and Chicago, a vital business route highlighting the commercial significance of fast-changing technology. Governments supported the emergence of the airline industry through ownership or subsidies. In Europe, governments established new passenger airlines, while on the other side of the Atlantic, the American government heavily **subsidized airmail**. [Airmail](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/postal-routes-united-states/ "US Post Office Airmail Routes, 1921-26") was one of the earliest commercially relevant applications of air transportation because it helped accelerate monetary transactions and tie together far-flung enterprises, facilitating the emergence of continental and intercontinental enterprises. US airmail subsidies also fostered the emergence of the first major US passenger airlines. By the eve of World War II, air travel was quite literally taking off. In the US, for instance, the number of passengers grew fivefold from 462,000 to 1,900,000 between 1934 and 1939. Still, aviation remained far beyond the means of most travelers, especially for long-haul routes. For instance, in 1936, Pan American World Airways launched services across the Pacific with a roundtrip fare of $1,438 (about $26,900 in 2020 dollars) between San Francisco and Manila. As in this example, many of the long-haul air services were to colonies and dependencies. Only the elite or government officials could afford such [early intercontinental routes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2318). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/1024px-First_flight2.jpg?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Wright Brothers First Flight, 1903 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/wright-brothers-flight-1903/1024px-first_flight2/)Wright Brothers First Flight 1903[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US-Airmail-Routes-1921.png?resize=900%2C613&ssl=1 "US Post Office Airmail Routes, 1921-26 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/postal-routes-united-states/map-us-airmail-routes-1921/)US Post Office Airmail Routes 1921 26[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lindbergh_transatlantic_1927.jpg?resize=900%2C419&ssl=1 "Lindbergh Great Circle Path, First Transatlantic Flight, 1927 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/lindbergh-great-circle-path-first-transatlantic-flight-1927/lindbergh_transatlantic_1927/)Lindbergh Great Circle Path First Transatlantic Flight 1927[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Continental-DC-3-Routes-1930s.png?resize=900%2C573&ssl=1 "Selected Transcontinental DC-3 Routes, Late 1930s | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/continental-dc3-routes-1930s/map-continental-dc-3-routes-1930s/)Selected Transcontinental DC 3 Routes Late 1930s[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Early-International-Air-Routes.png?resize=900%2C470&ssl=1 "Early Intercontinental Air Routes, 1930s | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/early-air-networks/map-early-international-air-routes/)Early Intercontinental Air Routes 1930sYet war again catalyzed the growth of air transportation since airpower became an ever more crucial element of military operations. New airports, vast numbers of trained pilots, great strides in jet aviation, and other aviation-related innovations, including radar, were among the legacies of World War II. Boosted by such developments and the broader economic boom that followed the war, air transportation finally became the dominant mode of long-haul passenger travel in developed countries. By the 1950s, air travel had become more widely advertised, and standardized [fare structures](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2502) were emerging. In 1956, more people traveled on intercity routes by air than by Pullman car (sleeper) and coach class trains combined in the US. For the first time in 1958, airlines carried more passengers than ocean liners across the Atlantic. The speed advantage for aviation grew with the advent of jet travel in the mid-1950s. In October 1958, the [Boeing 707](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1288) took its maiden commercial flight with a Pan American World Airways route linking New York and Paris, with a refueling stop in Gander, Newfoundland. The B707 was not the first jetliner, but it was the first successful one. The B707 and other early jets, including the Douglas DC-8, [doubled the speed](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2326) of air transportation and radically increased airline productivity, enabling [fares to fall](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2331). Just a few years after the B707’s debut, airlines had extended jet service to most major world markets. The technical benefits of jet planes, such as better ranges, changed the structure of air networks as airlines bypassed airports that conventionally had acted as gateways because of refueling stops. This was the case for Gander in Canada and Recife in Brazil for transatlantic flights. Jet transportation facilitated the **extension of the linkages between people and places**. For example, through the mid-1950s, all major league baseball teams in the US were located in the Manufacturing Belt, situated no more than an overnight rail journey apart from one another to permit closely packed schedules. The speed and ultimately lower cost of air transportation freed teams to move to the untapped markets of the Sunbelt. By the mid-1960s, half a dozen teams were strung out across the South and West, complementing and competing against those that remained in the Frostbelt. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Time-Piston-vs-Jet.png?resize=900%2C935&ssl=1 "Flight Times by Piston and Jet Engines from New York | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-travel-times/map-time-piston-vs-jet/)Flight Times by Piston and Jet Engines from New York[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/flight_time_airfare_1955.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Flight Time and One Way Airfare, 1955 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/airfare-twa-1955/air_fare_1955-png/)Flight Time and One Way Airfare 1955[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/b707.jpg?resize=700%2C468&ssl=1 "Boeing 707 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/boeing-707/b707/)Boeing 707[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/747.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Boeing 747 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/boeing-747/attachment/747/)Boeing 747[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/airfare_ny_london.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Airfare between New York and London | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-fare-new-york-london/airfare_ny_london/)Average Airfare roundtrip between New York and London 1946 2015[![A380 Jfk New York](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/a380_jfk_new_york.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "A380 at the John F Kennedy Airport, New York | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/a380-paris-airport/img_0226-jpg/)A380 at the John F Kennedy Airport New YorkIn the years since the beginning of the Jet Age, commercial aircraft have advanced markedly in capacity and range. Just 12 years after the debut of the 134-seat (in a typical two-class configuration) B707, the 366-seat (in a typical three-class configuration) [B747](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1327) made its maiden flight. The economies of scale fostered by the 747 and other wide-body jets helped to **push real airfares [downward](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2331)**, thereby democratizing aviation beyond the so-called “Jet Set”. Like the B707, the B747 premiered on a transatlantic route from New York City. However, the B747, particularly the longer-range B747-400 version introduced in the late 1980s, has been nicknamed the “Pacific Airliner” because of its singular significance in drawing Asia closer to the rest of the world and because Asia-Pacific airlines have been [major B747 customers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2336). By the 2010s, the majority of the B747s were being retired and replaced by longer-range and more fuel-efficient twin-engine aircraft such as the B777, the A330, the B787, and the A350. On transpacific routes, the 787, for instance, has a fuel economy of about 39 passenger-kilometers per liter of jet fuel versus about 23 passenger-kilometers per liter for the Boeing 747-400ER. The triumph of widebody twinjets is most evident in the transatlantic and transpacific markets, including the introduction of the [A380](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/a380-paris-airport/ "A380 at John F Kennedy Airport, New York") in 2007 to develop a niche of a high-capacity aircraft servicing long hauls between major airports. Air transportation is now **overwhelmingly dominant in transcontinental and intercontinental travel** and has become more competitive for shorter trips in many regional markets. **Low-cost carriers** (LCCs) have been instrumental in extending aviation’s reach to short-haul markets. The pioneering LCC, Southwest Airlines, sought to make flying cheaper than driving on the first markets it served in the early 1970s: the Texas “Golden Triangle” linking Dallas, Houston, and San Antonio. Since then, LCCs have proliferated across developed markets and, more recently, in emerging markets. In developing countries, the ascent of LCCs has been partly fueled by the poor quality of land transportation, making air travel an attractive option for national inter-city routes. Interestingly, since their introduction in the late 1950s, commercial jets have [not improved much in terms of speed](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2345) apart from a small fleet of supersonic but commercially unsuccessful [Concorde](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2352) jets (which flew on a handful of transatlantic routes between 1976 and 2003). Since the end of Concorde services, the fastest airliners in regular use have had cruising speeds about as fast as the B707s of the early 1960s. However, introducing long-haul aircraft has produced new rounds of time-space convergence. For instance, in 2018, twenty US cities had nonstop services to at least one destination in Asia, up from 13 US cities in 1998. Boston had nonstop links to Tokyo, Beijing, Shanghai, and Hong Kong in 2018, whereas two decades earlier, all those markets would have required a time-consuming connection at a larger hub. Meanwhile, there have been repeated attempts to launch new supersonic airliners. In 2021, United Airlines placed orders for 15 aircraft from Boom Supersonic. The new jets, each seating 65 to 80 passengers and cruising at Mach 1.7, will begin flying in 2029 if all goes according to plan. Perhaps the most significant improvement in aviation is the [reduced risks of accidents](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2507). If civil aviation had had the same accident rate per million departures as in the early 1960s, there would have been the equivalent of about three fatal accidents somewhere in the world per day in 2018. Instead, there were nine fatal accidents worldwide for the **whole year**. The [world’s busiest air routes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2362) are mainly **short-range sections** between cities less than 1,000 km apart, with many of these city pairs found in emerging markets. More generally, short-haul flights predominate despite the expansion of long-haul flights and the increased globalization of the economy. Importantly for the world as a whole, about 59% of airline seats were on domestic flights in 2018, and for larger countries, the share was even higher, such as 88% in China. Air transportation’s share of world trade in goods is less than 1% measured by weight but **more than 35% by value**. Typically, air transportation is most important for time-sensitive, valuable, or perishable freight carried over long distances. Air cargo has been central in “just-in-time” production and distribution strategies with low inventory levels, such as for Apple iPhones. Air cargo is also vital in emergencies when the fast delivery of supplies prevails over cost issues. In the early weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic, air cargo carriers were crucial in rushing ventilators and other equipment worldwide. Later in the pandemic, the same carriers helped speed the distribution of vaccines and supported the increasing demand for goods due to online purchases. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_transport_fatalities.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-fatalities/air_fatilities/)Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes 1918 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/deliveries_747.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Deliveries of Boeing 747s | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/boeing-747-orders/boeing747_sales/)Regional Sales of Boeing 747s 1960s 2000s[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Concorde.png?resize=900%2C630&ssl=1 "Concorde Supersonic Services, 1976-2003 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/concorde-services/map-concorde/)Concorde Services 1976 2003# 2. Civil Aviation and Activity Spaces Air transportation has transformed society at scales ranging from the local to the global. Aviation has made economic and social activities in many parts of the world **faster, more interconnected, varied, and more affluent**. Still, those gains have come with externalities such as congestion and environmental challenges. ## a. The acceleration of the material world As the fastest mode, air transportation has been associated with the **speeding up of daily life**. This effect is most apparent in the astonishing delivery times for goods ordered online from sites such as Amazon.com. In 2019, Amazon offered two-day deliveries to all of the United States for millions of goods and next-day delivery for a narrower range of goods. The speed of the company’s deliveries depended largely on the multiplicity of distribution centers Amazon operated across the country, positioning many goods close to consumers. Still, air cargo has also been vital in rushing goods from global suppliers to distribution centers and consumers. In 2016, Amazon began flying leased aircraft as [Amazon Air](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=13933) in the United States, with nationwide flights. The surge in e-commerce during the pandemic propelled the expansion of Amazon Air to a fleet size of 96 aircraft by 2022, a small number of which now operate on routes within Europe. Passengers move at faster speeds as well. The supersonic Concorde once advertised its service with the slogan “Arrive before you leave”, highlighting the fact that for westbound flights such as London – New York, the local time on arrival (in New York) would be earlier than at departure (in London). As noted above, the Concorde was grounded in 2003. Still, the multiplication of nonstop services means that even at conventional jet speeds (which are about 80 percent the speed of sound), the world is smaller for passengers; the number of unique city pairs served by commercial airlines grew to 22,000 in 2019, about twice the number of twenty years earlier. The speed of human transportation has changed how people interact in ways that are both positive and negative. For instance, until the advent of low-cost air transportation, the principal means of traveling between Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi was a 33- to 36-hour rail journey on the *Reunification Express* or a similarly tedious bus journey. Now, for those who can afford to fly (low-cost carriers have broadened that population), the cities are just 2 hours apart. The route has become among the most densely trafficked in the world, with 60 flights per day each way in 2018. The result has been an improvement in the lives of traders, bureaucrats, students, tourists, and others traveling between Vietnam’s two largest cities, and the same has occurred in countless other city pairs. On the other hand, the acceleration of passenger flows around the world has also sped up the **diffusion of infectious diseases**. In late 2002, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), for instance, began spreading slowly within southern China. Still, within days of reaching Hong Kong in February 2003, the disease was transmitted to Canada, Vietnam, the United States, and the Philippines. Direct nonstop services were an important factor behind a diffusion pattern that may, at first glance, appear random. Ultimately, cases were reported in more than two dozen countries over a matter of weeks, with airports becoming the key frontiers in trying to limit the spread of SARS. Before aviation became widespread, the sheer size of the world afforded a degree of protection from the development of pandemics. But the world is, at least measured in terms of time, much smaller than in the past. That lesson was repeated on a much larger scale during the **COVID-19 pandemic**. In early 2020, the coronavirus epidemic first **forced the shutdown** of large segments of the Chinese air transport system, including international air services to Chinese cities. As the disease spread, travel bans cascaded across the planet, precipitating the **worst crisis in the history of the airline industry**. In the United States, passengers cleared at Transportation Security Administration (TSA) checkpoints reached a nadir of [87,500 on April 13, 2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/daily-air-travelers-united-states/ "Daily Air Travelers in the United States, 2019-2021"), just 4 percent of the level on the same date a year earlier. By June 2021, with vaccination increasingly widespread in the United States, the number of passengers processed daily by the TSA reached 70% of pre-pandemic levels, with domestic flights the main driver. By June 2022, this traffic level was at 95%, with the demand considered to have recovered to pre-pandemic levels after a two-year hiatus. Still, international travel lagged mainly due to entry restrictions involving vaccine certificates, testing before arrival, and quarantine requirements. By mid-2022, these restrictions were eased for major destinations in North America and Europe, allowing for the resumption of segments of long-distance international air travel. ## b. An interconnected world At any moment in 2018, an estimated 1.4 million people were airborne on commercial airline flights worldwide. Most were on [short-haul flights](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2362) linking nearby cities within the same country, as evidenced by the most densely trafficked sector, the 454-kilometer hop from Seoul to the resort island of Jeju, off South Korea’s southern coast. At the regional scale, frequent flights have amplified the political and economic integration of regions such as the European Union (EU) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). In Europe, the phrase **“easyJet Generation”** refers to young people who have grown up in a region where cheap aviation and porous borders have permitted unprecedented mobility. At the global scale, increasingly long-haul nonstop services (up to [18 hours in duration](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2357)) are both a response and a driver for **globalization**. Most of the nodes for such flights are [world cities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-city-index/ "World Cities, 2012"), the command-and-control centers of the global economy rank among the best-connected cities in the global airline networks. Yet the links between globalization and the airline industry extend far beyond the main hubs. Manufacturers, especially those producing high-value electronics, rely heavily on air transport to tie together spatially disaggregated operations. For example, by 2019, Zhengzhou, the capital of Henan Province in China and the largest production base for Apple iPhones, was linked by numerous freighter aircraft flights daily to global markets, including a nonstop 747-freighter flight by Cargolux to Luxembourg. In addition to the trade networks established by multinational corporations, there are also extensive social networks created by migrants involving recurring air travel. For instance, in 1998, Ethiopian Airlines launched services to Washington, DC, the carrier’s first destination in the United States and not coincidentally home to the largest community of Ethiopians outside Africa. The flow of people between Ethiopia and Washington, DC, is one strand in the larger tapestry of global connections expedited by air transportation. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Amazon_Air_Boeing_767.jpg?resize=900%2C899&ssl=1 "Amazon Air Boeing 767 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/amazon-air-boeing-767/1025px-amazon_air_boeing_767_at_tpa/)Amazon Air Boeing 767[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Busiest-Air-Travel-Routes-1.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "The World's Busiest Air Transport Routes, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/busiest-air-routes/map-busiest-air-travel-routes/)The Worlds Busiest Air Transport Routes 2017[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Longest-Air-Travel-Routes-1.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "The World's Longest Nonstop Air Transport Routes, 2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/longest-non-stop-air-routes/map-longest-air-travel-routes-1/)The Worlds Longest Nonstop Air Transport Routes 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Cities-Index-2012.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World Cities, 2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-city-index/map-world-cities-index-2012-png/)World Cities 2012## c. A kaleidoscope of experience Cheap air transport has enlarged the geographic scope of everyday life and, in so doing, has enriched the lives of many with unprecedented variety. Take first the diversity of goods. By one common measure, the United States imported more than four times the variety of goods in 2018 as in 1972. Much of the increase was attributable to the sharp reduction in transportation costs through containerized maritime shipping, but lower-cost air cargo has also played a role. Many perishables, for instance, such as Valentine’s Day roses bound from Kenya to Europe or Colombia to the United States and fresh tuna shipped from around the world to the fish markets in Japan, move exclusively by air. These markets largely did not exist a few decades ago. Efficient and affordable air cargo has contributed to changes in diet by making available products in seasons during which they would not be available, to changes in retailing, and correspondingly to changes in manufacturing. Examples abound, such as fresh produce grown in the southern hemisphere available in the northern hemisphere during winter (a phenomenon sometimes referred to as **permanent global summertime**), at least for affluent consumers. Likewise, air transport has catalyzed the emergence of an ever-greater **variety of tourist destinations**. The markets with the fastest growth rely overwhelmingly on arrivals by air from major source tourist markets such as the United States, Europe, and China. The COVID-19 pandemic significantly curtailed air tourism, particularly at the international level, but by 2022, activities were returning to normalcy, and pent-up demand accelerated the recovery of air tourism. ## d. The ascent of affluence Air traffic is correlated with per capita income, but the relationship is interdependent. More affluent populations can more easily afford what is usually the most expensive mode, but aviation has also been catalytic to economic growth. In 2019, airlines flew approximately 4.5 billion passengers. The total volume of air passengers **equaled nearly 60 percent of the global population.** Of course, a much smaller share are actually air travelers, as individuals who use air transportation usually do so several times per year. Therefore, the propensity to fly is highly uneven, as observed in the passenger and freight markets. Flights originating in North America and Europe accounted for 47 percent of airline seat capacity in 2018. However, that share has been declining with faster growth in other regions of the world. For instance, flights from China accounted for 14 percent of seat capacity in 2018, up from 3 percent in 1998. Both passenger and cargo traffic [have grown rapidly](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2368) as higher incomes translate into higher values for time and a stronger preference for what is the fastest mode. In fact, air passenger and air cargo traffic have [outpaced the growth of the broader global economy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2373). At the same time, lower transportation costs, in terms of time and money, have encouraged faster income growth. The economic impact of air transportation is most strongly pronounced near air hubs, but the catalytic effect of air accessibility extends across the economy. Whole sectors are strongly dependent on aviation. Logistics, advanced business services such as consulting and advertising, and tourism are among the industries for which air accessibility is vital. It is no coincidence, for instance, that all six major Disney theme parks are located near one of the world’s busiest airports. In 2017, passenger volumes at Orlando International Airport were more than 500 times larger than they had been the year before Disneyworld opened (1971), and what was once a medium-sized Florida city had nonstop links to cities across the United States and Canada, Latin America, Europe, and the Middle East. Disney’s other parks include Disneyland near Los Angeles International Airport, Disneyland Paris near Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Tokyo Disneyland near Tokyo-Haneda, Hong Kong Disneyland, which shares Lantau island with the most [expensive airport in history](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3843), and Shanghai Disney Resort located just a few kilometers south of the city’s main airport. ## e. The high costs of aviation Yet, the huge increase in traffic in Orlando and the more modest increase globally have not been cost-free. In particular, **aviation externalities** have risen with traffic volumes. The air transport sector accounts for about 3.5 percent of anthropogenic climate change, but its share is expected to climb towards the mid-century. Aviation is heavily dependent on fossil fuels and is likely to remain so after other modes have transitioned to more environmentally friendly fuel sources. Some airlines have experimented with biofuels, but their impact remains marginal so far. Between 2011 and 2019, about 175,000 flights were partly powered by biofuels, but in 2019, more than 100,000 flights *per day* were powered solely by conventional fuels. A landmark was reached in 2021 when a test flight between Chicago and Washington, DC, ran exclusively on biofuels. In 2023, this was the case for the first transatlantic flight. Battery-electric aircraft are another avenue to ease the sector’s global climate change impacts. Air taxis using this technology are expected to launch as soon as 2024, but the aircraft being developed are small in their capacity (about five passengers) and range (about 250 kilometers). [Airships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1667), which might be suitable for freight transportation in remote areas, still comprise another area of innovation. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_air_travel_freight.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried, 1950-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-travel-freight/world_air_travel_freight/)World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried 1950 2024[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/annual_air_transportation_growth_gdp.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Air Transportation Growth (Passengers and Freight) and Economic Growth, 1950-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-transport-economic-growth/world_air_travel_growth/)Air Transportation Growth Passengers and Freight and Economic Growth 1950 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/monthly_global_air_passenger.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Monthly Global Air Passenger Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/monthly-global-air-passenger-traffic/monthly_air_traffic/)Monthly Global Air Passenger Traffic 2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/largest_passengers_freight_airlines.png?resize=900%2C373&ssl=1 "World's 10 Largest Passengers and Freight Airlines | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/largest-passengers-freight-airlines/largest_passengers_freight_airlines/)Worlds 10 Largest Passengers and Freight Airlines 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passenger_cargo_share_operating_revenues.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Passenger and Cargo Share of Operating Revenues | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/airlines-passenger-cargo-share/airlines_passengers_cargo_share_revenue/)Passenger and Cargo Share of Operating Revenues Selected Airlines 2013Aviation also has significant impacts at the local level, including emissions of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. As with greenhouse gases, however, growth in emissions (at least when measured per passenger-kilometer) has been stemmed by rapid advances in aviation technology, especially improvements in engine efficiency. The average fuel burn per passenger-kilometer by air transportation fell by 45 percent between 1968 and 2014, and the introduction of a new generation of jet engines portends further gains. The most apparent externality at the local scale is **aircraft noise**, and technology has brought impressive gains. For instance, engine manufacturer Pratt & Whitney claims up to a 75 percent reduction in the noise footprint (i.e., the area near a runway affected by high noise levels) for its newest large jet engine compared to similar-sized jets operated with an earlier generation of engines. Still, the huge increase in traffic volumes (at least before the COVID-19 pandemic) partly offsets this and other technical improvements in aviation. # 3. The Geography of Airline Networks Theoretically, air transport enjoys **greater** [**freedom of route choice**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2517) than most other modes. Airline routes span oceans, the highest mountain chains, the most forbidding deserts, and other physical barriers to surface transport. Yet, while it is true that the mode is less restricted than land transport to specific rights of way, it is nevertheless more constrained than might be supposed. ## a. Structuring factors Weather events such as snowstorms and thunderstorms can temporarily create disruptions that cascade through **hub-and-spoke networks**. Volcanic eruptions may also impede air travel by releasing ash into the atmosphere, which can damage and even shut down turbofan engines. Fear of such calamities forced the closing down of the airspace in much of Europe as well as the North Atlantic for nearly a week following an [April 2010 volcanic eruption](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=394) in Iceland. Meanwhile, on a more regular basis, aircraft seek to exploit (or avoid) upper atmospheric winds, particularly the **jet stream**, to enhance speed and reduce fuel consumption. Yet the limitations that structure air transportation are **mainly human creations**, especially internationally. The Chicago Convention of 1944 established the basic geopolitical guidelines of international air operations, which became known as [the freedoms of the air](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2403). First (right to overfly) and second (right for a technical stop), freedom rights are almost automatically exchanged among countries. The United States, which emerged from World War II with by far the strongest airline industry in the world, had wanted third and fourth freedom rights (the right to drop off passengers and cargo and the right to pick up passengers and cargo, respectively, in another country) to be freely exchanged as well. Instead, these and other rights have been the subject of hundreds of carefully negotiated **bilateral air services agreements** (ASAs). In an ASA, each side can specify which airlines can serve which cities with what size equipment and at what frequencies. ASAs often include provisions regulating fares and revenue sharing among the airlines serving a particular international route. Other constraints on the geography of air services stem from **safety and national security concerns**. To limit opportunities for midair collisions, air traffic is channeled along specific corridors so that only a relatively small portion of the sky is in use. Jet Route 80, for example, links Coaldale, Nevada, and Bellaire, Ohio, and accommodates many transcontinental city pairs as well as some shorter haul sectors such as Indianapolis-Denver. Meanwhile, airlines within China face widespread capacity constraints because the People’s Liberation Army controls four-fifths of the country’s airspace and prioritizes military flights over passenger use. **Strategic and political factors** also influence route choice over larger scales. The Cold War imposed numerous airspace constraints, preventing the use of [polar air routes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/polar-air-routes/ "The Development of Polar Air Routes"). The [opening of the Siberian airspace](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2386) to Western airlines in the 1990s permitted more direct routes between cities like London and Tokyo or New York and Hong Kong. However, in 2022, the Russian invasion of Ukraine resulted in the closing of the Russian airspace for most Western airlines, forcing international flights to detour along North America/Asia and Europe/Asia routes. For instance, Lufthansa’s flight between Frankfurt and Beijing detoured to the south of Russia (through Romania, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia), adding hundreds of kilometers and more than an hour of flying time. In turn, Russian airlines were excluded from the airspace of most Western countries. Meanwhile, there has been some progress towards opening up airspace elsewhere in the world. In 2020, some Arab governments opened their airspace to Israeli airlines as part of a broader peace initiative. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_freedom_rights2.png?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Air Freedom Rights | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-freedom-rights/air_freedom_rights/)Air Freedom Rights[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/icelandvolcanicash2010.jpg?resize=776%2C604&ssl=1 "Volcanic Ash Plume across the North Atlantic, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/iceland-volcanic-ash-atlantic-2010/icelandvolcanicash2010/)Volcanic Ash Plume across the North Atlantic 2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/development_polar_air_routes.png?w=900&ssl=1 "The Development of Polar Air Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/polar-air-routes/map-polar-routes/)The Development of Polar Air Routes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-New-York-Hong-Kong-Polar-Air-Routes.png?resize=900%2C483&ssl=1 "New York / Hong Kong Air Routes: Conventional and Polar | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/new-york-hong-kong-air-routes/map-new-york-hong-kong-polar-air-routes/)New York Hong Kong Air Routes Conventional and Polar## b. Liberalization of air travel These instances of government intervention in airline networks run contrary to the broader trajectory of airline industry **liberalization** (a term that refers to deregulation and privatization). Since the 1970s, dozens of airlines around the world have been at least partially privatized, meaning that they are now owned by private investors instead of governments. Many airline markets have been deregulated, meaning there are fewer regulations on fares, routes, and other aspects of operations. In the United States, the Air Deregulation Act of 1978 opened the industry to competition. The results were significant. Once hallowed names, like TWA, Pan Am, and Braniff, sank into bankruptcy, and many **new players emerged**. Most lasted only briefly, but some have had a more profound, enduring effect on the industry and air transportation. For instance, Southwest Airlines could only serve intra-Texas markets until deregulation freed the low-cost carrier to spread nationwide and beyond. In Europe, deregulation advanced in a series of stages, culminating in 1997 with the opening of the European market to all European carriers. For instance, the Irish LCC Ryanair operates dozens of bases outside Ireland, its headquarters country, and most of its routes never touch Ireland. Liberalization has also spread to emerging markets, with a transformative effect in places as different as Indonesia, India, and Brazil. In all these markets, state-owned flag carriers have lost market share to nimbler, privately owned airlines, often including LCCs. The enormous Chinese market has also been partially deregulated, and its leading airlines, while predominantly state-owned, have varying degrees of private ownership. Meanwhile, in international markets, an important trend in the past few decades has been the proliferation of **Open Skies agreements**. These agreements remove most restrictions on the number of carriers and routes they may fly between signatory countries. By 2021, the United States alone had Open Skies agreements with more than 128 countries. Perhaps the most important Open Skies agreement links the European Union and the United States. Signed in 2007, the agreement permits any European carrier to fly to any city in the United States and vice versa. It makes it easier for investors from one side of the Atlantic to invest in airlines on the other side and facilitates collaboration among carriers integrated into airline alliances. Liberalization has fueled the growth of aviation and made the world’s airline networks far more dynamic. Airlines have greater freedom to fly where and when they see commercial potential. For instance, under regulation by the US Civil Aeronautics Board, United Airlines was allowed to add only one city to its network between 1961 and 1978. By contrast, between 1978 and 2018, the airline’s network grew from 93 cities (almost all in the US) to 342 cities worldwide. Liberalization has not been a one-way street, however. There have been numerous instances of governments reasserting their power in the industry, and the COVID-19 pandemic was an event likely to incite further interventions. ## c. Aircraft technology and airline networks In time, [air transportation networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2420) evolved to become increasingly complex, a trend that goes on par with the improvements in the technical capabilities of aircraft, as well as their specialization to service-specific markets. Three major categories of passenger jet planes may be recognized, each servicing a specific [air transport market](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2409): - **Regional market (Short range/haul aircraft)**. This market usually involves short flights lasting anywhere between 30 minutes and 2 hours, which means that they can fly between 6 and 10 legs a day. Embraer’s older ERJs and new E-Jets are examples of planes with relatively small capacities (fewer than 150 passengers) that travel short distances. Regional jets (RJs) like these serve smaller markets and feed hub airports on routes such as Appleton, Wisconsin, to Chicago or Maputo, Mozambique, to Johannesburg. RJs also provide high-frequency point-to-point services between large city pairs. - **Regional and international markets (Medium range/haul aircraft)**. This market involves flights between 1 and 4 hours in duration, but longer flights of 5 to 6 hours are also possible, which means 2 to 5 legs per day. The Airbus A320 and Boeing B737 are very flexible aircraft that can be efficiently deployed on short hops but also on transcontinental routes. From New York, all of North America can be serviced by the latest versions of the A320 and B737. This range can also be applied to the European continent, South America, East Asia, and Africa for corresponding market areas. These narrow-body jets are the workhorses of LCCs, including Southwest Airlines, the largest 737 operator. - **International and intercontinental markets (Long-range/haul aircraft)**. This market involves flights of 7 or more hours, with 12 hours considered ultra-long-range, which means two legs or fewer per day. The North Atlantic is considered in the lower range of this category since the US East Coast and Western Europe can be connected in 6 to 8 hours. This implies a full rotation of 2 legs per day, with European-bound flights leaving the US East Coast during the night, arriving in Europe in the morning, and heading back in the afternoon to arrive on the East Coast in the evening. There is a variety of aircraft combining high payloads and long-distance ranges. Early variants, such as the B707, have evolved into planes offering high capacity, such as the B747 series, which have evolved into extra long-range abilities. Today, the emphasis in this category is on twin-engine wide-body aircraft with high fuel efficiency and range. As of 2022, the longest-range aircraft were the Boeing B787 series (14,800 km range) and the Airbus A350 series (15,600 km range for the normal version, 18,000 kilometers for the ultra-long-range version). Aircraft such as these can link almost any pair of large cities worldwide if there is enough traffic to make the service profitable. Across all these categories, a notable trend has been ever-longer ranges. One noticeable effect of improved aircraft technology is the bypassing effect, particularly over long hauls with the possibility of [direct connections without intermediary stops](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/london-sydney-air-routes/ "Shortest Air Route between London and Sydney, 1955 – 2025"). The first 737s in the 1960s had a range of just over 3,000 kilometers. Some of the most recent versions can fly more than 7,000 kilometers nonstop. Longer-range aircraft of all sizes facilitate the [fragmentation of intercontinental and transcontinental markets](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2471) and point-to-point services that depend less on hubs. For instance, in 2019, Norwegian Airlines operated a 737 on a 5,300-kilometer route between Hamilton, Ontario, and Dublin, Ireland. Otherwise, this city pair would have required a transfer to a hub such as Toronto. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/stages_air_network_development.png?resize=900%2C405&ssl=1 "Stages in Air Network Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Stages in Air Network Development![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Service-Ranges-from-New-York.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Main Air Transport Service Ranges (From New York) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Air Transport Service Ranges From New York![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-London-Sydney-Air-Routes-1.png?resize=900%2C387&ssl=1 "Shortest Air Route between London and Sydney | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Shortest Air Route between London and Sydney 1955 2025![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Chicago-Air-Hub-1984-2001.png?resize=900%2C791&ssl=1 "Air Hubs and Market Fragmentation, 1984-2001 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Air Hubs and Market Fragmentation 1984 2001## d. Differences by traffic type and seasonality An important aspect of airline networks is the emergence of **separate air cargo services** operating on separate networks. Most air cargo is carried in the [bellyhold of passenger airplanes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2396) and provides supplementary income for airline companies. However, passenger aircraft are operated on routes that make sense for passengers but may not attract much cargo or may not operate at times that make sense for cargo shippers. In response to these factors, a growing number of freighter aircraft operations have spread across the world, using airplanes that carry cargo on the main decks and in their bellyholds and operate routes attuned to the needs of shippers. More than half of all air cargo is carried in freighters, including many operated by combination carriers (e.g., Qatar Airways) that carry passengers and cargo and operate mixed fleets of passenger and freighter aircraft. More specifically, the air freight market is serviced by five types of operations: - **Passenger airlines** (e.g., United Airlines) offer the freight capacity in the bellyhold of their all-passenger aircraft fleet. For these operators, freight services are rather secondary and represent a source of additional income, such as [carrying mail](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/mail-loaded-domestic-flight/ "Mail being Loaded into a Domestic Flight, Miami"). It remains an important market as about 50% of all the air cargo is carried in the bellyhold of regular passenger aircraft. However, low-cost airlines usually do not offer air cargo services since their priority is a fast rotation of their planes and servicing lower-cost airports that do not generate cargo volumes. - **Combination airlines** (e.g., Korean Air) have fleets with freighters and passenger aircraft able to carry freight in their bellyhold. Most of the freighter operations involve long-haul services. - **Dedicated cargo operators** (e.g., Cargolux) maintain a fleet of cargo-only aircraft and offer regularly scheduled services between the airports they service. They also offer charter operations to cater to specific needs. - **Air freight integrators** (e.g., FedEx Express) operate air and ground freight services, providing nearly seamless (at least from the customer’s perspective) door-to-door deliveries. - **Specialized operators** (e.g., Volga-Dnepr Airlines) fulfill niche services that cater to specific cargo requirements (e.g., heavy loads) that do not fit the capabilities of standard cargo aircraft. Generally, the most important air cargo hubs, such as Memphis and Hong Kong, are also the hubs of key carriers. One important exception is Anchorage International Airport. Because freighters have shorter ranges than passenger aircraft and because freight is less sensitive to intermediate refueling stops than passengers, many freighters on transpacific routes **refuel in Alaska to maximize their payload** and clear US customs. It is not uncommon for older aircraft, particularly wide-body aircraft, to be converted for cargo operations when they complete their commercial life on the passenger market. For instance, in mid-2022, the fleet of Amazon Air comprised converted Boeing 767 and Boeing 737 freighters. Former passenger jets like these have lower acquisition costs, a vast pool of experienced pilots, and the ready availability of parts for maintenance. On the other hand, new-build jets, such as the popular Boeing 777 freighter used by FedEx on many intercontinental routes, have greater reliability, fuel efficiency, and range. A final feature of airline networks is their [seasonality](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9653). Air cargo flows tend to peak near the Christmas season. However, some specific products (e.g., Valentine’s Day flowers in February or the shipment of thousands of tons of Beaujolais Nouveau wine from France to Asia each November) have different temporal patterns. For passenger air transport, July and August are the most traveled months overall, corresponding to the peak tourist season in Europe and North America. Elsewhere in the world, other seasonal patterns may be more important. For instance, in China, the busiest air travel days of the year tend to be close to the Spring Festival (or Lunar New Year) in January or February. The Muslim hajj generates millions of trips to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, over a five-day period each year, with the vast majority of pilgrims flying into either King Abdulaziz International Airport in Jeddah or Prince Mohammed bin Abdulaziz International Airport in Medina. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mail_domestic_flight_miami.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Mail being Loaded into a Domestic Flight, Miami | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mail being Loaded into a Domestic Flight Miami[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_container.jpg?resize=776%2C582&ssl=1 "Air Unit Load Device | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-unit-load-device/air_container/)Air Unit Load Device[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/monthly_global_air_passenger.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Monthly Global Air Passenger Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/monthly-global-air-passenger-traffic/monthly_global_air_passenger/)Monthly Global Air Passenger Traffic 2010# 4. **Airlines, Hubs, and Alliances** There are several thousand airlines in the world, most of them very small. Only about 1,400 are members of the International Air Transport Association (IATA), and even among IATA members, a relative handful of airlines account for most of the traffic. In 2018, the top 25 airlines accounted for just over 50 percent of available seat-kilometers (ASKs), a measure of capacity. Most airlines have strongly centralized networks, and the hubs of the largest airlines are among the busiest airports in the world. [Hub-and-spoke systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2416) rely on the usage of an intermediate airport hub. They can either connect a domestic (or regional) air system if the market is large enough (e.g. United States, China, European Union) or international systems through [longitudinal](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2427) (e.g. Reykjavik) or [latitudinal](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2433) (Panama City) or both longitudinal and latitudinal (Dubai) intermediacy. An important aspect of an intermediate hub concerns maintaining schedule integrity. Airports that are prone to delays due to congestion are not effective hubs. The traffic feed through hubs like Dubai enables the hubbing carrier (Emirates in this instance) to offer higher frequency service with larger aircraft at [higher load factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2441), lowering the per passenger-kilometer cost. Traffic feed further permits a carrier to add services to more thinly traveled markets (e.g., in 2019, Emirates extended new nonstop services between Dubai and Porto, Portugal’s second-largest city). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_deregulation_hub_and_spoke2.png?resize=900%2C685&ssl=1 "Airline Deregulation and Hub-and-Spoke Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hub-spoke-deregulation/air_deregulation_hub_and_spoke-png/)Airline Deregulation and Hub and Spoke Networks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Icelandair.png?resize=900%2C655&ssl=1 "Longitudinal Intermediacy: Icelandair | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/longitudinal-intermediacy/map-icelandair/)Longitudinal Intermediacy Icelandair[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Copa-Airlines.png?resize=900%2C776&ssl=1 "Latitudinal Intermediacy: COPA Airlines | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/latitudinal-intermediacy/map-copa-airlines/)Latitudinal Intermediacy COPA Airlines[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/plane_load_factor_world.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Annual Passenger Plane Load Factor, World and United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/plane-load-factor/plane_load_factor/)Annual Passenger Plane Load Factor World and United States 1950 2021Beginning in the 1970s, deregulation freed airlines to expand, consolidate, and reconfigure their hub-and-spoke systems to optimize their performance. Computer reservation systems and frequent flyer programs amplified the hubbing advantages of large carriers. These systems and programs leveraged the economies of scale provided by large hub-and-spoke carriers to draw still more traffic onto their networks. The ability of airlines to spread their networks internationally has been limited both by the persistence of regulations and by the preferences that travelers have for their home country airlines. Carriers have overcome these limitations, at least partially, through the [formation of alliances](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2477). **Alliances** are voluntary agreements that enhance the competitive positions of the partners. Members benefit from greater scale economies, lowering transaction costs, and sharing risks while remaining commercially independent. Today, the largest alliance is the Star Alliance, which was launched in 1997 by Air Canada, Lufthansa, SAS, Thai Airways International, and United Airlines. By 2022, 21 others had joined those five carriers, and the alliance’s combined network reached 193 countries with a combined fleet of more than 5,000 aircraft. The two other major alliances are SkyTeam (18 airlines led by Delta and Air France) and Oneworld (15 airlines led by British Airways and American Airlines). Most large airlines belong to an alliance, a testament to the significant advantages of membership: - **Codesharing**. Members of an alliance can sell seats on one another’s flights so that, from the passenger’s perspective, a single airline appears to offer a seamless service even though multiple members’ flights might be involved in getting from A to B. Codesharing effectively enlarges an airline’s network and increases the chance of capturing customers. - **Optimization of connections**. Alliance members coordinate schedules at key hubs (e.g., Frankfurt for the Star Alliance) to facilitate connections from one member’s network to another. Adjacent gates in shared terminals accelerate connections. For example, all the Star Alliance airlines serving Beijing are co-located in Beijing Capital International Airport’s Terminal 3. - **Geographical specialization**. An airline in an alliance can tap global markets while specializing in its home market. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, for instance, Star Alliance member Air Canada served only seven hubs in East and Southeast Asia. Still, via its alliance partners, it gained access to dozens of other cities in the region. In turn, Asian members of the Star Alliance, such as Singapore Airlines (SIA), accessed Air Canada’s vast network in its home country. - **Joint marketing**. Alliance members reciprocate in frequent flyer programs and other marketing efforts. Travelers can earn and redeem miles across the members of an alliance. The leading airlines in the alliances are full-service network carriers (FSNCs), also known as legacy airlines. FSNC refers to the fact that these airlines offer a wide array of services (especially for passengers in first or business class), and their key selling point is the reach of their networks (networks that have been stretched by the alliances). The phrase “legacy carrier” highlights the deep roots of these airlines, some of which, like KLM, Qantas, and Delta, rank among the oldest continuously operating carriers in the world. Yet by the late 1990s, FSNCs as a group were losing the [market share](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2447) to LCCs. In 1998, there were approximately 60 budget airlines globally, and almost all of them were located in the US, Canada, and Western Europe. Together, they accounted for about 7 percent of all departure seat capacity per week worldwide. By 2018, there were approximately 140 LCCs; more than half were based in emerging markets, and accounting for about 31 percent of all seat capacity. Interestingly, budget airlines are most significant in middle-income emerging markets. In 2018, the countries where LCCs accounted for the largest share of capacity included Slovakia, Malaysia, Romania, India, and Mexico. In these countries (and their neighbors), the population that can afford air travel is growing, and competition from ground transport modes and from full-service network carriers (e.g., Air India) is weak. Conversely, budget carriers are weakest or altogether absent from poorer, authoritarian states with heavily protected state-owned flag carriers (e.g., Uzbekistan). LCCs are distinguished by several [common features](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2452): - **Fleet simplicity**. Legacy carriers operate diverse fleets because they serve a diversity of routes, from long-hauls to feeders. LCCs emphasize short-haul routes. The minimal number of aircraft types (Southwest and [Ryanair](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2459) only fly B737s, though several different models) lowers operating costs. - **High seating density**. Budget airlines pack more seats in a typically all-economy class configuration. For instance, the budget airline EasyJet fits 180 seats in its Airbus A320 aircraft versus 144 seats on the same plane used on intra-European routes for British Airways. - **Fast turnaround times**. LCCs operate their networks in ways that keep their aircraft in the air, earning money for a higher number of hours. Minimal inflight service, for instance, reduces the time needed to clean and cater flights. - **Rapid growth**. This is not just a product of the LCCs’ success but an element of it. Fast growth enables the LCCs to continue adding aircraft and staff at a steady pace, which keeps the average fleet age and average years of employee service low, both of which help keep operations costs low. - **Emphasis on secondary airports**. Secondary airports, such as Houston-Hobby instead of George Bush Houston Intercontinental or Charleroi instead of Brussels National, typically have lower landing and parking fees for airlines as well as a more entrepreneurial approach to recruiting new airline services. However, LCCs have also directly challenged established carriers in major airports. - **Reduced importance of hubs**. Most LCCs do have hubs, but for some carriers, hubs are substantially less important than they are for legacy carriers. Southwest Airlines, for instance, distributes air traffic more evenly among the top “focus cities” in its network than is true of any traditional hub-and-spoke airline. Whereas nearly half of all seat capacity on Delta Air Lines is on flights leaving just five hub cities, to reach the same share of capacity on Southwest Airlines requires combining eleven focus cities. Spreading traffic reduces vulnerability to congestion and frees aircraft to keep moving rather than waiting for arriving traffic at a hub. - **Aggressive digitalization**. Internet booking has partially neutralized the one-time advantage that legacy carriers enjoyed through their proprietary computer reservation systems. LCCs have been industry leaders in using automated kiosks and smartphones to accelerate the check-in process. Digitalization has also facilitated segmented services and monetized once-included amenities such as seat selection, priority boarding, meals, and luggage allowance. - **Avoidance of global alliances**. LCCs have stayed out of the big alliances discussed above because they come with obligations that can increase a member’s costs. These and other advantages explain the gap between fares offered by LCCs and full-service network carriers. In advanced markets, decades of competition between these two types of airlines have whittled away the differences. In 2016, US network carriers had costs per available seat-mile about 40 percent higher than American LCCs. In developing countries, conversely, the budget airline phenomenon is newer, and the gap between LCCs and legacy carriers is generally wider. For instance, Singapore Airlines had unit costs twice as high as Malaysia-based LCC AirAsia in 2016. Still, the world’s largest airlines are almost all network carriers. Southwest Airlines, the pioneer LCC, is the only LCC to rank among the world’s [20 largest airlines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2466). LCCs are important in broadening the air transportation market beyond the relatively small affluent population in countries such as India and Brazil. Budget airlines’ slogans frequently highlight this democratizing effect, as in AirAsia’s motto “Now everyone can fly”, Wizz Air’s (Hungary) “Now we can all fly”, and Jambojet’s (Kenya) “Now you can fly”. These are exaggerations, but there is little doubt that LCCs have expanded the affordability of air travel. Meanwhile, in advanced markets, the notion of a low-cost carrier is losing some of its meaning as budget airlines and full-service network carriers converge in some of their business practices and cost structures. The degree to which FSNCs have emulated low-cost carriers is a testament to the latter’s success, as is the fact that in numerous markets, the largest airline is now a budget carrier. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/strategies_low_cost_carriers.png?resize=900%2C644&ssl=1 "Strategies of Low-Cost Carriers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/low-cost-carriers/strategies_low_cost_carriers/)Strategies of Low Cost Carriers![Boarding Ryanair Flight](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/boarding_ryanair_flight.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Boarding of a Ryanair Flight | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Boarding of a Ryanair Flight[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/domestic_share_american_airlines.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Market Share of the top American Airlines | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/airline-market-share-united-states/domestic_share_american_airlines/)Market Share of the top American Airlines 1977 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/largest_airlines_revenue.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Largest Airline Companies by Revenue | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/largest-airlines-revenue/airlines_revenue/)Largest Airline Companies by Revenue 2019[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/market_share_alliances.png?resize=900%2C910&ssl=1 "Market Share of Main Airline Alliances | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-alliances/market_share_alliances/)Market Share of Main Airline Alliances 2020# 5. The Future of Flight The COVID-19 pandemic has been the [most severe crisis in civil aviation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/frankfurt-airport-covid/ "Frankfurt International Airport, April 15, 2020") since World War II. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) has estimated worldwide airline industry losses at $84 billion for 2020. By April 2020, [air traffic in most markets plummeted by more than 90%](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/daily-air-travelers-united-states/ "Daily Air Travelers in the United States, 2019-2021") versus the same time in the previous year. By mid-2022, however, traffic levels were back to near pre-pandemic levels in North America and Western Europe. In fact, traffic recovered faster than expected in these markets, causing significant schedule problems. Airlines had sharply downsized their fleets and staff levels early in the pandemic, leaving them ill-prepared for the resumption of high traffic levels in 2022. Longer-term challenges may emerge from the pandemic. The shift towards forms of teleworking, tele-education, and teleconferences may engender **enduring changes in business travel behavior**. Leisure travel behavior may also change. For instance, in 2021, tourists preferred shorter, domestic, or regional nonstop flights due to the increased exposure that comes with long-distance travel via hubs, including the burden of regulations, testing, and quarantine procedures associated with international travel. However, such preferences were less noticeable as testing and quarantine procedures were removed for most international travel in 2022. The pandemic may also accelerate the shift away from full-service airlines toward LCCs. A large number of network carriers’ A380s and B747s parked in desert “boneyards” will never again carry passengers. For instance, Air France retired its A380 fleet in 2022. Between 2020 and 2022, the COVID-19 crisis shifted the balance of the industry toward cargo. Freight rates jumped during the pandemic, and cargo’s share of industry revenue soared from 12 percent in 2019 to 26 percent in 2020. Some airlines even converted a part of their passenger planes into cargo planes to take advantage of historically high freight rates that resulted. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/frankfurt_airport_april_2020.jpg?resize=900%2C601&ssl=1 "Frankfurt International Airport, April 15 2020, 2PM | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/frankfurt-airport-covid/frankfurt_airport_april_2020/)Frankfurt International Airport April 15 2020 2PM[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/daily_air_travel_usa2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Daily Air Travelers in the United States, 2019-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/daily-air-travelers-united-states/daily_air_travelers_usa/)Daily Air Travelers in the United States 2019 2022Beyond the COVID-19 crisis, numerous clouds are on the horizon for civil aviation. First, the airline industry must be financially strong enough to continue to afford new generations of aircraft upon which further gains in efficiency and improved environmental performance depend. The [development costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2487) of new jetliners, even after adjusting for inflation, are unprecedented, partly because the latest generation of aircraft incorporates so many complex interfacing systems. The **financial health** of the industry’s largest airlines is particularly important because great carriers have previously provided the launch orders for new airliners. Pan Am, for instance, launched the B707 and B747; United launched the B767 and B777; Air France and Lufthansa provided the launch orders for most of Airbus’ early airliners; and Asian carriers such as Singapore Airlines and All Nippon Airways have been significant launch customers since 2000. By contrast, the LCCs’ focus on a handful of smaller, relatively short-haul aircraft limits their capacity to serve as catalysts for technological breakthroughs in aviation. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_yield_management.png?resize=900%2C361&ssl=1 "Transportation Yield Management | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transportation-yield-management/yield_management/)Transportation Yield Management[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/airfares_jfk_lax.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Fares Disbursed for JFK–LAX Route | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/average-fares-jfk-lax-route/airfares_jfk_lax/)Average Fares Disbursed for JFKLAX Route 2009 April to July[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passenger_airlines_operating_costs_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Passenger Airlines Operating Costs, United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/airline-operating-costs/passenger_airlines_operating_costs_usa/)Passenger Airlines Operating Costs United States 2019[![A380 Jfk New York](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/a380_jfk_new_york.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "A380 at the John F Kennedy Airport, New York | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/a380-paris-airport/img_0226-jpg/)A380 at the John F Kennedy Airport New YorkStill, both Boeing and Airbus promise that their newest jetliners will offer unparalleled [**fuel efficiency**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2491). That is important because a second fundamental threat to the future of the airline industry is the [price](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5572) and availability of fuel. In 2018, fuel accounted for about [24 percent of the operating costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7287) of airlines globally. As noted above, aviation is less amenable to substituting conventional fossil fuels than ground transport modes, though numerous innovations show promise. The [spike in fuel prices](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/jet-fuel-prices/ "Jet Fuel Prices, 1990-2022") after the Russian invasion of Ukraine added impetus to decarbonizing the air transport sector. A third threat is **terrorism and security**. The rise of the airline industry was partly facilitated by the steady advance in the safety and predictability of air travel from the early 20th-century “Flying Coffins”. Terrorism directed against civil aviation threatens the confidence of ordinary travelers, and added security constraints sap some of the speed advantages of aviation. The September 11 attacks caused a two-year dip in traffic levels. The 2001 attacks were the most significant to affect the airline industry in the United States. Still, before and after those attacks, civil aviation was a frequent target of terrorist attacks in the Middle East, Europe, and other parts of the world. With the growth of air traffic, airports were facing **capacity pressures and congestion** before the COVID-19 pandemic, which, in some cases, led to changes in flight schedules. In the United States, a flight that arrives more than 15 minutes past its scheduled time is considered late. Airlines are posting longer flight times to maintain the appearance of schedule integrity. For instance, a flight from New York to Los Angeles scheduled to take 5 hours in the 1960s is now scheduled to take more than 6 hours. A 45-minute flight from New York to Washington saw its scheduled duration extended to one hour and 15 minutes. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/jet_fuel_prices.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Jet Fuel Prices, 1990-2026 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/jet-fuel-prices/jet_a_fuel_prices/)Jet Fuel Prices 1990 2026[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fuel_efficiency_passenger_jet.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Trends in Fuel Efficiency, Selected Passenger Jet Planes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/aircraft-energy-efficiency/jet_fuel_efficiency/)Trends in Fuel Efficiency Selected Passenger Jet Planes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/flight_duration_usa-1.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Changes in the Duration of Selected Scheduled Flights | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/changes-flight-durations/flight_duration_usa/)Changes in the Duration of Selected Scheduled Flights 1996 2018 hoursBefore the pandemic, emerging economies such as India, Indonesia, and Brazil saw a surge in air travel demand, both for domestic and international markets, a trend that strained their air transport systems. An essential means of dealing with this challenge has been the **modernization of air traffic control systems**, some of which remain highly fragmented. For instance, using satellite-based navigation, air travel can be improved with better flight paths and more direct descents. The outcomes include shorter flight times, improved safety, and lower fuel consumption and environmental emissions. Such innovations are likely to be very important again as traffic levels recover. Environmental concerns are perhaps the darkest cloud on the horizon for civil aviation. Aviation has accounted for a growing share of **environmental externalities**, and strategies to curtail emissions and noise could mean higher aviation taxes, higher airfares, and restrictions on aircraft operations (e.g., nighttime curfews). Those most alarmed by aviation’s environmental impacts will likely resist the return to pre-pandemic practices, and governments may have the leverage to do so. The severe financial distress of the airline industry, sparked by the COVID-19 pandemic, has drawn governments back into the industry. In 2020, airlines received hundreds of billions of dollars in state aid, often with strings attached, giving governments new leverage over carriers. For instance, the French government has pressured Air France to become “greener”, including reducing competition with rail on short-haul sectors, as part of its bailout of the airline. Ultimately, the speed with which air links have been reopened even during the pandemic speaks to the degree to which “aeromobility” is intertwined into the fabric of everyday life across much of the world. The COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine war, and responses to longer-term concerns about air transportation’s role in climate change will change the trajectory and geography of aviation. Air transportation will remain a vital force shaping the contours and tempo of society at scales ranging from the local to the global. --- ## Related Topics - [6.5 – Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3717) - [B.6 – Mega Airport Projects](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7535) - [5.1 – Transportation Modes: An Overview](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1731) - [B.7 – International Tourism and Transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9622) - [B.19 – Transportation and Pandemics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8869) ## Bibliography - Adey, P., L. Budd, and P. 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(2019) Low-Cost Carriers in Emerging Countries. Amsterdam: [Elsevier.](https://www.elsevier.com/books/low-cost-carriers-in-emerging-countries/bowen/978-0-12-811393-6) - Brueckner, K. (2003) “Airline traffic and urban economic development”, Urban Studies, Vol. 40, No. 8, pp. 1455-1469. - Davies, R.E.G. (1964) A History of the World’s Airlines. London: Oxford University Press. - Dick, R. and D. Patterson (2003) Aviation Century: The Early Years. Erin, Ontario: Boston Mills Press. - Fuellhart, K. and K. O’Connor (2019) “A supply-side categorization of airports across global multiple-airport cities and regions”, GeoJournal,Vol. 84, No. 1, pp 15-30. - Goetz, A.R. and L. Budd (eds) (2014) The Geographies of Air Transport, Transport and Mobility Series, Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate. - Graham B. (1995) Geography and Air Transport, Chichester: Wiley. - Lin, W. (2020) “Aeromobilities in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic”, Transfers, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 102–110. - O’Connell, J.F. and G. Williams (2013) Air Transport in the 21st Century: Key Strategic Development, Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate. - Prentice, B. (2016) “The Role of the Airship in the New Low-Carbon Era”, The Shipper Advocate, Fall, pp. 16-19. - Solberg, C. (1979) Conquest of the Skies: A History of Commercial Aviation in America. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. - Yergin, D. R.H.K. Vietor and P.C. Evans (2000) Fettered Flight: Globalization and the Airline Industry, Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Energy Research Associates. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Domains of Maritime Circulation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/domains-maritime-circulation/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Map World Maritime Shipping Lanes Bottlenecks Chokepoints](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Domains-Maritime-Circulation.jpg?resize=768%2C390&ssl=1 "Domains of Maritime Circulation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Domains of Maritime Circulation*Source: Shipping density data adapted from IMF World Seaborne Trade Monitoring System. Note: Commercial ships involve bulk carriers, tankers, and containerships.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Domains-Maritime-Circulation.pdf) Oceanic masses and rivers are the two primary domains of maritime circulation, and oceanic masses account for 71% of the terrestrial surface. The four major oceans relevant to maritime circulation are the Pacific (165 million square km), the Atlantic (82 million square km), the Indian (73 million square km), and the Mediterranean (2.5 million square km). The Pacific is by far the largest ocean and supports about 25% of the global maritime trade, a share that is growing rapidly. Only a small portion of it is used for commercial transportation purposes. The northernmost parts of the Atlantic as well as the southernmost parts of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans, are not much used mainly because of hazardous navigation conditions (mainly ice) and their remoteness to the centers of economic activity. The shipping density is derived from the Automatic Identification System (AIS) of a sample of commercial vessels between 2015 and 2021. It is not weighted by ship size nor fully representative of all commercial activity. Even if maritime transportation has experienced remarkable improvements in its safety and reliability, maritime routes are still hindered by dominant winds, currents, and general weather patterns. The North Atlantic and the North Pacific (50 to 60 degrees north) are subject to heavy wave activity during the winter that sometimes impairs navigation and may cause ships to follow routes at lower latitudes, thereby increasing route lengths. During the summer monsoon season (April to October), navigation may become more hazardous on the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. About 50 countries have an inland navigation network of more than 1,000 kilometers. Rivers may not be useful for commercial navigation if their orientation does not correspond to transport demand. Thus, many of the major rivers of Russia flow north-south, while the main flows are east-west. Shallow draft and extensive obstacles, such as rapids, may also limit navigation. However, many rivers, such as the Rhine or the Chang Jiang, are significant arteries for water transport because they provide access from the oceans to inland markets. Yet, their main purpose remains to connect regional markets. Geographically, maritime activities can be divided into two major categories: - **Interior (Fluvial) Waterways**. Fluvial transportation is well suited to transport bulk cargo, has low costs, and limited environmental externalities. Industrial countries with large waterway systems, such as the Volga, the St. Lawrence / Great Lakes, the Mississippi, and the Rhine, rely partly on fluvial transport. All these networks have a tree-like structure broken by the construction of canals linking different tributaries. Domains of inland navigation in North America, Europe, and China are not equivalent in terms of ship sizes, implying different operational characteristics. Most waterways are solely used for bulk cargo. However, inland integration with maritime shipping is emerging with container barge services, especially in Western Europe. Growth and diversification of activities on Chinese waterways have also been a dominant trend as China integrated into the global economy and as its domestic economy grew. - **Transcontinental Waterways**. Seaborne trade has experienced [strong growth](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2053), linked with reliance on energy, minerals, and agricultural products. These trades rely on economies of scale and are carried by large maritime companies. A division of labor and capital in the maritime industry has emerged, with markets, technology, and capital provided by developed economies and labor by developing economies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/domains-maritime-circulation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/domains-maritime-circulation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/domains-maritime-circulation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/domains-maritime-circulation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Revolutions in Human History](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/transport-revolutions-history/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_revolutions_history2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Transport Revolutions in Human History | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Revolutions in Human History*Source: adapted from R. Gilbert and A. Perl (2007) Transport Revolutions: Moving people and freight without oil, London: Earthscan / James & James.* Four main eras in transport revolutions can be considered for human history: - **Paleolithic**. Outside hunting and seasonal migration trails, there was no particular transport technology of note. Where maritime distances were short, and coastlines were constantly visible, simple craft allowed people to cross narrow bodies of water. Long-distance movements involved on-foot migration across hemispheres and continents, mostly over several generations. - **Agrarian**. The agricultural revolution enabled the gradual domestication of animals and plants, leading to the development of animal-powered transportation. The deployment of wheeled transport was also associated with the construction of road infrastructure, including bridges. This improved cohesion led to the formation of city-states, kingdoms, and empires that were best equipped to build such networks. - **Modern**. This era began in the 15th century, with improvements in shipbuilding and navigation, enabling the crossing of vast oceans. Overland mobility remained largely constrained to trails, roads, and canals. Even more significant was the introduction of the steam engine and the subsequent developments of rail and steamship networks in the 19th century. Overland transport systems became faster than maritime transport for the first time. - **Contemporary**. The early 20th century marks a surge in mobility with the setting of national railway and highway systems. However, it is the advent of air travel in the 1930s that enabled the most significant expansion of mobility, reaching a global scale in the second half of the 20th century. Telecommunication networks, initially telegraphic, telephones, television, and digital media allowed a substitution for mobility. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/transport-revolutions-history/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/transport-revolutions-history/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/transport-revolutions-history/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/transport-revolutions-history/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Performance of Pre-industrial Means of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/pre-industrial-travel-modes/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/preindustrial.png?resize=900%2C647&ssl=1 "The Performance of Pre-industrial Means of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Performance of Pre industrial Means of TransportationThe most common pre-industrial transportation modes had the following characteristics: - **Walking**. Under normal conditions, such as a well-maintained path and level terrain, someone carrying 18 kilos can walk 30 km in about 8 hours. This distance can easily be halved if the terrain is less uniform and if travel takes place under unsuitable weather conditions. - **Beasts of burden**. Using animals to assist travel and carry goods extended the capacity and the range of trade. A horse can carry 125 kilos, including the rider. Therefore, horse-supported trade either involved someone walking alongside the horse or the use of a second (or more) horse to carry cargo while riding. Camels were even more effective in carrying additional loads and were well adapted to the dry conditions prevailing in North Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia. Using animals to pull a conveyance, such as a cart or a barge, substantially improved transportation capacity but required well-maintained roads or a river system. Relying on animals for travel also entailed additional time-consuming, labor-intensive tasks, such as feeding and caring for them. Such an activity, therefore, tended to take place in large groups and required a good supply of feed. - **Sailing**. Although sailing was used for millennia to transport people and cargo, the capacity of sailships rarely exceeded 100 tons, and they were not designed for deep-sea travel. For instance, the Dhow was an ancient coastal sailing ship found throughout the Middle East and South Asia and supported [Arab trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1048) in the Middle Ages. In the 15th century, [new ship designs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1072) started to emerge, able to carry larger quantities of cargo over longer distances. Although many sailships bear the name of a specific class, there was no particular design standard, implying a variety of sizes and capacities. One of the first effective cargo sailing vessels was the carrack, which could carry up to 1500 tons at about 10 km/hr. From the 15th to the 17th centuries, the carrack was the linchpin of long-distance maritime trade. By the 17th century, it was gradually replaced by the galleon, which, although it had a lower average capacity, was much more maneuverable and cost-effective. Still, some galleons exceeded 1500 tons. Sailing technology reached its peak efficiency by the 19th century when [clipper ships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1158) were introduced and able to carry a good quantity of cargo over effective distances of about 700 km per day. The effective daily travel distance for maritime transport can vary considerably depending on [prevailing wind](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=379) and sea current conditions. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/pre-industrial-travel-modes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/pre-industrial-travel-modes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/pre-industrial-travel-modes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/pre-industrial-travel-modes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Freight Traffic at the World's Largest Airports, 2018](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-freight-airports/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Freight-AIrports-2018.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Freight Traffic at the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Freight Traffic at the Worlds Largest Airports 2018*Source: Airports Council International. Note: Includes airports with an annual cargo volume above 25,000 metric tons. Cargo includes mail.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Freight-AIrports-2018.pdf) Global air freight activity is clustered around [East Asia](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3771), the [American Midwest](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3760), and [Western Europe](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3765). Other clusters are around the Middle East and Southeast Asia. Air freight activity is usually related to airports servicing important consumption markets, manufacturers of high-value goods, or distribution hubs. Another factor concerns load centers in developing countries exporting perishables (e.g., produce, flowers) to developed countries, such as many Latin American airports. Since cargo planes have less range than passenger planes, two airports play a notable intermediate role: **Anchorage** (Pacific Asia-North America traffic) and **Dubai/Doha** (Pacific Asia-Western Europe traffic). The largest freight airports are usually the hubs of [global air freight integrators](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/hubs-air-freight-integrators/ "Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators"). The importance of Pacific Asian airports is linked to the specific role of the region in the global economy, especially in electronics. Since these products tend to have a high value-to-weight ratio, air transport is particularly suitable for shipping to North American and Western European markets. The level of freight activity at airports tends to differ from that of [passengers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3743), especially in the United States. However, there are limited differences when looking at air cargo activity at the [metropolitan level](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/air-cargo-metropolitan-area/ "Air Cargo Traffic by Metropolitan Area, 2018"), as most of the activity is concentrated in a single airport. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-freight-airports/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-freight-airports/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-freight-airports/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-freight-airports/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Development of Polar Air Routes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/polar-air-routes/) **Published:** March 13, 2020 **Author:** John Bowen **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/development_polar_air_routes.png?w=900&ssl=1 "The Development of Polar Air Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Development of Polar Air RoutesThe advantage of the North Pole as a shortcut for intercontinental air transportation is evident, but **technical and geopolitical issues** prevented the full usage of polar routes for commercial transportation until the 1990s. The airspace of Eastern Bloc countries such as the Soviet Union and China was restricted, forcing airlines to take longer routes. Aircraft range was also more limited, which often required a technical refueling stop for long-distance hauls. A flight from London to Tokyo would need to transit through Anchorage or a circuitous route through Dubai and Hong Kong. Flights from New York and Los Angeles to Tokyo also required a stop at Anchorage. With the introduction of long-range aircraft such as the Boeing 747-200 and 777 and the Airbus A340, which have ranges exceeding 13,000 km, nonstop transpolar flights became possible. However, the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s marked the geopolitical possibility of using the **Arctic as an intercontinental air route**. After initial testing and the approval of designated polar routes (Polar 1 to 4; each with a specific path), the airspace was inaugurated in 2001, but the first non-stop polar flight took place in 1998 between Hong Kong and New York on Polar 1, taking 16 hours. This allowed for direct connections without a technical stop at Anchorage. London, in particular, could now be directly connected to Tokyo, Beijing, and Hong Kong. Major long-distance air corridors were restructured, leading to the decline of Anchorage as an air passenger hub. However, because it served as an intermediary location for transpacific cargo flows, Anchorage experienced substantial growth in air cargo activity and remains a [major air cargo hub](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-freight-airports/). The closure of Russian airspace to the airlines of many countries after its invasion of Ukraine in 2022 forced some carriers to move away from polar routes. These include carriers from the European Union and North America. Asian carriers, particularly Chinese carriers, are still allowed to use Russian airspace, implying that polar routes are still available but again constrained by geopolitics. These constraints were further exacerbated by the Iran War in 2026, since the shortest route avoiding the Russian and Iranian airspaces had to go through a narrow corridor through Georgia and Azerbaijan. This resulted in detours similar to those experienced during the Cold War. Still, these detours involve a small share of the global air traffic, which is mainly related to regional connectivity within North America, Europe, and East Asia. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/polar-air-routes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/polar-air-routes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/polar-air-routes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/polar-air-routes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Percentage of Households by Number of Vehicles, 1960-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/household-vehicles-united-states/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/household_vehicles_usa2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Percentage of Households by Number of Vehicles, 1960-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Percentage of Households by Number of Vehicles 1960 2020*Source: U. S. Department of Transportation, Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, Journey-to-Work Trends in the United States and its Major Metropolitan Area, 1960–1990, Cambridge, MA, 1994, p. 2-2. 2000 data – U.S. Bureau of the Census, American Fact Finder, factfinder.census.gov, Table QT-04, August 2001. 2010-2020 data – U.S. Bureau of the Census, American Community Survey, Table CP04.* There are two important trends in car ownership in the United States which can be extrapolated to other highly motorized societies: - **Reduction in the number of households without cars**. The number of households without cars declined by about half, from 22% in 1960 to 8.5% in 2020. This share has remained consistent since the 2000s. - **Increase in multi-vehicle households**. The number of households with two or more cars has increased substantially, from 22% in 1960 to 59% in 2020. An important factor behind these trends is the rising standards of living and the growing participation of women in the labor force, which for a household often requires the ownership of a second vehicle. Still, since 2000, a new trend appears to be emerging with a stabilization in the distribution of vehicle ownership, underlining a mature market. It can even be expected that the share of households without a vehicle or with more than one vehicle will decline in the coming years. This is linked to population aging, the high cost of vehicle ownership, and changing attitudes toward vehicle ownership, particularly in light of real-time ride-sharing services and the introduction of automated taxi services. [Peak mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1879) may become a reality. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/household-vehicles-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/household-vehicles-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/household-vehicles-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/household-vehicles-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Polar Shipping Routes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/polar-shipping-routes/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-Polar-Routes-Simplified.png?resize=900%2C900&ssl=1 "Polar Shipping Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Polar Shipping Routes*Note: National Snow and Ice Data Center. North Pole Azimuthal Equidistant Projection.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Polar-Routes-Simplified.pdf) Global climate change is offering new opportunities for international transportation networks, notably with a trend of receding ice around the North Pole. If this trend continues, parts of the Arctic could be used more reliably for navigation, at least during the summer months and for longer periods. The main trans-Arctic routes include: - The **Northern Sea Route** (NSR) along the Arctic coast of Russia. This is the maritime route that is likely to be free of ice first and thus represents the highest commercial potential. It would reduce a maritime journey between East Asia and Western Europe from 21,000 km using the Suez Canal to 12,800 km, cutting transit time by 10-15 days. During the Soviet Era, the NSR was used to resupply military and resource extraction along the Soviet Arctic. Still, this traffic dropped in the early 1990s with the collapse of the Soviet Union. It was only in the late 2000s that interest and traffic picked up. In 2009, two German ships, Beluga Fraternity and Beluga Foresight, completed the first commercial journey across the Northern Sea Route (or Northeast Passage), linking Busan to Rotterdam with several stopovers, escorted by a Russian icebreaker. Other shipping lines have also run trials, but these trials did not show much commercial potential. The 3,600 TEU ship Venta Maersk used this route in 2018, representing the first trial inter-range container service. In 2024, the first Panamax containership crossed the route without an icebreaker escort. In 2026, Chinese container line Sea Legend Shipping inaugurated a seasonal (August to November) weekly service between China and Europe using the NSR. - The **Northwest Passage** (NWP) crossing Canada’s Arctic Ocean could reduce the maritime journey between East Asia and Western Europe by about 13,600 km, while taking 24,000 km using the Panama Canal, cutting transit time by about 10 days. In 2007, the Northwest Passage was open during the summer months for the first time in recorded history, but it remains to be seen how stable this opening is. - The **Arctic Bridge** linking the Russian port of Murmansk or the Norwegian port of Narvik to the Canadian port of Churchill could be used, mostly for the grain trade. Although this is not a trans-Arctic route per se, it is designed to connect two hinterlands (Northwest Europe and the North American Midwest) through the Arctic. - The **Transpolar Sea Route** (TSR) would use the central part of the Arctic to directly link the Strait of Bering and the Atlantic Ocean at Murmansk. This route is hypothetical as it involves ice-free conditions that have not yet been observed. The consideration of Arctic routes for commercial navigation has been the subject of much hype and unrealistic expectations. It remains a very speculative endeavor, mainly for four reasons: - First, it is **uncertain to what extent the receding perennial ice cover is a confirmed trend or simply part of a long-term climatic cycle**. It is also difficult to predict annual variations in the ice cover, underlining unstable navigation conditions. Even if the Arctic routes became regularly open during the summer, the Arctic would remain closed to commercial navigation during the winter months (unless there are dramatic shifts in weather patterns). As of 2010, ice-free conditions on most Arctic shipping routes lasted only about 30 days, why July to November considered to be the navigation window. There is uncertainty about the seasonal shipping window, making voyage and itinerary planning difficult. Since maritime shipping companies are looking for regular and consistent services, this seasonality has limited commercial appeal. Economic gains from shorter Arctic shipping routes are uncertain. - Second, there is very **limited economic activity around the Arctic Circle**, implying that shipping services crossing the Arctic have almost no opportunity to drop and pick up cargo as they pass through. Thus, unlike other long-distance commercial shipping routes, there is limited revenue-generation potential for shipping lines along the Arctic route, which prevents the emergence of transshipment hubs. Shipping in the Arctic is suitable for point-to-point services that directly link a source port to a destination port. This value proposition could improve if resources (oil, gas, and mining) around the Arctic are extracted in greater quantities, which would favor bulk shipping. This would mostly take place along the Siberian coast. For instance, Sabetta and Utrenny LNG terminals were completed in 2017 and 2022, respectively, and represent notable energy export platforms in the Russian Arctic. - The Arctic remains a **frontier in terms of weather forecasting, charting, and building a navigation system, implying uncertainties and unreliability for navigation**. Thus, climate change may impose an additional risk to navigation around the Arctic. The decrease in sea ice extent and its smaller volume are linked to the growing mobility of summer sea ice, as well as increased coastal erosion. Substantial efforts are needed to ensure that navigation can take place safely along well-defined and patrolled routes. Search, rescue and recovery operations for the ship and its crew are hazardous. The bathymetry in the Arctic is usually shallow, which limits the size of the ships that could be operated in these waters. Ships also need to be certified to operate in Arctic conditions, which increases costs and undermines the economic benefits of the route. Circulation often requires a convoy spearheaded by an icebreaker, which adds costs. Insurance rates are also much higher because the risks involved are not straightforward to assess. - The setting of **rail corridors between China and Europe** across Central Asia (the [Eurasian landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7197), also known as the Belt and Road initiative) is offering an option that is more stable and time-efficient than the Arctic routes. In view of all of the above, maritime shipping companies are not yet seriously considering the commercial potential of the Arctic as a navigation shortcut. Still, rising bunker fuel prices and slow-steaming practices can be considered incentives for developing niche services that could use the Arctic as a shortcut between major markets in the northern hemisphere. By doing so, shipping services would have the option to offset the distance advantage of the shorter Arctic routes with slower speeds and fuel-consumption benefits. Polar routes remain a niche market that has potential, but the nature and extent of this market remain unclear. In 2021, several shipping lines, including MSC, underlined that they do not seek to use Arctic routes in the future, mainly because navigation is hazardous and there are unreliable ship and crew rescue options. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/polar-shipping-routes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/polar-shipping-routes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/polar-shipping-routes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/polar-shipping-routes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Genesis of Globalization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/genesis-globalization/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/genesis_globalization2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "The Genesis of Globalization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Genesis of GlobalizationThe time frame in which globalization emerged is subject to different interpretations since it could be argued that human history is in itself a process leading to globalization. The three main perspectives related to the genesis of globalization are: - **Pre-Modern**. Assumes that globalization was always a driving force but that technical, political, and socioeconomic constraints impeded its full realization. The setting of empires is illustrative of hegemonic attempts where imperialistic and mercantile systems were established on the basis of exploration, war (plunder and tribute), and trade. Although long-distance mobility was limited, entities such as the Roman Empire, the Mongolian Empire, or Imperial China are considered early forms of globalization. The age of exploration, which began in the 15th century and was followed by the establishment of large colonial empires spanning the globe (e.g., the English, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese Empires), represented the fullest expression of this form of globalization. For instance, the colonization of the Americas led to significant influxes of gold and silver in the European market in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. - **Modern Age**. Assumes that globalization took an early operational form with the setting of powerful nation-states, each controlling, formally or informally, dependent territories. The Industrial Revolution permitted the development and expansion of capitalism, particularly through mass production and consumption. Mechanized forms of transportation started to emerge, improving the capacity and efficiency of international trade. This process accelerated in the late 19th century, particularly after the Berlin Conference of 1884, which marked the partition of Africa among colonial powers. - **Post-Modern (Contemporary)**. Assumes that globalization only took its true form after World War II as capitalism, multinational corporations, and processes of trade liberalization became important driving forces. The end of the colonial era supported the emergence of trade relations more based upon comparative advantages than political imperatives. The setting of economic blocs, notably free trade agreements, is illustrative of new transnational dynamics based on collaboration. Modern forms of transportation and telecommunications enabled the realization of an integrated and interdependent global economy, particularly through containerization and the development of global air transport networks. The Fall of the Soviet Union and the opening of China in the 1990s permitted large economic regions to enter the system of global trade and resulted in a surge of international transactions. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/genesis-globalization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/genesis-globalization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/genesis-globalization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/genesis-globalization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [1.2 - Transportation and the Physical Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The physical environment imposes **major constraints on transportation systems**, in terms of what mode can be used, the extent of the service, its costs, capacity, and reliability. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Physical Constraints](#1_Physical_Constraints) - [2. Overcoming the Physical Environment](#2_Overcoming_the_Physical_Environment) - [3. Transportation and the Spatial Structure](#3_Transportation_and_the_Spatial_Structure) - [4. Space / Time Relationships](#4_Space_Time_Relationships) # 1. Physical Constraints Since transportation involves a set of technologies designed to overcome the **constraints of space**, particularly distance, physical constraints are the most fundamental to consider. Even if technological improvements have made the physical constraints of space less acute, they still play a considerable role in the location, path, construction and maintenance costs, and operational conditions of transportation systems. ## a. Topography Features such as mountains and valleys have strongly influenced the structure of transportation networks, the cost, and the feasibility of transportation projects. Land transport infrastructure is usually built where there are the fewest physical impediments, such as on plains, along valleys, through mountain passes, or, when necessary, through digging tunnels. Roads follow the path of **least resistance**. When the first alpine tunnels began to be built in the 19th century, they were constructed at higher altitudes to shorten their length but make them more difficult to access. By the mid-20th century, boring technology allowed the construction of base tunnels. Water depths and the location of obstacles such as reefs influence water transport. Coastlines influence the location of port infrastructure. Aircraft require airfields of considerable size for take-off, landing, and servicing. Topography can impose a natural convergence of routes that will create a certain degree of centrality. It may help a location become a trade center as a collector and distributor of goods. Topography can complicate, postpone, or prevent transport activities and investment. Physical constraints fundamentally act as [absolute and relative barriers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=353) to mobility. An absolute barrier is a geographical feature that entirely prevents a movement, while relative barriers impose additional costs and delays. The topography notably influences land transportation networks, as highways and railways tend to be impeded by grades higher than 3% and 1%, respectively. Under such circumstances, land transportation tends to be denser in areas with limited topography. ## b. Hydrology The properties, [distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/main-water-masses-world/ "Main Water Masses of the World"), and [circulation of water](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=360) play an important role in the transport industry as hydrology simultaneously **supports and constrains transport activities**. Maritime transport is influenced by the availability of [navigable channels](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=367) through oceans, rivers, lakes, and shallow seas. Several river systems, such as the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Rhine, the Mekong, and the Yangtze, are important navigable routes into the heart of continents. Historically, they have been the focus of human activities that have taken advantage of their transport opportunities. While Europe, the Americas, and East Asia are well endowed with navigable rivers, Sub-Saharan Africa does not have navigable rivers over long stretches because of escarpments. This is particularly the case for the segments reaching the ocean, with several rapids and waterfalls, making navigation impractical. Therefore, differences in hydrological endowments can be associated with differences in economic opportunities. Port sites are also highly influenced by the physical attributes of the site, where natural features (bays, sand bars, and fjords) protect port installations. Since traffic is transshipped at these installations, the location of ports is a dominant element in the structure of maritime networks. Where barriers exist, such as narrows, rapids, or land breaks, water transport can only overcome these obstacles with substantial investments in canals or dredging. Conversely, waterways serve as barriers to land transportation, necessitating the construction of bridges, tunnels, and detours. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/absolute_relative_barriers.png?resize=900%2C590&ssl=1 "Absolute, Relative and Arbitrary Barriers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/absolute-relative-arbitrary-barriers/absolute_relative_arbitrary_barriers/)Absolute Relative and Arbitrary Barriers[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map-oceanic-masses.png?resize=900%2C457&ssl=1 "Main Water Masses of the World | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/map-oceanic-masses/)Main Water Masses of the World[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-World-Sea-Current-Gyres.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "Major Oceanic Gyres and Sea Currents | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-oceanic-gyres-currents/map-world-sea-current-gyres-png/)Major Oceanic Gyres and Sea Currents[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-World-Passages-Simplified-1.png?resize=900%2C457&ssl=1 "The Geographical Space of Maritime Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/maritime-transportation-geography-components/map-world-passages-simplified-1/)The Geographical Space of Maritime Transportation## c. Climate The main components of climate include temperature, [wind](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=379), and precipitation, with their impacts on transportation modes and infrastructure ranging from negligible to severe. Hazardous conditions such as snow, heavy rainfall, ice, or fog can severely curtail freight and passenger movements. Air transportation is particularly vulnerable to weather disruptions, such as during winter, when a snowstorm can create cascading effects on air services. There is [seasonality](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=386) for global wind patterns. Jet streams are also a major physical component that international air carriers must consider. For an aircraft, the wind speed can affect travel time and costs. Tailwind conditions can reduce scheduled flight time by up to an hour for intercontinental flights. For instance, due to strong jet stream conditions during winter, transatlantic flights between the American East Coast and Europe can gain 30 to 45 minutes from the scheduled eastbound flight time. However, for westbound flights, unusually strong jet stream conditions will lengthen flight time. They may occasionally force a flight to do an unscheduled refueling stop in intermediary airports such as Gander (Newfoundland) or Bangor (Maine). Climate change is expected to increase the strength of the North Atlantic jet stream and could lengthen westbound flights between North America and Europe. The climate is also affecting transportation networks by influencing **construction and maintenance costs**. Since a large share of the global population lives in temperate climates, they are exposed to notable temperature variations between the summer and winter. Large temperature variations have a taxing impact on transportation infrastructures with thermal expansion and contraction cycles that may damage infrastructure made from or resting on concrete and asphalt. Infrastructures such as bridges, railways, and pipelines require expansion joints to absorb thermal expansion and contraction of their materials. For instance, land covered by [permafrost ](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19890 "Land Covered by Permafrost")offers unique constraints for constructing and maintaining transportation infrastructures. In temperate climates, the freeze-thaw cycle can damage transport infrastructure such as road surfaces, particularly during spring, when they are more continuous. Even volcanic eruptions, by altering atmospheric conditions, can impact transport operations. In 2010, a volcanic eruption in Iceland released large amounts of [ash into the atmosphere](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=394), which forced the closing of most airports in northwestern Europe and the cancellation of many transatlantic flights out of concern that the ash could damage jet engines. From a geometrical standpoint, the sphericity of the Earth determines the [great circle distance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=403); the shortest distance line between two points on a sphere. This feature explains the paths followed by major intercontinental maritime and air routes. For air travel, the great circle distance was first used by Lindbergh to [cross the North Atlantic](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/lindbergh-great-circle-path-first-transatlantic-flight-1927/ "Lindbergh Great Circle Path, First Transatlantic Flight, 1927") non-stop in 1927. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/global_wind_patterns_seasonal_variation.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Global Wind Patterns and their Seasonal Variation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-wind-patterns/global_wind_patterns/)Global Wind Patterns and their Seasonal Variation[![Laud Covered Permafrost](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/laud_covered_permafrost.png?resize=900%2C900&ssl=1 "Land Covered by Permafrost | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/land-covered-by-permafrost/map-permafrost-1/)Land Covered by Permafrost[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/icelandvolcanicash2010.jpg?resize=776%2C604&ssl=1 "Volcanic Ash Plume across the North Atlantic, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/iceland-volcanic-ash-atlantic-2010/icelandvolcanicash2010/)Volcanic Ash Plume across the North Atlantic 2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-Great-Circle-Distance-1.png?resize=768%2C350&ssl=1 "Great Circle Distance between New York, Moscow and Tokyo | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/great-circle-distance/map-great-circle-distance-png/)The Great Circle Distance[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lindbergh_transatlantic_1927.jpg?resize=900%2C419&ssl=1 "Lindbergh Great Circle Path, First Transatlantic Flight, 1927 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/lindbergh_transatlantic_1927/)Lindbergh Great Circle Path for the First Transatlantic Flight 1927# 2. Overcoming the Physical Environment Rapid technological developments have enabled transportation to **overcome the physical environment**. Before the Industrial Revolution, most road paths were adapted to topography. Since then, efforts have been made to pave roads, bridge rivers, and cut pathways over mountain passes. Engineering techniques in arches and vaults used in Byzantine and Gothic church constructions in the twelfth century permitted building bridges across wider streams or deep river valleys. With the Industrial Revolution, iron and steel allowed for the construction of even longer bridges, and by the late 19th century, [suspension bridges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/george-washington-bridge/ "George Washington Bridge") led to even more options with lengths above one kilometer. The same applies to tunnel-boring technology, which allowed roads to go through mountain ranges and under water bodies. Thus, road building has been at the core of technological efforts to overcome the environment since it supports local and even long-distance travel. Road building has transformed the environment from efforts to mechanize road transport modes to developing integrated multilane highways. The earliest developments in maritime transport involved transforming waterways for transportation through canal locks, coping with adverse natural gradients. Further improvements in navigation came with the cutting of artificial waterways. Some of the earliest examples can be found in the Martesana canals of Lombardy (15th century), the Dutch canals (17th century), the Canal de Briare in France (17th century), or the Grand Canal of China (mainly from the 7th to the 16th centuries). Further improvements in navigation technology have increased the speed, range, and capacity of ocean transport. However, the increasing size of ships has prevented canals and many ports from servicing the largest ships. Several port authorities have thus embarked on expansion programs to cope with these new technical requirements. [Passages through the Arctic Ocean](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/polar-shipping-routes/ "Polar Shipping Routes") are being investigated to create new international connections. Artificial islands are also built to expand port installations in deep waters. As level ground over long distances is important for increasing the efficiency of railway routes, the transport industry has come to modify the earth’s features by building bridges and tunneling. From the early steam engines to the first high-speed trains, increasing motive power has enabled rail to overcome physical obstacles. Technology has been a key determinant in the development of the air transport sector. From the experiments of the Montgolfier brothers to the advent of jet aircraft, the aerial crossing of rugged terrain over a considerable distance became possible. Technical innovation in the aeronautic industry has permitted planes to avoid adverse atmospheric conditions, improve speed, increase range, and raise carrying capacity. Unlike maritime shipping, [polar air routes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/polar-air-routes/ "The Development of Polar Air Routes") have been a reality since the 1990s, allowing them to connect North America and Pacific Asia. With the rapid rise in demand for air passenger and freight transport, emphasis has been placed on constructing airport terminals and runways. As airports occupy large areas, their environmental footprint is substantial. The construction of Chek Lap Kok airport in Hong Kong led to the leveling of mountainous land for the airport site. Kansai Airport, servicing Osaka, has been built on an artificial island. As the demand for capacity increases, both of these airports have been expanded through additional landfills. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/george_washington_bridge.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "George Washington Bridge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")George Washington Bridge![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-Polar-Routes-Simplified.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Polar Shipping Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Polar Shipping Routes![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/development_polar_air_routes.png?w=900&ssl=1 "The Development of Polar Air Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Development of Polar Air Routes![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hong_kong_chek_lap_kok_terminal.jpg?resize=768%2C441&ssl=1 "Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal# 3. Transportation and the Spatial Structure The concepts of [site and situation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=422) are fundamental to geography and transportation. While the **site** refers to the geographical characteristics of a specific location, its **situation** concerns its relationships with other locations. For instance, a port site relates to attributes such as the suitability of its harbor. In contrast, a port situation relates to its connectivity with its foreland (other ports) and hinterland (the inland market it serves). Thus, all locations are relative to one another, but situation is not a constant attribute, as transportation developments change accessibility levels and relations between locations. The development of a location reflects the cumulative relationships between transport infrastructure, economic activities, and the built environment. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_site_situation.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "Site and Situation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/site-situation-concept/transport_site_situation/)Site and Situation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/spatial_structure_transportation2-1.png?resize=900%2C592&ssl=1 "The Spatial Structure and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/spatial-structure-transportation-components/spatial_structure_transportation2/)The Spatial Structure and TransportationThe following factors are particularly important in shaping the [spatial structure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=430): - **Costs**. The spatial distribution of activities is related to distance factors, namely friction. Locational decisions are taken to minimize costs, often related to transportation. - **Accessibility**. All locations have accessibility, but some are more accessible than others. Thus, because of transportation, some locations are perceived as more valuable than others. - **Agglomeration**. There is a tendency for activities to agglomerate to take advantage of the value of specific locations. The more valuable a location, the more likely agglomeration will take place. The organization of activities is essentially hierarchical, resulting from the relationships between agglomeration and accessibility at the local, regional, and global levels. Many contemporary transportation networks are inherited from the past, notably transport infrastructures. Since the Industrial Revolution, new technologies have revolutionized transportation in terms of speed, capacity, and efficiency, but the spatial structure of many networks has not changed much. Two major factors can explain this **inertia** in the spatial structure of some transportation networks: - **Physical attributes**. Natural conditions can be modified and adapted to suit human uses, but they are a challenging constraint to escape, notably for land transportation. Thus, it is not surprising that most networks follow the easiest (least cost) paths, which generally follow valleys and plains. Considerations that affected road construction a few hundred years ago are still in force today, although they are sometimes easier to circumvent with civil engineering work. - **Historical considerations**. New infrastructures generally reinforce historical exchange patterns, notably at the regional level. For instance, the current highway network of France has mainly followed the patterns set by the national road network built early in the 20th century. This network was established over the Royal Roads network, mainly following roads built by the Romans. At the urban level, street patterns are often inherited from an older pattern, which may have been influenced by the pre-existing rural structure (lot pattern and rural roads). While physical and historical considerations are at play, introducing new transport technology or adding new transport infrastructure may lead to the transformation of existing networks. Recent developments in transport systems such as container shipping, long-range aircraft, and the application of information technologies to transport management have created a new transport environment and spatial structure. These transport technologies and innovations have intensified global interactions and modified the relative location of places. In this highly dynamic context, two processes are taking place at the same time: - [**Specialization**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=437). From a situation of diversification, linked geographical entities can specialize in producing goods for which they have an advantage and trading for what they do not produce. As a result, efficient transportation systems are generally linked with higher levels of regional specialization. Economic globalization underlines this process as specialization occurs as long as the savings in production costs are higher than the additional transport costs incurred. - [**Concentration**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=442 "Transportation Networks and Geographical Concentration"). The continuous evolution of transportation technology may not necessarily have expected effects on the spatial structure, as two forces are at play; **concentra**tion**** and **dispersion**. Linked geographical entities may see the reinforcement of one at the expense of others, notably through economies of scale. This outcome often contradicts regional development policies that provide uniform accessibility levels within a region. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_networks_geographical_specialization.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Transportation Networks and Geographical Specialization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transportation-networks-specialization/transport_networks_specialization/)Transportation Networks and Geographical Specialization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_networks_geographical_concentration.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Transportation Networks and Geographical Concentration | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transport-networks-concentration/transport_networks_concentration/)Transportation Networks and Geographical ConcentrationA common fallacy is to relate transportation solely as a force of dispersion, favoring the spatial diffusion of activities. This is not always the case. In numerous instances, transportation is a force of concentration and clustering, notably for business activities. Since transport infrastructure is generally expensive to build and maintain, it is established first to serve the most important locations. For instance, even if it was a substantial dispersion factor, the automobile has also favored the clustering of activities. # 4. Space / Time Relationships One of the most fundamental relationships supported by transportation involves how much space can be overcome within a given amount of time. The faster the mode, the more significant the distance that can be overcome within the same amount of time. Transportation, particularly improvements in transport systems, changes the **relationship between time and space**. When this relationship involves easier, faster, and cheaper access between places, the outcome is a space/time convergence because the amount of space that can be overcome for a similar amount of time increases significantly. It is, however, a spatially and socially uneven process since it will impact the accessibility of locations differently. For instance, infrastructure will not be laid out uniformly, and segments of the population will experience a more significant improvement in mobility because of their socioeconomic status. Despite these uneven processes, significant regional and continental gains were achieved during the 18th and 19th centuries with the establishment of national and continental railway systems as well as with the growth of maritime shipping. This process continued into the 20th century with the development of road and air transport systems. The outcome has been significant differences in space/time relationships, mainly between developed and developing countries, reflecting differences in the efficiency of transport systems. Differences in mobility are thus a defining characteristic of development, but as time progresses, improvements diffuse. For instance, countries considered lagging behind just half a century ago, such as Japan, South Korea, and China, have seen a remarkable improvement in the space/time convergence of their national transportation systems. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/space_time_convergence.png?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Space - Time Convergence | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/space-time-convergence/space_time_convergence2/)Space Time Convergence[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/regional_space_time_convergence_ny_edin2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Regional Space / Time Convergence, London – Edinburgh and New York – Boston | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/regional_space_time_convergence/)Regional Space Time Convergence[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/global_space_time_convergence2-scaled.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Global Space / Time Convergence: Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-circumnavigation-days/global_space_time_convergence2/)Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mail_ny_francisco.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Mail Delivery Times between New York and San Francisco, 1840-2000 (in days) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/time-mail-delivery-new-york-san-francisco/mail_ny_francisco/)Mail Delivery Times between New York and San Francisco 1840 2000 in daysAt the international level, globalization has been supported by improvements in transport technology. More than 200 years of technological advancements have resulted in a [space/time convergence of global proportions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=462). This enabled the widespread exploitation of the advantages of the global market, notably in terms of resources and labor. Significant reductions in transport and communication costs occurred concomitantly. Thus, there is a relationship between space/time convergence and the integration of a region in global trade. Five major factors are of relevance in this process: - **Speed**. The most straightforward factor relates to the increasing speed of many transport modes, a condition that notably prevailed in the first half of the 20th century. More recently, speed has [played a less significant role](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=468), as many modes are not going much faster. For instance, an automobile has a similar operating speed in the early 21st century as in the mid-20th century. At the same time, a commercial jet plane operates at a similar speed in the 2020s as in the 1970s. - **Economies of scale**. Being able to transport larger amounts of freight and passengers at lower costs has considerably improved the capacity and efficiency of transport systems. For space-time convergence, this implies more capacity for a given quantity of passengers or freight being carried. Instead, the traffic can be handled with fewer trips, implying that at the aggregate level, it is moving faster. - **Expansion of transport infrastructures**. Transport infrastructure has expanded considerably to serve areas not previously or insufficiently served. A paradox of this feature is that although the expansion of transport infrastructures may have enabled distribution systems to expand, it also increased the average distance over which passengers and freight are being carried. - **Efficiency of transport terminals**. Terminals, such as ports and airports, have shown a growing capacity to handle large quantities in a timely manner. Thus, even if the speed of many transport modes has not increased, more efficient transport terminals and better flow management have helped reduce transport time. - **Information technologies (IT)**. Permitted several economic activities to bypass spatial constraints in a significant manner, as IT enables improved traffic flows and better management of transport assets. Yet, space/time convergence does not occur ubiquitously. Over time, some locations gain more accessibility than others, particularly if they experience the accumulation of transport infrastructures and have a level of economic and political command. For instance, by the early 20th century, [London was the most connected location in the world](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8926), a status reflective of the primacy of the British Empire at that time. The importance of locations reflects priorities attributed to connectivity and accessibility as well as variations in space/time convergence. There is also a **scale effect on space/time convergence** as long-distance transportation tends to be more impacted than short-distance transportation. For instance, the setting of high-speed rail services in Europe and China has lessened inter-urban distances at a much more significant rate than intra-urban distances. Therefore, space/time convergence between two cities could be more significant than within a city, creating a duality between regional or international mobility. After centuries of transport developments and their impacts on geography, [global accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=474) reflects heterogeneous geography. Space/time convergence can also be inverted under specific circumstances, meaning **space/time divergence** occurs. For instance, congestion is increasing in many metropolitan areas, implying additional delays for activities such as [commuting](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5134). Mobility in congested urban areas is at the same speed as 100 years ago on horse carriages. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/speed_improvement_potential_mode2.png?resize=900%2C791&ssl=1 "Speed Improvement Potential by Transport Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/speed_improvement_potential_mode/)Speed Improvement Potential by Transport Mode[![Travel Time London World 1914](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/travel_time_london_world_1914.jpg?resize=900%2C609&ssl=1 "Travel Time between London and the Rest of the World, 1914 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/travel-time-between-london-world-1914/london_isochronic_1914/)Travel Time between London and the Rest of the World 1914[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-Global-Accessibility-1.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Global Accessibility: Time to the Nearest Large City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-accessibility-time-nearest-city/map-global-accessibility-1/)Global Accessibility Time to the Nearest Large City[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/home_to_work_trips_usa2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Home-to-Work Commute Profile, United States, 1977-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states/home_to_work_united_states/)Home to Work Commute Profile United States 1977 2024Despite dramatically contributing to space/time convergence, air transportation is also experiencing growing delays. Flight times are getting longer between many destinations, mainly because of takeoff, landing, and gate access delays. Airlines are simply posting longer scheduled flight times to factor in congestion. The termination of the Concorde supersonic jet service in 2003 can also be considered a space/time divergence. More stringent security measures at airports have also imposed additional delays, which tend to penalize short-distance flights. Additionally, direct transport services can be discontinued and replaced by a hub-and-spoke structure. The “**last mile**” can be the longest in many transport segments. For instance, an express mail package flown from Washington to Boston in about an hour (excluding delays at takeoff and landing due to airport congestion) can have an extra one-hour delay as it is carried from Logan Airport to downtown Boston, a distance of only three kilometers. --- ## Related Topics - [1.1 – What is Transport Geography?](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/ "1.1 – What is Transport Geography?") - [1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transport Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/) - [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/ "2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization") - [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/ "2.3 – Transport and Location") - [A.3 – Transportation and Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/) - [Interoceanic Passages (PEMP)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/) ## Bibliography - Haggett, P. and Chorley, R. J. (1969) Network Analysis in Geography, London: Edward Arnold. - Hennig, B.D. (2016) “Visualising Spaces of Global Inaccessibility” in S. Carver and S. Fritz (eds) Mapping wilderness: concepts, techniques and applications of GIS. Heidelberg / New York / Dordrecht / London (Springer). pp. 103-116. - Hoover, E.M. (1948) The Location of Economic Activity, New York: McGraw-Hill. - Janelle, D. (1968) “Central Place Development in a Time-Space Framework”, The Professional Geographer, Vol. 20, pp. 5-10. - Knowles, R.D. (2006) “Transport shaping space: the differential collapse of time/space”, Journal of Transport Geography, 14(6), pp. 407-425. - Morrill R.L. (1970) “The shape of diffusion in space and time”, Economic Geography, Vol. 46, pp. 259-268. - Transportation Association of Canada (2010) Developing and Managing Transportation Infrastructure in Permafrost Regions. - Ullman, E.L. (1980) Geography as Spatial Interaction, Seattle: University of Washington Press. - Warf, B. (2008) Time-Space Compression: Historical Geographies, New York: Routledge. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Home-to-Work Commute Profile, United States, 1977-2024](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/home_to_work_trips_usa2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Home-to-Work Commute Profile, United States, 1977-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Home to Work Commute Profile United States 1977 2024*Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, BTS.* Home-to-work commuting profiles are a core dimension of urban mobility because they represent employment and revenue-generating movements. They include the length, time, and speed of a commute, which underline an increasingly challenging context for urban mobility. Historically, cities have experienced a space/time convergence, particularly since the 1900s when bicycles, public transit systems, and cars became available. This meant that commuting was generally improving in terms of speed, even if the average commuting distance was increasing. The suburbanization of housing and employment took place quickly, but its impacts on congestion remained marginal. From the 1990s, the context started to shift rapidly with a [space/time divergence](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4792) in part attributed to a [vicious circle of congestion](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5176), implying longer trips as well as longer trip durations and a growing amount of time spent commuting. The average commuting speed has been steadily decreasing, but the post-COVID-19 period underscores slight improvements. This is in part due to an increase in telecommuting, leaving fewer vehicles on the road. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Accessibility: Time to the Nearest Large City](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-accessibility-time-nearest-city/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-Global-Accessibility-1.png?resize=768%2C384&ssl=1 "Global Accessibility: Time to the Nearest Large City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Accessibility Time to the Nearest Large City*Source: Nelson, A. (2008) Estimated travel time to the nearest city of 50,000 or more people in the year 2000. Global Environment Monitoring Unit – Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Ispra Italy.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Accessibility-1.pdf) Space-time convergence is far from being a uniform process, as differences in transport infrastructures and basic landscape constraints have a discriminatory effect on accessibility. The above figure represents travel time, from less than 1 hour to 10 days, to the nearest city of more than 50,000 people. It is the outcome of an overlay of several friction of distance factors, including road and rail networks, navigable rivers, shipping lanes, and land cover. It can be considered a proxy for global accessibility, with only 10% of the world’s population being more than 48 hours away from a large city. While it depicts the general ease of accessing urban markets, it does not depict the effectiveness of global freight flows. For instance, while South Asia appears highly accessible because of the density of large cities, the quality and capacity of inland transport infrastructure are generally poor. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-accessibility-time-nearest-city/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-accessibility-time-nearest-city/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-accessibility-time-nearest-city/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-accessibility-time-nearest-city/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Speed Improvement Potential by Transport Mode](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/table_transport_speed/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/speed_improvement_potential_mode2.png?resize=900%2C791&ssl=1 "Speed Improvement Potential by Transport Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Speed Improvement Potential by Transport ModeTransport improvements have conventionally been linked to speed improvements as better engines and vehicles were designed and infrastructure was built to handle faster operations. However, since the 1960s, there has been limited progress in several modes. Although the core reasons behind this are related to energy consumption and technical limits, each mode has specific considerations about potential speed improvements: - **Road**. Although there are limited technical considerations to increase vehicle speed, safety considerations limit the operational speed. Most drivers would not be capable of operating vehicles at speeds above 120 km/hr for highways and above 60 km/hr on urban roads. Speed limits are, in part, imposed to ensure an acceptable safe operating level for most drivers as well as to mitigate energy consumption. The only option to break this limitation would be automated vehicles. Additionally, congestion is becoming more acute, particularly around the world’s major metropolitan areas, mitigating potential speed improvement benefits. Still, as observed after the construction of the [interstate highway](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/interstate-highway-system/ "The Interstate Highway System") in the United States, the setting of a system of limited-access highways is linked with notable average speed improvements at the national level. - **Rail (freight)**. Beyond energy consumption considerations, which are significant, several factors limit speed improvements for freight trains. One concern is grade crossings, where much faster freight trains would require a complete separation of road and rail traffic with the significant infrastructure investments this would entail (e.g., overpasses). The other relates to the availability of train slots along corridors, as a unit train occupies a specific capacity. Faster trains would imply fewer available slots. Intermodal train speed is also mitigated by the capacity of terminals to handle the operations that a higher frequency of train arrivals and departures would imply. - **Rail (passengers)**. The development of high-speed rail systems underlines the substantial potential for speed improvements for passenger rail services. At the regional level, such services effectively compete with air transport. The prospects of new technologies such as maglev and vacuum tubes indicate that there may be additional potential for speed improvements with fixed rail systems, but this would require significant capital investments. - **Air transport**. For air transport, marginal speed improvements make little difference on short- to medium-distance flights since these services are more influenced by airport congestion than by air travel speeds. Congestion at airports has incited airlines to post longer flight times than in previous decades. For long-distance travel, where speed improvements would make a difference, energy consumption issues are an impediment since they would reduce the range of the aircraft. In some cases, such as transatlantic services, the timeframe can be convenient for passengers. For instance, on the American East Coast, flights bound for Western Europe usually leave in the evening to arrive early the next morning. Commercial supersonic jet services have been abandoned because they proved to be difficult to justify financially. There are attempts to reintroduce them on specific routes, which could substantially impact air travel times. Still, technical improvements in air transport are mostly geared towards lowering energy consumption. - **Maritime**. The prospects of speed improvements for commercial maritime transportation are minimal. While hull design and coating enhancements have been significant, as in air transport, the focus has been on reducing energy consumption, not improving speed. Higher energy prices, namely bunker fuel, have incited several maritime shipping companies to implement [slow steaming](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5955) practices along several commercial routes. A large share of global maritime container shipping is thus running at slower speeds. Still, there is potential for passenger transportation, and possibly for niche freight markets, to operate at higher speeds. For instance, fast ferries can be used to service high-density short distances in passenger markets. Therefore, future improvements in transportation fluidity are much less likely to come from speed than from efficient and interconnected operations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/table_transport_speed/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/table_transport_speed/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/table_transport_speed/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/table_transport_speed/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Mail Delivery Times between New York and San Francisco, 1840-2000 (in days)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/time-mail-delivery-new-york-san-francisco/) **Published:** December 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mail_ny_francisco.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Mail Delivery Times between New York and San Francisco, 1840-2000 (in days) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mail Delivery Times between New York and San Francisco 1840 2000 in days*Source: SRI International (2002).* Mail delivery is illustrative of [space / time convergence](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=201) with significant improvements in the mid-19th and early 20th centuries. Delivering a parcel between New York and San Francisco in the early 1840s took about 180 days by carriage wagons. The use of a maritime road relying on an overland route through the Panama peninsula in 1847 reduced delivery times to 30 days and 21 days once the Panama Canal Railway was completed in 1859. In 1860, a combination of rail to St. Joseph, Missouri, and the Pony Express to San Francisco reduced delivery times to 14 days. With the completion of the transcontinental railway in 1869, 7 days were required. The first use of airmail in the 1920s improved the service to 4 days, and jet planes reduced delivery times to less than one day in 1973 when overnight services were introduced. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/time-mail-delivery-new-york-san-francisco/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/time-mail-delivery-new-york-san-francisco/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/time-mail-delivery-new-york-san-francisco/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/time-mail-delivery-new-york-san-francisco/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Regional Space / Time Convergence, London – Edinburgh and New York – Boston](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/space-time-convergence-london-edingburg-new-york-boston/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/regional_space_time_convergence_ny_edin2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Regional Space / Time Convergence, London – Edinburgh and New York – Boston | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Regional Space Time Convergence London Edinburgh and New York Boston*Source: adapted from Janelle, D.G. (1968) “Central Place Development in a Time-space Framework”, The Professional Geographer, Vol. 20, pp. 5-10. Data for 2000 and 2010 based on Expedia direct scheduled flights.* Regional space/time convergence can be observed through two city pairs, London and Edinburgh (located 520 km apart) and New York and Boston (located 310 km apart). Both city pairs went through different space/time convergence processes, indicating time differences in the introduction of new transport infrastructure and services. With the development of stagecoach services in the 18th and early 19th centuries, travel times declined substantially. By the 19th century, stagecoaches reached their optimal efficiency and could no longer provide time improvements. The development of rail networks initiated a new phase of space/time convergence, and by the early 20th century, travel times were significantly lower than in previous decades. From the mid-20th century, the development of highways and air transportation systems reduced travel times to 100 minutes between London and Edinburgh and 70 minutes between New York and Boston. By 2010, scheduled flight times between New York and Boston remained unchanged, mostly because of airport capacity issues. However, scheduled flight times between London and Edinburgh improved by 10 minutes, leaving a travel difference of only 10 minutes between both city pairs even if London-Edinburgh is 200 km further than New York-Boston. It is unlikely that these figures will change unless there is a major improvement in air traffic control and airport operations. Contemporary space/time convergence primarily occurs at a global level and is driven more by intermodal improvements than by modal speed improvements. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/space-time-convergence-london-edingburg-new-york-boston/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/space-time-convergence-london-edingburg-new-york-boston/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/space-time-convergence-london-edingburg-new-york-boston/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/space-time-convergence-london-edingburg-new-york-boston/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation Networks and Geographical Concentration](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transport-networks-concentration/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_networks_geographical_concentration.png?resize=900%2C444&ssl=1 "Transportation Networks and Geographical Concentration | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Networks and Geographical ConcentrationTransportation networks can be a factor of concentration. In the above figure, a transportation network links five locations: one hub and four feeders. Without trade, each location has the same importance. With trade, a process of **geographical concentration** becomes possible, which results in the development of a simple hierarchy consisting of two tiers. The hub location may see the convergence of flows and thus see its importance increase, while the feeder locations may experience a relative decline. Such a process has impacted many urban systems, as the largest cities, due to their location, grew faster than small and medium-sized centers. In addition to being a factor of concentration, transportation can be a factor of [specialization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=437). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transport-networks-concentration/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transport-networks-concentration/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transport-networks-concentration/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transport-networks-concentration/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation Networks and Geographical Specialization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transportation-networks-specialization/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_networks_geographical_specialization.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Transportation Networks and Geographical Specialization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Networks and Geographical SpecializationTransportation can be a factor in specialization, allowing locations to focus on activities for which they are most productive. In the above figure, five locations are linked by a transportation network composed of one hub and four feeders. Without trade, each location has to produce the goods it requires. It is a form of diversification, albeit a relatively unproductive one. In this case, the hub is simply a location similar to the others but potentially better connected. With trade, a process of **geographical specialization** becomes possible. Each peripheral location can specialize in producing one good and import what is not produced locally. The hub can specialize in trading goods produced in the four feeder locations and acts as a commercial center. In addition to being a factor of specialization, transportation can be a factor of [concentration](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=442). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transportation-networks-specialization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transportation-networks-specialization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transportation-networks-specialization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/transportation-networks-specialization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Site and Situation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/site-situation-concept/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_site_situation.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "Site and Situation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Site and SituationThe concepts of site and situation can be articulated over two core dimensions: - **Site**. Mostly related to the attributes of a location, which mainly fall within physical, infrastructure, and economic characteristics. They are usually amenities that make a location attractive to specific activities (e.g., commercial, residential, manufacturing). Transport terminals require a suitable site, such as good maritime access for a port or flat land in reasonable proximity to a metropolitan area for an airport. - **Situation**. Related to the relationships with other locations at the local, regional or global scale. It reflects the **connectivity** of a location to other locations. The situation is relative to the characteristics of other locations, which can place a location at an advantage or a disadvantage. For instance, the situational value of a location could be related to a natural resource in demand by other locations. For transport terminals, the situational value is derived from the importance of the other terminals they are connected to. While the site tends to be a fixed attribute that does not change quickly, the situation is relative and can change with a shift in market demand. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/site-situation-concept/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/site-situation-concept/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/site-situation-concept/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/site-situation-concept/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/sitehongkongairport/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hong_kong_chek_lap_kok_terminal.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal*Source: Background image from Google Earth.* The construction of Hong Kong Sky Hong Kong International Airport required the creation of a completely new island. It was initially serviced by two parallel runways, one for take-offs (7R/25L) and the other for landings (7L/25R). The airport was initially composed of the main terminal (Terminal 1; T1), which remains the world’s third-largest airport structure after Dubai and Beijing. Large amounts of space were made available for a co-located logistics and cargo area, underlining the strategic importance of the airport in global air cargo flows. A new terminal complex, dubbed Skycity, opened in 2009 on the northeastern part of the artificial island. It is composed of a check-in facility and an office and entertainment complex that includes a convention center and hotel. It also has ferry services to mainland China, extending the market area of the airport. The airport quickly became heavily used. The North Satellite Concourse (T1M), which specializes in narrow-body planes, was completed in 2009, adding 10 new gates to increase the number of planes the airport could accommodate. The same year, construction for the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge began, a mega-project that was completed in 2018. The bridge runs directly adjacent to the airport and accommodates significant passenger and cargo flows. This mega-project required a further expansion next to the airport to build the Hong Kong Boundary Crossing Facilities, which provide customs clearance facilities for vehicles using the bridge. In 2011, construction started for the Midfield Concourse (T1S), which was opened in December 2015, adding 20 new gates and a capacity of 10 million passengers per year. The position of Hong Kong as a global commercial air hub was seriously compromised during the COVID-19 pandemic, as the airport lost [90% of its traffic in 2021 and 2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/passenger-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/ "Passengers Traffic, DFW, HKG and KIX, 1982-2016"). However, traffic quickly rebounded afterward, with 61 million passengers handled in 2025. In 2022, anticipating future growth, a third runway was opened on additional reclaimed land, which required the renaming of the former northern runway to 07C/25C. In 2026, a new terminal (T2) entered operation, raising the total capacity to 100 million passengers per year. The Hong Kong International Airport is a clear example of a facility that has become a city in itself with a complex array of supporting activities and developing connectivity to the metropolitan area as well as to the Pearl River Delta. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/sitehongkongairport/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/sitehongkongairport/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/sitehongkongairport/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/sitehongkongairport/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Lindbergh Great Circle Path, First Transatlantic Flight, 1927](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/lindbergh-great-circle-path-first-transatlantic-flight-1927/) **Published:** November 11, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lindbergh_transatlantic_1927.jpg?resize=900%2C419&ssl=1 "Lindbergh Great Circle Path, First Transatlantic Flight, 1927 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Lindbergh Great Circle Path First Transatlantic Flight 1927*Source: American Geographical Society Library, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Libraries.* The [great circle distance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/great-circle-distance/ "The Great Circle Distance") between New York and Paris is about 3,600 miles (5,800 KM). The first time the great circle distance was practically used for air travel was in 1927, when Lindbergh plotted his transatlantic flight through a series of continuous segments with correction points at defined distances. Actually, Lindbergh used two map projections to plan his route and navigate across the Atlantic. One was the standard **Mercator projection**, where longitudes and latitudes are straight lines, which is helpful for navigation (clear north/south and east/west orientation). The other was a **gnomonic projection** centered along the Atlantic that showed the path between New York and Paris as a straight line composed of points 100 miles apart. From this projection, Lindbergh transferred each point from that line to the Mercator projection, which became a curved course connecting New York and Paris (see the above map depicting a simplification of the route at 500-mile intervals from New York). At each point, Lindbergh marked the distance from New York and determined the course adjustment. Each point also accounted for variation from magnetic north as one traveled across the Atlantic. After 33 hours and 30 minutes of non-stop flight, Lindbergh arrived at his set destination with limited navigation errors. Most modern transatlantic flights between New York and Paris follow a similar path. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/lindbergh-great-circle-path-first-transatlantic-flight-1927/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/lindbergh-great-circle-path-first-transatlantic-flight-1927/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/lindbergh-great-circle-path-first-transatlantic-flight-1927/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/lindbergh-great-circle-path-first-transatlantic-flight-1927/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Wind Patterns and their Seasonal Variation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-wind-patterns/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/global_wind_patterns_seasonal_variation.png?resize=900%2C448&ssl=1 "Global Wind Patterns and their Seasonal Variation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Wind Patterns and their Seasonal VariationWind is mainly the result of thermodynamic principles and the Coriolis effect, due to the Earth’s counterclockwise rotation. Warm air around the equator is lifted, which creates a suction effect for air masses coming from higher (or lower) latitudes. The high-altitude air mass moves either north or south until its temperature is low enough for it to “sink” and start to converge toward the equator. As these air masses move, the Coriolis effect shifts their direction. The outcome is a system of circulation known as a “cell”; three of which are between the equator and the North Pole and three others towards the South Pole. The most significant is the Hadley Cell, from which the “Trade Winds” result. Global wind patterns have both a historical and contemporary significance for transportation. Historically, wind patterns were linked with the trade routes of sailships. For instance, a relatively stable wind pattern over the North Atlantic enabled ships to set sail from Europe using the dominant westbound wind on the southern part of the North Atlantic and return using the dominant eastbound wind on the northern part of the North Atlantic. A similar pattern exists over the North Pacific. The monsoon over the Indian Ocean has also been linked to maritime trade in the past, as ships sailed from the Middle East to Asia in winter and undertook the westbound voyage back in summer when the dominant wind direction shifted. With the progressive abandonment of commercial sailing in the 19th century, wind patterns have stopped playing a significant role in maritime transportation. Intercontinental maritime shipping now follows the great circle distance, regardless of wind direction. The growing importance of air transportation is constrained by wind direction, particularly for long-distance hauls. Eastbound crossings over the North Atlantic and the North Pacific are shorter than westbound crossings because of the cumulative wind effect. For instance, a flight between New York and London is scheduled to last about 7 hours (from gate to gate) eastbound and about 7 hours and 45 minutes westbound. The scheduled difference of 45 minutes is the outcome of dominant winds. Thus, the westbound transatlantic flight consumes more energy than the eastbound flight. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-wind-patterns/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-wind-patterns/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-wind-patterns/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-wind-patterns/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Great Circle Distance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/great-circle-distance/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-Great-Circle-Distance-1.png?resize=768%2C350&ssl=1 "Great Circle Distance between New York, Moscow and Tokyo | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Great Circle Distance[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Great-Circle-Distance.pdf) Since the Earth is a sphere, the shortest path between two points is expressed by the great circle distance, which corresponds to an arc linking two points on a sphere. The circumference inferred from these two points divides the Earth into two equal parts; thus, the great circle. The great circle distance is useful for evaluating the shortest path when intercontinental distances are concerned. It follows the sphericity of the globe; any shortest route is the one following the curve of the planet, along the parallels. Because of the distortions caused by projections on a flat surface, **a straight line on a map is not necessarily the shortest distance**. This is particularly the case for cylindrical projections such as Mercator. Ships and aircraft usually follow the great circle geometry to minimize distance and save time and money. For instance, the above map shows the shortest path between New York and Moscow (about 7,540 km) shown in an orthographic and Mercator projections. This path corresponds to an air transportation corridor over the North Atlantic between North America and Europe. To calculate the great circle distance (D) between two coordinates, the following formula is used: Cos (D) = (Sin a Sin b) + (Cos a Cos b Cos |c|) Where a and b are the latitudes (in degrees) of the respective coordinates, and |c| is the absolute value of the difference in longitude between the respective coordinates. The results of this equation are in degrees. Each degree on the Earth’s surface equals about 111.32 km, so the result must be multiplied by this number. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/great-circle-distance/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/great-circle-distance/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/great-circle-distance/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/great-circle-distance/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Land Covered by Permafrost](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/land-covered-by-permafrost/) **Published:** December 9, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Laud Covered Permafrost](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/laud_covered_permafrost.png?resize=900%2C900&ssl=1 "Land Covered by Permafrost | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Land Covered by Permafrost*Source: Brown, J., O. Ferrians, J. A. Heginbottom, and E. Melnikov (2002) Circum-Arctic Map of Permafrost and Ground-Ice Conditions, Version 2. Boulder, Colorado, USA. NSIDC: National Snow and Ice Data Center.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Permafrost.pdf) Due to their geographical attributes, northern areas face unique constraints in developing and operating transport infrastructure. One of the most salient concerns is **permafrost**, since it impacts the construction, cost, and maintenance of every type of transport infrastructure. Permafrost is perennially frozen ground that is associated with subsurface ice. As this ice moves, thaws, and collapses, the surrounding ground becomes unstable, undermining the integrity of any infrastructure built on top. Permafrost can be impacted by **thermal disruptions** related to the construction or the long-term presence of infrastructure, as well as climate change. Building transport infrastructure over permafrost substantially increases costs because of the requirements to mitigate the potential thawing effects. This mitigation can take two forms. The first is to design infrastructure that would **prevent thawing**, namely through forms of insulation. The second is to design infrastructure able to **handle destabilization** caused by permafrost. Most permafrost is found in the Northern Hemisphere, covering the northern half of Canada, Siberia, Mongolia, and the Tibetan Plateau. There is limited permafrost in the southern hemisphere, with most of the permafrost areas found in the high-altitude Andes, in the southern tip of South America, and in New Zealand. Growing interest in extracting Arctic resources has spurred the development of transportation infrastructure to access them. The additional costs, as well as the risk of climate change, may undermine their economic potential. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/land-covered-by-permafrost/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/land-covered-by-permafrost/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/land-covered-by-permafrost/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/land-covered-by-permafrost/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Volcanic Ash Plume across the North Atlantic, 2010](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/iceland-volcanic-ash-atlantic-2010/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/icelandvolcanicash2010.jpg?resize=776%2C604&ssl=1 "Volcanic Ash Plume across the North Atlantic, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Volcanic Ash Plume across the North Atlantic 2010*Source: NASA’s Earth Observatory. Image acquired April 15, 2010.* In April 2010, a volcanic eruption in Iceland released a large volume of ash that spread toward Western Europe due to dominant wind patterns (see the above photo). Volcanic ash is composed of tiny jagged particles of rock, mostly silicates, which are highly abrasive. If an airplane flies through such an ash cloud, engine failure could result. The problem was compounded by the fact that an aircraft weather radar cannot detect volcanic ash and that the ash drifted at altitudes from 20,000 to 36,000 feet, which corresponds to the cruising altitude of most commercial jets. Therefore, on Thursday, April 15, aviation authorities began shutting down airspaces and airports as a precautionary measure. The outcome was the largest natural disruption of air travel in history, with the closing of the majority of European airports, including mega hubs such as London, Paris, Brussels, Frankfurt, and Amsterdam. The only exceptions were airports in southern Europe, such as in Spain, Greece, and Southern Italy. The plume also crossed the main great circle transatlantic air routes, closing many of them. Additionally, the whole global air transport system was disrupted due to canceled flights. This disruption was unique in its regionalism and only directly impacted one specific mode, but with substantial indirect impacts on other modes, mainly rail. The only equivalent disruptions related to when the American airspace was shut down for three days after the events of [September 11 2001](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6388), and the [shutdown of global air travel in March 2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/daily-air-travelers-united-states/ "Daily Air Travelers in the United States, 2019-2022") at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. The disruptions of the European airspace in April 2010 had various consequences on both the air passengers and freight markets: - **Passenger market disruptions**. The shutdown of most European airports impacted 29% of the global air market, which was equivalent to 1.2 million passengers per day. About 100,000 flights were canceled, costing the industry $1.7 billion. This involved stranded passengers unable to find an alternative to get back home, canceled business meetings and conferences, and a drop in tourism for the world’s largest tourist market. - **Freight market disruptions**. Many supply chains of high-added value were disrupted, including electronics, car parts, and fresh produce. Parcel delivery, on which many businesses depend for their management and transactions, was also seriously disrupted. The impacts on value chains were particularly acute since air freight is geared towards supporting just-in-time strategies where inventory levels are kept low. The time lag between when the disruption occurs and when supply chains start to be impaired and shut down thus tends to be short. A salient example concerned the fresh flowers and produce industries in developing countries (Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East). Kenya, which exports about 1,000 tons of fresh flowers and produce per day by air transport, mostly to Europe, saw a complete stop in production, with much of it going to waste because of a lack of cold storage facilities and short shelf life. On Monday, April 19, air traffic resumed as airports and airspaces gradually reopened. However, it took several days for the global air transport market to return to normal operating conditions, mainly due to a backlog of passengers and freight shipments. Although this event was unique, such occurrences may likely happen again. It only took nine years after the events of September 11, 2001, to see a disruption of a similar scale taking place, although for completely different causes. Ten years later, in 2020, the global air transport system was substantially disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/iceland-volcanic-ash-atlantic-2010/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/iceland-volcanic-ash-atlantic-2010/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/iceland-volcanic-ash-atlantic-2010/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/iceland-volcanic-ash-atlantic-2010/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Absolute, Relative and Arbitrary Barriers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/absolute-relative-arbitrary-barriers/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/absolute_relative_barriers.png?resize=900%2C590&ssl=1 "Absolute, Relative and Arbitrary Barriers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Absolute Relative and Arbitrary BarriersA barrier is a feature that can impede mobility and comes in three forms: - **Absolute barriers**. Geographical features that prevent mobility, making it impossible to go beyond the barrier in its current form. They must either be bypassed or overcome by specific infrastructure. For instance, a river is considered an absolute barrier to land transportation and can only be overcome if a tunnel or a bridge is constructed. A body of water forms a similar absolute barrier and could be overcome if ports are built and a maritime service (ferry, cargo ships, etc.) is established. The barrier will be overcome by changing mode. Conversely, land acts as an absolute barrier for maritime transportation, with discontinuities (barriers) that can be overcome with costly infrastructure such as navigation channels and canals. - **Relative barriers**. Geographical features that impose a level of friction on mobility. Mobility is possible but comes at a cost that varies according to the level of friction. This friction will likely influence the path (route) selected to link two locations. Topography is a classic example of a relative barrier that influences land transportation routes along paths having the least possible friction, such as plains, valleys, and low-gradient slopes. For maritime transportation, relative barriers, such as straits, channels, or ice, generally slow circulation. Adverse weather conditions can be relative barriers to air transportation, imposing detours around storm fronts. - **Arbitrary barriers**. Non-physical effects on a movement that can be linked to a specific area, more often a jurisdiction. They are called arbitrary since they result from human decisions and activities. For instance, changing international jurisdiction involves going through customs procedures, adding costs and delays. This could also involve different cost structures, such as taxes and tolls, as well as operating conditions (e.g., speed limits or weight restrictions). Some areas could be subject to more stringent environmental regulations, even forbidding the use of specific modes or the construction of infrastructure. Another arbitrary barrier concerns risk, as some areas are subject to political instability, which may increase the risk of theft and plunder, as well as the cost of servicing these areas. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/absolute-relative-arbitrary-barriers/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/absolute-relative-arbitrary-barriers/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/absolute-relative-arbitrary-barriers/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/absolute-relative-arbitrary-barriers/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times, 1833 - 1952](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/liner-transatlantic-crossing-time/) **Published:** November 8, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/liner_transatlantic_crossing.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times, 1833 - 1952 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times 1833 1952 in days*Note: Liverpool / New York.* *Source: data from P.J. Hugill (1993) World Trade since 1431, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, p.128. Stopford, M. (2009) Maritime Economics, Third Edition, London: Routledge.* The **passenger liner era** lasted roughly 100 years, from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century. Its evolution can be divided into four distinct phases: - **Introduction**. The steamship Great Western is considered one of the first liners, crossing the Atlantic in 15.5 days in 1838. Early liners were made of wood and used paddle wheels, often complemented by sails, as the primary form of propulsion. Their capacity was limited to fewer than 200 passengers. This phase demonstrated the possibility and market potential of transatlantic liner services. - **Growth**. By the 1860s, the introduction of iron hulls, compound steam engines, and screw propulsion significantly reduced crossing times to about 8-9 days. No longer limited by the technical limits of wood armatures, the size of liners increased substantially, with a tonnage exceeding 5,000 tons and a capacity of 1,500 passengers. The number and frequency of liner services across the Atlantic (and around the world) increased substantially as market potential was realized. - **Maturity**. The early 20th century was the Golden Age of the liner, when those ships dominated long-distance passenger travel. In 1907, the liner Mauretania, with a capacity of 2,300 passengers, crossed the Atlantic in 4.5 days, a record held for 30 years until the liner Queen Mary reduced the crossing time by half a day (4 days). Liners reached their operational capacity of around 1,500 to 2,000 passengers, and Atlantic crossing times stabilized around 5 days. They relied on quadruple screws using turbine steam engines. This also corresponded to the peak years of American immigration from European countries, a process to which liners contributed substantially. By the 1920s, the foundations of the liner market shifted since migration was constrained. The business and tourist segment became the most important drivers. - **Obsolescence**. By the 1950s, the prominence of the liner was challenged by the first regular transatlantic commercial flights. These services began after World War II and initially relied on piston planes that could provide the crossing in about 16-17 hours; in 1958, the first passenger jet services reduced the transit time to 7 hours. This challenge quickly asserted itself in the early 1960s as the liners shifted from being the main support of transatlantic passenger movements to complete obsolescence. One of the last liners, the United States (mainly made of aluminum), held the transatlantic crossing speed record of 3.5 days in 1952. By the 1960s, air transportation had overtaken liners for transatlantic crossings, and reference time became hours instead of days. Liner services were gradually discontinued, including the iconic SS United States and RMS Queen Mary in 1969. The surviving ships became the first [cruise ships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7055), which required reconversion. The use of ships for passenger transport is now restricted to cruise ships, ferries, and small-scale passenger craft in archipelago countries (Indonesia, the Philippines, Greece, the Caribbean) or in great river systems in developing economies (Chang Jiang, Huang He, Nile, and Amazon). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/liner-transatlantic-crossing-time/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/liner-transatlantic-crossing-time/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/liner-transatlantic-crossing-time/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/liner-transatlantic-crossing-time/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Common Challenges for Transport Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/challenges-transport-systems/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/challenges_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C607&ssl=1 "Common Challenges for Transport Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Common Challenges for Transport SystemsThere are four major types of challenges that affect transport systems: - **Capacity**. A basic constraint concerns appropriate capacity, both along a transport route and at terminals. The capacity of a transport system is often restricted by its circulation bottlenecks and expensive to improve. - **Transfer**. Transfer points are crucial as they permit the interface between different transport systems, a role commonly served by hubs or gateways. For instance, a port is commonly the interface between maritime and inland systems of circulation, while an airport can act as a hub connecting different air networks, such as regional and international ones. - **Reliability**. A multidimensional problem that concerns the expectation that a movement will occur within a specific time and cost range. While a route could be shorter, it may not be as reliable as a longer route. Congestion is a common factor impairing the reliability of a transport system since it can impose inconsistent time delays and additional costs. - **Integration**. Involves exploiting the benefits of each transport mode so that flows become more reliable or less costly. Segmented transportation systems tend to involve higher costs and empty returns, while integrated systems seek to improve the use of transport assets. Integration is sought by intermodal transportation, but also by airline companies connecting different parts of the world. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/challenges-transport-systems/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/challenges-transport-systems/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/challenges-transport-systems/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/challenges-transport-systems/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Common Fallacies in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/fallacies-transport-geography/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/fallacies_transport_geography.png?resize=900%2C441&ssl=1 "Common Fallacies in Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Common Fallacies in Transport Geography- **Access is not accessibility**. Many transport systems have universal access since no specific user can have a competitive advantage over others; access is the same for everyone. For instance, in theory, a public highway system can be accessed by anyone, such as a major trucking company with a large fleet, its competitors, or an automobile driver. Thus, access is uniform wherever one is located in regard to the transport system as long as there is a possibility to enter or exit the system. On the other hand, accessibility varies according to one’s location within the transport system. Access is thus uniform while accessibility is not; the latter is a relative concept. On the above transport network, locations A, B, and C all have access to the system. However, location b appears to be the most accessible of the two due to its central location in relation to the network. - **Distance is not time**. Distance is often interchanged with time when measuring the performance of transport systems, which is a conceptual error. While distance remains constant, time can vary due to improvements in transport technology (positive effect), because of congestion (negative effect), or regulations such as speed limits. A simple and common way to express this relationship is speed, the unit of distance traveled per unit of time. Driving one kilometer through Manhattan is not the same as driving one kilometer through an Interstate in Iowa, even if in both cases the same unit of distance has been traveled. Distance is thus a uniform attribute of geography, while time is relative. On the above transport network, while distance is a uniform attribute, each segment has a travel time expressed as speed, which varies differently from distance due to regulations, capacity (stops and traffic lights), and congestion. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/fallacies-transport-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/fallacies-transport-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/fallacies-transport-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/fallacies-transport-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Complex Systems and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/complex-systems-transportation/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/complex_systems_transportation2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Complex Systems and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Complex Systems and Transportation*Source: adapted from OECD (2009) “Applications of Complexity Science for Public Policy: New Tools for Finding Unanticipated Consequences and Unrealized Opportunities”, Global Science Forum.* Transportation, as a complex system, shares many of its characteristics, including: - **Adaptability**. A standard characteristic best reflected by the concept of competition, where transport firms adapt to their competitors and other socioeconomic changes (demand). Investment in new and expanded infrastructure is also an adaptation strategy followed by corporations and governments. - **Self-organization**. Routing within a transport network represents the characteristic of self-organization, as the intermodal sequence is the outcome of considering the respective advantages of modes and terminals. Supply chain management is also illustrative of self-organization as sourcing and distribution strategies change to reflect complex input and distribution costs. - **Stability**. This represents the stable components of the transport system that have a long-term influence on the nature and extent of flows. Land use is a particularly stable component of spatial interactions since its characteristics are slow to change. The same applies to transport terminals, which are long-term locations where flows converge. - **Cumulative**. Congestion is a good example of a non-linear characteristic of transportation, as each degree of additional congestion results in exponential delays. Various disruptions over transport networks are also an instance of non-linearity, as a relatively simple event such as the shutting down of an airport hub (e.g., a snowstorm) will trigger disproportionate disruptions through the whole network. - **Phase transition**. Several events may trigger substantial changes in transport systems. One type relates to technological (or technical) innovations that historically have been paradigm shifts for the transportation system. For instance, containerization is linked to new flow patterns, modes, and terminals; it created a new transport system. Automation continues to impact transportation systems through vehicles and processes. Issues related to carbon emissions are also considered to be a highly susceptible factor triggering a phase transition for 21st-century transport systems. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/complex-systems-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/complex-systems-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/complex-systems-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/complex-systems-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Dimensions of Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-dimensions/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/dimensions_transport_geography2.png?resize=900%2C904&ssl=1 "Dimensions of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Dimensions of Transport Geography*Source: adapted from B. Hoyle and J. Smith (1998) “Transport and Development: Conceptual Frameworks”, in B. Hoyle and R. Knowles, Modern Transport Geography, 2nd Edition, London: Wiley, p. 17.* Since transport geography is a multidisciplinary field, it can be approached from several dimensions of inquiry: - **Economics**. This dimension is concerned with mobility and its associated costs, such as the financing, construction, and maintenance of transport modes and infrastructures. The performance of transport systems is often measured and justified by economic criteria such as profitability and return on investment. This dimension also tries to evaluate the transport demand generated by different sectors of activity such as retail, manufacturing or public services. - **Engineering**. Concerned with the construction and maintenance of transportation modes and infrastructures, which relies on technology and techniques related to materials sciences such as civil engineering and mechanical engineering. A dominant aspect of transport supply is linked to engineering considerations. - **Environment / Ecology**. Concerned about the impacts of transportation on ecological systems such as the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the ecosphere. It also considers a wide array of externalities such as noise and the emission of pollutants. Another dimension of this field involves the impacts of natural conditions, such as topography and climate, on the operation of transport systems. - **History**. Covers the evolution of transport networks in time and space by identifying specific conditions that have influenced the establishment of transport networks and the technological, economic, and social environments that have produced transport systems. - **Mathematics and Computer Science**. Provide a set of tools and methods to manage information and to analyze transport-related information. Most models applied to transport geography, such as spatial interaction models, are derived from mathematical methods. Operations research has considerably contributed to the field of transportation by offering a set of methods to optimize the distribution and scheduling of transportation resources. - **Planning and Policy**. The political dimension aims to plan and control the transportation system through several agents, their jurisdiction, and their intervention strategies. It is mainly concerned with the processes and methods for allocating transportation resources within corporations and governments. - **Sociology and Demography**. Covers problems such as accidents, the behavior of drivers and other social aspects related to modal and spatial choice having an effect on the distance traveled. For instance, the social costs of car use impose burdens on health and safety systems (police, ambulance, trauma centers, road signs, etc.). Demographic attributes and changes such as the aging of the population are also linked with the evolution of the transport system, the modes used and the level of services. - **Technology**. Not necessarily a field of study but a consideration of the impacts of technological change on transportation systems. It is mainly concerned with the efficiency of infrastructures, modes and motive forces. Successive innovations have brought forward new distribution systems, whereas others have become obsolete and disappeared. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-dimensions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-dimensions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-dimensions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-dimensions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Transport System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-system-overview/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_system2.png?resize=900%2C806&ssl=1 "The Transport System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Transport SystemA transport system can be conceptualized as the set of relationships between **nodes**, **networks,** and **demand**. These relationships involve **locations** spatially expressing this demand, **flows** between them, and **infrastructures** designed to handle and link these flows. All the components of a transport system are designed to facilitate the movements of passengers, freight, and information, either as separate or joint components. - **Demand**. A [derived function](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=186) for the mobility of people, freight, and information for a variety of socioeconomic activities. - **Nodes**. Where movements originate, end, and transit (intermediacy), and where entry or exit points exist in a transport system. They vary according to the geographical scale being considered, ranging from local nodes (such as a subway station) to global nodes (such as port or airport terminals). - **Networks**. Composed of a set of linkages expressing the connectivity between places and the capacity to handle passenger or cargo volumes. - **Locations**. Nodes where demand is expressed as an origin, destination, or point of transit. The level of spatial accumulation of socioeconomic activities (production and consumption) jointly defines demand and where this demand is taking place. - **Flows**. The amount of traffic over a network, which is composed of nodes and linkages. This is jointly a function of the demand and the capacity of the linkages to support them. - **Infrastructures**. The conveyances, such as roads and terminals, express the physical reality of a network and are designed to handle demand with specific volume and frequency characteristics. Facilities enabling access to a network are jointly characterized by their centrality and the linkages that radiate from them. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-system-overview/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-system-overview/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-system-overview/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-system-overview/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Rail Network and Rail Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-network-system/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Network2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "World Rail Network and Rail Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Rail Network and Rail Systems[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Network-1.pdf) The global rail network, which is mostly a collection of unlinked national rail systems, involves three main types of rail lines: - **Penetration lines**. Their main purpose is to link a port city with its hinterland, particularly to access natural resources such as minerals, agricultural products, and wood products. The purpose of a penetration line is to convey large amounts of resources in a manner that would be prohibitive for road transport. It also represented one of the initial stages of rail development, notably in the United States, which later became regional networks linked by transcontinental lines. Today, penetration lines are mainly found in developing economies (Africa and Latin America) and were partially the result of networks and investments made during the colonial era. Such areas have several gauges and limited cross-border connectivity and thus offer limited competitiveness with trucking. For instance, 80% of South Africa’s coal output comes from the Mpumalanga region, which is about 590 km from the port of Richards Bay. Large coal trains are used to carry the coal from the mines to the port. Penetration lines are also found in resource-intensive advanced economies such as Australia and Canada along specific corridors (e.g., Labrador). Transporting freight is the dominant function of this type of network, although passenger traffic can be significant since penetration lines can also be servicing an urban system. - **Regional networks**. They represent well-developed regional networks servicing high-density population areas of developed countries, intending to support the massive shipment of freight and passengers. This network type initially started as penetration lines or interconnected city pairs and evolved to form a lattice. Regions with the highest rail density are Western Europe, the Northeastern part of North America, Coastal China, and Japan. - **Transcontinental lines**. These lines were mainly established to improve territorial accessibility and assert national sovereignty. The most relevant examples are in the United States, Canada, Russia, and Australia, which have built rail systems of this scale, such as between New York and Los Angeles, across Eurasia (between Dalian and Moscow), across Southern Australia (Perth and Adelaide), or across South America (Buenos Aires and Valparaiso). More recently, transcontinental rail lines have seen renewed interest due to their ability to mitigate the discontinuity of maritime transportation by transporting containers, such as over the [North American Landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7251) and the [Eurasian Landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/ "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge)"). They are a link in the global intermodal transport system. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-network-system/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-network-system/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-network-system/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-network-system/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Main Highway Road Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/world-road-network/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Road-Network-1.png?w=900&ssl=1 "World Main Highway Road Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Main Highway Road Network*Source: Road data from Meijer, J.R., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Schotten, C.G.J. and Schipper, A.M. (2018): Global patterns of current and future road infrastructure. Environmental Research Letters, 13-064006. Data is available at www.globio.info* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Road-Network-1.pdf) Highways are separated roads with exclusive right-of-way for vehicles. They commonly connect the most important cities in a region, as their construction and maintenance are capital-intensive. Even if the world road network appears to be connected and rather extensive, it is more a collection of national networks with limited cross-border connections. The only notable exceptions are Europe, where there is a strategy to establish a Trans-European Network (TEN), and North America, where the Canadian and American highway systems are well connected. In recent years, China has also constructed an extensive network of national highways. On the global scale, 35% of the roads are paved, and 50% have year-round accessibility. Most paved roads are found in North America and Europe, whereas most unpaved and only seasonally accessible roads are found in South America and Africa. The quality and capacity of the road infrastructure vary substantially, which is reflected in transportation costs. There is a positive relationship between the length of a national road system and GDP per capita, and population density. Although the United States and Canada have low road density levels compared to Japan and Western European countries, they have high road length per capita. Therefore, their extensive territories mask substantial efforts to provide road infrastructure on a per capita basis, a factor associated with high levels of automobile ownership. Although Japan is the country among those selected that has the largest share of its land area devoted to road transportation (3.5%), it is Canada that allocates the largest amount of space per capita to the automobile (734 square meters per person), followed by the United States (573). While the percentage of total land area used by the car indicates density and economic intensity, land area per capita figures indicate car dependency. In the United States, about 155,000 square kilometers are reserved for car use, which equals 10% of all the available arable land. Even if total area values are relatively small, roads and parking facilities are dominantly concentrated in urban areas. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/world-road-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/world-road-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/world-road-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/world-road-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Fields of Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-fields/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/fields_transport_geography.png?resize=900%2C387&ssl=1 "Fields of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fields of Transport Geography*Source: Adapted from P. Haggett (2001) Geography: A Modern Synthesis, 4th Edition, New York: Prentice-Hall.* Each scientific discipline offers a perspective from which the real world can be understood and interpreted. Transport geography, by seeking to understand mobility, focuses on the locations that generate and handle it, on the interactions of people, freight, and information, as well as the infrastructures set in place to support mobility. In many cases, the infrastructures, locations, and interactions are specific to a domain of freight or passenger circulation, but in many instances, they are shared, such as roads or airports that can be used for passengers and freight transportation alike. There are key concepts related to transport geography, among which **transportation networks**, **transportation nodes,** and **transportation demand** are at its core. They form the [transport system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=284), which is linked to economic, political, regional, historical, and population geography, among others. Several other concepts, such as regional planning, information systems, operations research, and location theory, are commonly used in transport geography, notably as tools and methods for the spatial analysis of transportation. At a wider level, links exist with several major fields of science, including natural sciences, mathematics, and economics. Like geography, transport geography is at the intersection of several concepts and methods initially developed outside the discipline and adapted to its particular interests and concerns. The **intersection**, or the triangulation, of three concepts can be used to define a general field of investigation. For instance, if one were to investigate transportation terminals, this subject would likely be at the intersection of transportation networks, nodes, and demand. A transport terminal is an infrastructure part of a transport network that fulfills demand from an origin to a destination. For a more general and complex concept, the triangulation can be expanded by including additional fields. Evaluating the environmental impacts of a transport project requires triangulating environmental studies, transportation systems, and spatial statistics and models. The figure above is not an exhaustive overview of all the fields related to transport geography, but a fair approximation of those involved and their relationships. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-fields/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-fields/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-fields/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-fields/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport and Communication Costs Indexes, 1920-2025](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-communication-costs-index/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_communication_cost_indexes.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Transport and Communication Costs Indexes, 1920-2025 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport and Communication Costs Indexes 1920 2025*Sources: Airfare data expanded from Bowen, J. (2004) “World-Shapers: The Geographical Implications of Several Influential Jet Aircraft”, (full economy airfare). Computer storage data updated from John C. McCallum. Sea freight rates data from The Eddington Transport Study (2006) and from UNCTAD (after 1980). Telephone call data from various sources. For lithium-Ion battery cells: Rupert Way (2026) based on Ziegler and Trancik (2021), BloombergNEF, and Avicenne Energy.* Transport and communications costs have declined considerably during the 20th century, notably due to technological improvements, the diffusion of transportation infrastructure, and the application of economies of scale. By 1960, maritime transport costs by tonnage were a third of their 1920 level. With the advent of containerization in the 1960s, maritime transportation costs further declined. Air transportation costs followed a similar trend, but over a much shorter time frame. Air transportation boomed after WWII, driven by technological improvements (such as the jet engine) and improved aircraft design for fuel efficiency and comfort. The 1970s were particularly significant for the introduction of long-distance, fuel-efficient planes such as the Boeing 747. However, by 2000, sea freight rates and airfares had leveled off, and costs have not changed significantly since then. This underlines the infrastructure and capital intensity of these modes having a cost structure that cannot be changed significantly, even with economies of scale and technical improvements. The COVID-19 pandemic was associated with a temporary rise in airfares due to significantly lower demand and additional sanitary measures. Telecommunications are a sector where costs have decreased significantly as well. In 2000, an international phone call cost about 1% of what it did in 1940. For instance, while a three-minute phone call between New York and London cost $293 in 1931 (1993 dollars), the same call cost $1 in 2001, about $0.25 in 2005, $0.05 in 2015, and less than $0.01 in 2025. With fiber-optic cables, telecommunications are accessible worldwide, particularly through the Internet, making long-distance communication nearly free and ubiquitous. The mass diffusion of cell phones since the 1990s and of smartphones since the 2010s has further reduced costs. Another significant wave of innovation involves information technologies, as indicated by the excessively rapid decrease in computer storage costs since their initial introduction (mainframes) in the 1960s. By the 1990s, low storage costs enabled the widespread adoption of personal computers, with each new generation faster and cheaper than the previous. By the 2010s, low storage costs made smartphones and portable computing devices possible. The rapid diffusion of electric vehicles in the early 2010s is associated with declines in the most costly element of an electric vehicle, its battery cell. While a kilowatt-hour on a lithium-ion battery was more than $9,000 in the early 1990s, this figure dropped to less than $100 by 2024. Lithium-ion batteries are also an important support for information technology devices such as smartphones, so a drop in their cost makes them more affordable and ubiquitous. Globalization and its related high mobility levels could not have occurred without low transport and telecommunication costs. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-communication-costs-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-communication-costs-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-communication-costs-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-communication-costs-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Gross Domestic Product and Human Development Index, 2015](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-capita-human-development-index/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-GDP-HDI-2015.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global Gross Domestic Product and Human Development Index, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Gross Domestic Product and Human Development Index 2015*Source: UNEP (2012): The UNEP Environmental Data Explorer, as compiled from World Development Indicators (WDI-The World Bank). United Nations Environment Programme.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_GDP_Per_Capita.pdf) The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total output of goods and services for final use produced by an economy by both residents and non-residents. It is equal to consumption plus gross capital formation plus exports, less imports, and includes subsistence products produced by households for their own use, valued at current local prices for comparable commodities. The GDP is often divided by the population to express the standard of living since it is a rough approximation of the amount of wealth per person (there are issues of wealth distribution that are not well reflected in GDP per capita figures). The World Bank often uses GDP per capita to classify the level of economic development of nations. The wealthiest nations account for the largest markets in the world. The GDP is thus a reasonable approximation of the size of a market, but not necessarily of the standards of living (or quality of life). For instance, China has a much higher GDP than Korea, implying that China is a bigger market, but Korea is a more sophisticated economy with higher standards of living. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite measure ranging from 0 to 1 that includes life expectancy, education (literacy rate), and standards of living (GDP per capita). It is more representative of the commercial potential of countries with an HDI above 0.8, accounting for the world’s leading markets. This commercial potential and dynamism shape global transactions and flows. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-capita-human-development-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-capita-human-development-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-capita-human-development-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-capita-human-development-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [OPEC Members and Countries with more than 10 Billion Barrels of Oil Reserves](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/opec-members-reserves/) **Published:** December 19, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map_opec.png?resize=850%2C433&ssl=1 "map_opec | The Geography of Transport Systems ")OPEC Members and Countries with more than 10 Billion Barrels of Oil Reserves[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/MAP_OPEC_countries.pdf) OPEC includes 12 members on 3 continents. The founding members (1960) are Venezuela, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait, all of which are still part of OPEC. Several other oil-producing nations joined thereafter the organization: Qatar (1961), Indonesia (1962-2009; it ceased to be a net oil exporter), Libya (1969), Algeria (1970), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973-1992; it left the organization in order to avoid production quotas and rejoined in 2007), The United Arab Emirates (1973), Gabon (1973-1994) and Angola (2007). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/opec-members-reserves/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/opec-members-reserves/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/opec-members-reserves/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/opec-members-reserves/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Key Aerotropolis Developments](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/aerotropolis/) **Published:** November 23, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Aerotropolis.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Key Aerotropolis Developments | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Key Aerotropolis Developments*Source: adapted from aerotropolis.com.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Aerotropolis.pdf) Air transportation moves more people and goods at high speed and over long distances, underscoring the crucial importance of airports. As a result, new urban forms are taking place around airports to create a cluster of activities related to passenger and cargo flows. Depending upon how this cluster of airport-centric activities is integrated (with many related to logistics), the terms “airport city” or “aerotropolis” can be applied. - **Airport city**. An expansion of the conventional role of airports as mere transshipment locations for passengers and freight into a range of added-value activities. This expansion is the outcome of the convergence of several commercial trends, including the need for airport authorities to find additional sources of income as airports are competing with other airports to attract scheduled passenger and cargo services. This is expanded by the growing integration of several economic sectors, especially high technology, with air transportation, which incites the search for affordable locations in the vicinity of airport terminals. - **Aerotropolis**. In simplistic terms, an aerotropolis includes all the elements of an airport city, but in a more comprehensively planned framework. This framework includes a set of concentric rings of specific activities around the airport, starting with an inner zone of distribution centers, logistics complexes, and just-in-time manufacturers, then a ring of office parks, hotels, restaurants, and convention centers, and then still farther out a largely residential periphery home to those who make their livelihood in the aerotropolis. Cutting across all these rings are aerolanes, high-capacity highways, and rail lines providing access from ring to ring and to the rest of the metropolitan area within which an aerotropolis is set. Airport cities and aerotropolises are competing at a global level, which commonly implies that their economy tends to be more linked to global processes than regional ones. Dubai may be one of the best illustrations of an aerotropolis planned from the ground up. Still, several Asian airports are also nuclei for this kind of development. Even in the US and Europe, a few examples can be found, including Dallas-Fort Worth International and Schiphol in Amsterdam. Several developing countries are advocating the development of aerotropolises around new airport projects or as a strategy to expand existing airport facilities to generate more income and attract added-value activities. There is no denying the new importance of air transportation as a factor shaping the urban landscape, and that is nowhere more in evidence than in and around the world’s large airports. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/aerotropolis/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/aerotropolis/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/aerotropolis/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/aerotropolis/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Land Rent Theory and Rent Curve](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-curve/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/land_rent_theory_rent_curve.png?resize=900%2C330&ssl=1 "Land Rent Theory and Rent Curve | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Land Rent Theory and Rent Curve*Source: Adapted from: Pászto V. (2020) Economic Geography. In: Pászto V., C. Jürgens, P. Tominc, and J. Burian (eds) Spationomy. Springer, Cham.* Three concepts are at the core of the land rent theory: - **Rent**. A surplus (profit) resulting from some advantages such as capitalization and accessibility. It is based on the capability to pay and is a function of economic activity. Rent is usually highest for retail because this activity is closely dependent on accessibility to generate income. - **Rent gradient**. A representation of the decline in rent with distance from a point of reference, usually the central business district. This gradient is related to the **marginal cost of distance** for each activity, which is how distance influences its bidding rent. The **friction of distance** has an important impact on the rent gradient because with no friction, all locations would be perfect locations. - **Bid rent curve function**. The combination of land prices and distances at which the individual (or firm) is indifferent. It describes the price range that a household (or firm) would be willing to pay at various locations to achieve a given level of satisfaction (utility/profits). The activity that has the highest bid rent is theoretically the activity that will occupy this location. Land rent theory assumes a central business district representing the most desirable location with a high level of accessibility. The surrounding areas, within a radius of 1 km, have a surface of about 3.14 square (S=πD2). Under such circumstances, the rent is a function of the availability of land, which can simply be expressed as 1/S. At zero distance, the rent is the highest: 1. As we move away from the center, the rent drops substantially since the amount of available land increases exponentially. There is more land available to bid on, so if the supply goes up, the price [usually goes down](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4930). This rent/distance relationship has an [impact on land use](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4939). Land rent models can be adapted to [rural](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4898 "Von Thunen’s Regional Land Use Model") and [urban](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4939 "Land Rent and Land Use") contexts. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-curve/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-curve/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-curve/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-curve/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Selected Changes in Maritime Shipping](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/selected-changes-maritime-shipping/) **Published:** April 5, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/changes_maritime_shipping2.png?resize=900%2C421&ssl=1 "Selected Changes in Maritime Shipping | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Selected Changes in Maritime Shipping*Source: Jan Hoffmann / UNCTAD. Container-to-general cargo ratio derived from the registered fleet in dwt. Dry-to-bulk ratio derived from ton-kilometers transported. Transportation / inventory costs ratio derived from USA data from the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals, State of Logistics Report, (after 2012). Logistics Management & Distribution Report (before 2012).* In recent decades, notable changes have been seen in the composition of maritime shipping services. The ratios depicted in the above figure underline these changes: - An important aspect is the ongoing containerization of the breakbulk trade, which implies a quickly rising **container-to-general cargo tonnage ratio**. The cost and operational efficiency of container shipping have substituted for conventional breakbulk shipping, which mainly serves niche markets such as project cargo and vehicles (RORO vessels). - The globalization of maritime shipping has resulted in a **growing share of the fleet being registered in a foreign country**. The ratio between the total tonnage registered in a foreign country compared to nationally registered tonnage has increased. - While liquid bulk trade, such as petroleum, used to be the [dominant cargo carried by maritime shipping](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2155), the **share of dry cargo, such as minerals, grain, and containers, has increased**. This is the outcome of several trends, including the stabilization of petroleum imports from Europe and North America due to energy efficiency, a shift to other sources of energy (e.g., natural gas), and domestic production (e.g., American shale oil). Further, several developing economies, including China, have become large importers and exporters of dry cargoes such as iron ore and coal. - The shift in the logistical components of maritime trade is also indicative. Using evidence from the United States, the **share of transportation costs over inventory carrying costs has increased**. This implies that a growing share of the inventory is in transit, particularly since container shipping costs have been on a downward trend. An important aspect has been applying lean supply chain management and “[just-in-time](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5442)” strategies that result in lower inventory levels. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/selected-changes-maritime-shipping/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/selected-changes-maritime-shipping/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/selected-changes-maritime-shipping/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/selected-changes-maritime-shipping/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Average Marginal Trucking Costs per Mile, United States, 2008-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/marginal-trucking-costs-united-states/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/marginal_trucking_costs_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Marginal Trucking Costs per Mile, United States, 2008-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Average Marginal Trucking Costs per Mile United States 2008 2020*Source: The American Transportation Research Institute (ATRI) An Analysis of the Operational Costs of Trucking: 2018 Update.* Trucking is a highly competitive industry since it has low barriers to entry. The two highest operating costs of trucking are fuel (20-30%) and wages and benefits (35-45%). Jointly, they account for about 65% of all costs. Fuel costs fluctuate the most because they are external to the industry. There is very little flexibility in this cost structure, implying that fluctuations in energy prices cannot be mitigated well and impact the low-profit margins of the industry (less than 10%) directly. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/marginal-trucking-costs-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/marginal-trucking-costs-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/marginal-trucking-costs-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/marginal-trucking-costs-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Changes in the Global Trade Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-trade-environment-changes/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/change_global_trade_environment.png?resize=900%2C885&ssl=1 "Changes in the Global Trade Environment | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Changes in the Global Trade EnvironmentSignificant changes in international trade took place in recent decades as economic activities became increasingly globalized. Although it is difficult to separate the specific phases of globalization clearly, three can be suggested: - **Immobile factors of production**. For reasons mainly linked with regulations (customs restrictions, restrictions on foreign investment and ownership) and transport costs, [commodities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4211) (minerals, oil, grain) tended to be the most traded. International trade mainly took place to cope with scarcity, implying that countries were trading goods that they did not readily have available. Any other good which could, in theory, be produced nationally was subject to a variety of protectionist policies. International transport was dominantly serviced by bulk point-to-point services since it was the most suitable means for this type of trade. - **Mobile factors of production**. Through the 1970s, a new trade regime came into play, which incited higher mobility of the factors of production, particularly through foreign direct investments and containerization. Much of the international trade framework was liberalized with lower duties and simpler customs procedures. The outcome was a significant increase in economic efficiency, as lower labor (input) costs and economies of scale were achieved. Through comparative advantages, production concentrated in areas able to offer lower input costs. Cheaper and more efficient containerized transportation supported such a process to locations that previously were mainly outside the global trade network, namely China. This process has long been advocated by economic and trade theory (e.g., Adam Smith and Ricardo) but never took place at a notable scale. Still, some level of economic integration existed before the 1970s, such as in North America (USA – Canada) and Western Europe (early stages of the EU). - **Global value chains**. From the 1990s, the application of supply chain management permitted the emergence of integrated supply chains servicing global markets. A global division of labor was quickly emerging. By setting up or capturing a [value chain](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4270), a corporation is able to generate added value and compete more effectively in global markets. Containerization became embedded in freight distribution, supporting trade flows and acting as a [transport, production and distribution unit](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2686). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-trade-environment-changes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-trade-environment-changes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-trade-environment-changes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-trade-environment-changes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Main Dimensions of Trade Facilitation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/main-dimensions-trade-facilitation/) **Published:** September 20, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dimensions_trade_facilitation.png?resize=900%2C327&ssl=1 "The Main Dimensions of Trade Facilitation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Main Dimensions of Trade FacilitationTrade facilitation involves three main dimensions: - **Integration-based**. Customs procedures, tariffs, regulations, and documentation handling. They ensure that trade flows abide by the rules and regulations of the jurisdictions they cross. Cross-border clearance, particularly in developing economies, can be a notable trade impediment with border delays, bottlenecks, and long customs clearance times. This underlines the need for enforcing revenue collection so that income from trade is collected according to established rules. Customs fraud often takes place where revenue collection is lacking and requires accurate product valuation and labeling. - **Distribution-based**. A multimodal and intermodal freight transport system composed of modes, infrastructures, and terminals that spans across the globe. It ensures physical capacity and connectivity to support trade and its underlying supply chains. - **Transaction-based**. Banking, finance, legal, and insurance activities where accounts can be settled and risk mitigated. They ensure that sellers of goods and services receive agreed-upon compensation and that purchasers have legal recourse if the outcome of the transaction is judged unsatisfactory, or are insured if a partial or full loss is incurred. Improving the transactional efficiency of trade can also lead to more opportunities for fraud. Trade misinvoicing is a common form of transactional fraud and is reported to be the largest source of illicit financial outflows in the world. It can be used for money laundering when a larger sum than the actual reported trade transaction is paid to a third party, with the surplus diverted to another foreign account. It can also be used for tax evasion when a lower transactional value is reported, while the real transactional value is settled through a third party. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/main-dimensions-trade-facilitation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/main-dimensions-trade-facilitation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/main-dimensions-trade-facilitation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/main-dimensions-trade-facilitation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Passport Index](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/passport-visa-restriction-index/) **Published:** February 24, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passport_index.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "The Passport Index | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Passport Index*Source: Henley and Partners Holdings. The value relates to the number of countries and territories that the holder of a passport can travel to without a visa.* There is a wide variety of regulatory regimes controlling the movement of foreign nationals. One such restriction concerns the issuance of a visa granting temporary access to a visitor as long as the purpose of travel is leisure or business. While the nationals of developed countries tend to have few traveling restrictions, those of developing countries tend to have limitations, with fewer countries open to travel without a visa. The Passport Index (formerly known as the Visa Restriction Index), assess the general freedom of travel by each country of nationality. As of 2018, a national of Denmark could travel to 187 countries or territories without a visa, while a Chinese national could only travel to 72 countries without a visa. The rule of thumb is that developed countries impose travel restrictions on nationals of countries that have a high likelihood of using the pretense of tourism or business travel to emigrate. As economic development takes place, travel restrictions tend to become less stringent. For instance, in 2011, a national from the United Arab Emirates could travel to 67 countries or territories without a visa, while this number climbed to 158 in 2018 (a growth of 135%). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/passport-visa-restriction-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/passport-visa-restriction-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/passport-visa-restriction-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/passport-visa-restriction-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Actors in Transport Finance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/transport-finance-actors/) **Published:** January 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/actors_transport_finance.png?resize=900%2C553&ssl=1 "Actors in Transport Finance | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Actors in Transport Finance*Source: adapted from C. Russell (2008) Presentation at “Closing the Gap: Financing the Region’s Transportation Needs”, New York University, Rudin Center for Transportation Policy & Management.* The transport finance sector involves two major groups: - **Providers**. Concern the major actors that can be tapped to finance transport infrastructure. Various levels of government are the conventional source, as well as private lenders (e.g., investment banks and bond issuers) that simply provide capital. Private investors, namely terminal operators, are a relatively new source of financing, commonly taking direct involvement in the management of transport infrastructure and equipment. All actors, particularly the private sector, expect a return on their capital investments. For many financial asset managers, transportation has become an asset class part of a diversification strategy. - **Recipients**. Investments in transport infrastructure, once completed, eventually impact an array of recipients. The most obvious concern is the users of the infrastructure, who contribute to transport finance mainly through the usage fees (e.g., fares or tolls) they pay. There are also others that contribute or benefit indirectly. Beneficiaries are actors that, even if not using the infrastructure directly, will derive a benefit. For instance, a new terminal (or additional traffic at an existing terminal) will benefit the regional economy with additional employment, a larger tax base, and a greater demand for a range of goods and services. The general public, particularly if governments are involved in the financing, will contribute indirectly through taxes and will benefit from the economic opportunities offered by the infrastructure. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/transport-finance-actors/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/transport-finance-actors/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/transport-finance-actors/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/transport-finance-actors/?share=reddit) - --- ### [RO-RO Cargo Ship](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/roro-cargo-ships/) **Published:** November 9, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/roroship.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "RO-RO Cargo Ship | The Geography of Transport Systems ")RO RO Cargo Ship*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2003.* As automobile production became an increasingly globalized industry, the need to transport vehicles overseas increased. RO-RO (Roll On – Roll Off) ships suit such a purpose. Vehicles are rolled on the ship’s decks and parked. The deck height can be adjusted to carry bigger vehicles such as vans and trucks. Loading or unloading such a ship is, however, labor-intensive, as a driver is required to drive each vehicle and park it at its appropriate onboard location (or at a port parking facility if the ship is being unloaded). The above photo was taken at Le Havre port in France, an important automobile exporter. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/roro-cargo-ships/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/roro-cargo-ships/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/roro-cargo-ships/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/roro-cargo-ships/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Favorable and Contentious Factors in International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/trade-contention/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trade_favorable_contentions.png?resize=900%2C453&ssl=1 "Favorable and Contentious Factors in International Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Favorable and Contentious Factors in International TradeThere are four main themes that are subject to contention in international trade: - **Factor substitution**. Trade theory underlines that specialization is the outcome of substituting the factors of production brought by comparative advantages. This specialization promotes national productivity in selected economic sectors. However, when an economic system is relatively simple, labor and capital can be effectively reconverted to other uses since labor tends to be used in its most simplistic form. When an economic system is complex (knowledge-intensive), labor no longer needed in production activities that have lost their competitiveness cannot be easily reallocated to other forms of work since the required skill base can be extensive. The same applies to various infrastructures that cannot be reconverted to new uses. Therefore, trade can concomitantly be associated with increased productivity and enduring unemployment. - **Comparative advantages**. While specialization brought by trade leads to an increase in the quantity of goods and lower prices for end-users, some nations do not have notable comparative advantages. Irrespective of their economic characteristics, they may not find a niche to participate and compete in global trade. The opportunities brought by comparative advantages could be captured by a few large leading producers, limiting the participation of smaller countries. With economies of scale, a few producers can provide enough goods to satisfy global demand, leaving limited opportunities for new entrants. - **Openness**. An open economy is characterized by fewer tariff and non-tariff barriers and the associated lower prices for consumer goods and inputs (parts and raw materials). However, national industries are subject to higher competition levels, which may affect the existing employment structure. Opening an economy that was previously closed can lead to substantial disruption in its manufacturing structure and unemployment. Targeted protectionist measures could be implemented, which may disrupt the variety and availability of goods. - **Interdependency**. With trade, economies develop interdependencies where collaboration, common standards, and technology exchanges are promoted. However, highly interdependent economies may develop a dependency on a specific array of goods and resources, leading to vulnerability if there are trade disruptions. The most contentious sector is usually agriculture, as few countries are willing to commit to the risk of seeing disruptions in the food supply through an over-reliance on foreign suppliers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/trade-contention/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/trade-contention/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/trade-contention/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/trade-contention/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Elements of the Cold Chain](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-elements/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/element_cold_chain.png?resize=900%2C683&ssl=1 "Elements of the Cold Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Elements of the Cold ChainA cold chain can functionally be considered as the close interaction between three technologies: - **Product**. A product has physical attributes that require specific temperature and humidity conditions. These conditions dictate its transport, which must take place in a manner that does not undermine its physical attributes to an extent that is judged unacceptable. These physical attributes relate to how perishable and fragile a product can be and how it handles the cold chain process. Otherwise, the product may lose its commercial value in whole or in part. - **Origin / Destination**. The respective locations where a temperature-sensitive product is produced and consumed. It underlines the difficulty of making a product available in the market from where it is produced, which can be an important constraint. Because of advances in cold chain logistics, it became possible to use increasingly distant sourcing strategies, some of which are spanning the world. - **Distribution**. The methods and infrastructure available to transport a product in a temperature-controlled environment. They can involve temperature-controlled containers (reefers), trucks, and warehousing facilities. [Operational conditions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6598) within the cold chain must be consistent so that the processes of load and transport integrity of the shipments are maintained. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-elements/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-elements/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-elements/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-elements/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/) **Published:** December 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-New-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Trans Asian Railway Eurasian Landbridge[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_New-Silk-Road.pdf) The idea to link the Far East and Europe by rail originated with the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, linking Moscow to Vladivostok, completed in 1916. With a length of 9,200 km, it is the longest rail segment in the world. It was initially used solely as an inland rail link. Still, in the 1960s, the Soviet Union started offering a landbridge service from Vladivostok using the Trans Siberian to reach Western Europe. However, geopolitical considerations would limit the adoption of this trade corridor by international shipping companies. In addition, the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s created a context of geopolitical instability within Russia and its former republics, and a lack of investment and maintenance of existing rail and terminal facilities. The idea of using the corridor as a transcontinental and transnational route was abandoned. The beginning of the 21st century has brought renewed interest in a long-distance rail connection between Asia and Europe, especially with the booming Asian trade and the increasing pressure to ship containerized freight in a time-sensitive manner over long distances. These connections came to be known as the **Trans Asian Railway**, the **Northern East-West Corridor**, the **Eurasian Landbridge**, the **New Silk Road**, OBOR (**One Belt One Road**; a term used between 2014 and 2017 ) or the BRI (**Belt and Road Initiative**; a term used since 2017). The Belt and Road Initiative underlines the importance of China in shaping the development of these infrastructure and trade corridors. China is seeking to expand trade relations in Central Asia through infrastructure development, including rail connections, inland terminals, and ports. The main route uses the Trans-Siberian Railway, either branching to Vladivostok with connections to Eastern China, branching to Kazakhstan, entering western China at Khorgos and Druzhba, and then through the Lanzhou rail hub and onward to the coast of China, or branching into Mongolia to enter China at Erenhot and then to the main Beijing hub. All the necessary infrastructure exists to ensure the setting and operations of the Eurasian Landbridge, particularly along the Trans Siberian, which is double-tracked and electrified. The question remains to improve some segments to better integrate all the elements of this complex multinational transport chain. Among the numerous challenges the corridor is facing: ### Multinational cooperation There are seven countries involved in the rail land segment that are politically, economically, and culturally very different. Unlike the [North American landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7251) where rail segments are entirely contained within an individual nation (US, Canada, or Mexico) and owned by large rail companies, the multitude of actors requires a level of multinational cooperation. In 2006, the Trans-Asian Railway Network Agreement was signed by most of the countries the Eurasian landbridge is going through. This agreement tries to coordinate rail investments, customs procedures, and the setting of long-distance rail corridors. However, a transport chain is as reliable as its weakest link. Kazakhstan, parts of Siberia (semi-autonomous administrative divisions), and even some parts of western China present political risks. In 2011, a customs union (the Eurasian Economic Union) was established between Kazakhstan, Russia, and Belarus, implying that all the goods transiting are subject to the same regulations. It is thus essential to ensure cargo security along the entire transport chain as well as the continuity of rail operations. ### Break of gauge The rail system operates on two gauges, standard (1.435 m; China and most of Western Europe) and broad (1.520 m; Russia and some Scandinavian countries), which imposes a technical challenge. It requires reloading or adapting the equipment to gauge changes. Moving cargo between China and Germany would involve two gauge changes. The first consists of a switch from the Chinese standard gauge to the Russian broad gauge. The second involves a switch from the Russian broad gauge to the European standard gauge. At each gauge change, containers are transloaded from one train to the other, side by side, in a thruport-like facility. Although containerization enables an efficient transfer of cargo, this still involves additional costs and delays. A key priority has been the setting of efficient gauge transloading facilities, such as Khorgos in Kazakhstan. ### Economics Long-distance rail services are facing several economic challenges undermining their commercial potential. This is particularly the case for the Eurasian landbridge. - First, there are no doublestack services on the Eurasian landbridge, which significantly reduces the economic efficiency of rail. This is further exacerbated by the use of shorter trains. Therefore, the Eurasian landbridge is able to offer a speed advantage, but with limited scale economies, as it is possible for North American rail corridors. - Second, the usual optimal distance for rail freight services is around 3,000 km (in North America, it can easily go to 5,000-6,000 km for doublestack services), while the Eurasian landbridge involves 3 or 4 times that distance. It is thus very difficult to make these services profitable because of the higher transport costs involved for such distances. - The third challenge concerns transit time. While reaching European locations such as Germany from China takes about 15 days, going further inside Europe can take up to 21 days, which is close to the same time it takes for a maritime service to reach Europe from China. Servicing European locations in about 2 weeks has some commercial advantages for many goods, particularly those of high value, but once this threshold is exceeded, maritime services start to make more sense since they are much cheaper compared to the marginal additional time they imply. Yet, this is a notable advantage for inland manufacturing activities. - Fourth, we must look at the cargo itself. It can be difficult to find backhaul opportunities that would make the whole service more profitable. Since the Asia-Europe trade is highly imbalanced, the Eurasian landbridge faces challenges similar to maritime transportation, such as repositioning empty containers and equipment. Imbalances stand at 30-70 in favor of Chinese flows toward Europe. - It is also worth considering that during winter, the Eurasian landbridge is going through regions experiencing very low temperatures. This is not suitable for certain cargo types and would require temperature control equipment. In spite of these challenges, the prospects of the Eurasian Landbridge remain positive. For China, the Eurasian Landbridge could partially fulfill an opportunity to develop the interior provinces and avoid congestion at the coastal ports. In January 2008, a long-distance service called the “Beijing-Hamburg Container Express” was inaugurated, along with a service to Duisburg in 2009. The 10,000 km (6,200 miles) service takes 15 days to link the Chinese capital to the German port city, going through Mongolia, the Russian Federation, Belarus, and Poland. The maritime journey covering the same markets would take about 30 days. In 2014, the longest commercial rail service in the world was achieved when a train carrying 82 containers traveled from the city of Yiwu (a major manufacturing cluster in Zhejiang Province) to Madrid, a journey of 12,800 km that took 21 days. In 2017, the first service between Yiwu and London using the Channel Tunnel took 16 days. Since then, regular rail services have been established between China and several European cities. It is, however, difficult to assess which services are profitable and which are simply subsidized for promotional purposes (in some cases, up to 50% of transportation costs are subsidized). The expectation is that these subsidies will attract cargo. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Freight Rates in TEU Between Singapore and Rotterdam](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-rates-singapore-rotterdam-teu/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/singapore_rotterdam_rate_teu.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "Freight Rates in TEU Between Singapore and Rotterdam | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Freight Rates in TEU Between Singapore and Rotterdam*Source: Germanischer Lloyd.* Singapore and Rotterdam are among the world’s largest container ports and are thus prone to economies of scale by maritime shipping companies. These two ports are serviced by an array of ship classes, giving a sample of rates per TEU per ship class (see above). The introduction of the Emma class of 12,000 TEU containerships in 2008 marginally improved the shipping rates. The potential introduction of a “Malacca Max” class of 18,000 TEU containerships would further reduce rates per TEU but would impose higher port equipment costs, such as cranes able to handle such ships. There is thus a balance between the benefits that maritime shipping companies derive from economies of scale and the additional capital investment this process imposes on port terminals. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-rates-singapore-rotterdam-teu/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-rates-singapore-rotterdam-teu/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-rates-singapore-rotterdam-teu/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-rates-singapore-rotterdam-teu/?share=reddit) - --- ### [6.3 - Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/) **Published:** November 19, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Theo Notteboom > Ports are harbor areas in which marine terminal facilities are transferring cargo and passengers between ships and land transportation. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Ports and Port Sites](#1_Ports_and_Port_Sites) - [2. Port Functions and Traffic](#2_Port_Functions_and_Traffic) - [3. Port Authorities and Port Holdings](#3_Port_Authorities_and_Port_Holdings) - [4. Port Regionalization and Transshipment Hubs](#4_Port_Regionalization_and_Transshipment_Hubs) # 1. Ports and Port Sites Ports are points of convergence between the **land and maritime domains** of passengers and freight circulation. While the maritime domain can involve substantial geographic coverage related to global trade, the land domain is related to the region and locality of ports. The term port comes from the Latin *portus*, which means gate or gateway. Historically, ports emerged as safe harbors for fishing, and those with [convenient locations](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/changing-geography-of-seaports/ports-and-economic-location-factors/) became trade hubs, many of which of free access and designed to protect trade. As such, they became the nexus of urbanization, with several becoming the first port cities, playing an important role in the economic welfare of their regions. Today, many of the most important cities in the world owe their origin to their port location. The port is a [multidimensional entity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/main-port-dimensions/ "The Main Port Dimensions") anchored within geography by its site and situation and depending on its operations, governance structure, and the supply chains it is embedded in. Due to the operational characteristics of maritime transportation, port location is constrained to a **limited array of [sites](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3250)**, primarily defined by geography. Since ports are bound by the need to serve ships, access to navigable waterways has been historically the most important site consideration. Before the Industrial Revolution, ships were the most efficient means of transporting goods across all modes. Thus, port sites were frequently chosen at the head of water navigation, the most upstream sites, such as London on the Thames, Montreal on the St. Lawrence River, or Guangzhou on the Pearl River. Ship drafts were small, so many sites were suitable to be used as ports. Sites on tidal waterways created a particular challenge for shipping because of the twice-daily rise and fall of water levels at the berths. This implied that protected areas such as bays were particularly suitable port sites. By the 18th century, the technology of enclosed docks with lock gates was developed to mitigate several nautical constraints related to tidal variations. Because ship transfers were slow and vessels typically spent weeks in ports, many berths were required. This frequently led to the construction of piers and jetties, often called finger piers, to increase the number of berths per given length of shoreline. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/main_port_dimensions.png?resize=900%2C586&ssl=1 "The Main Port Dimensions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/main-port-dimensions/main_port_dimensions/)The Main Dimensions of Port Geography[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_sites-1024x631.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "| The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/?attachment_id=3248)Port Sites[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Harbor-Types-1024x631.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "| The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/?attachment_id=3267)Harbor Types[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Port-Depth-1024x631.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "| The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/?attachment_id=3278)Number of Large and Medium Ports by Channel Depth[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_elizabeth_new_jersey_panynj.png?resize=900%2C569&ssl=1 "Port Elizabeth Intermodal Complex, Port of New York / New Jersey | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-elizabeth-intermodal-complex/port_elizabeth_panynj/)Port Elizabeth Intermodal Complex Port of New York New JerseyConventional break-bulk terminals were mainly focused on direct transshipment from the deepsea vessel to inland transport modes. Direct transshipment is associated with short dwell times, the average time the cargo remains stacked on the terminal and waits for some activity to occur. This required only a small temporary storage area on the terminal. Transshipment was very labor-intensive, with operations managed on an ad-hoc basis. It was common, due to the lengthy loading or unloading process, to have goods move directly from the land mode (trucks or rail) to the ship or vice-versa. Ships staying at berth for several days allowed for a continuous, albeit slow, loading or unloading of the cargo. The growth of the oil industry in the 1920s and 1930s and the fast rise of the chemical industry in the 1950s and 1960s, such as producing petrochemicals such as plastics, led many ports to expand to locations with ample space for the development of vast Maritime Industrial Development Areas (MIDA). In the 1960s, the gradual shift from conventional break-bulk terminals to **container terminals** brought about a fundamental change in the layout of terminals as well as site selection. Ports increasingly became impacted by global processes, such as sourcing resources, parts, and goods to other parts of the world. Containerized transportation substantially changed port dynamics to favor the emergence of specialized container ports. Compared to conventional break-bulk cargo ships, most containerships did not have onboard cranes, and container terminal facilities had to provide capital-intensive cranes and ample storage space to stack containers dockside. Finger piers were no longer adequate, and berths were redesigned to accommodate quick ship turnaround and more effective dockside operations between the crane and the container storage areas. The usual dwell time of a containership is around 24 hours, implying that a containership spends about ten times less in a port than an equivalent break-bulk cargo ship. Containerization has become a fundamental function of global port operations and has changed the structure and configuration of port terminals that occupy more space. Recently, ports have been challenged to find enough space to create new large-scale logistics zones in the framework of port-centric logistics and free trade and economic development zones. As terminals, ports handle the largest amounts of freight, more than any other type of terminal combined. For handling freight, port infrastructures must jointly accommodate transshipment activities and thus facilitate **convergence between land transport and maritime systems**. In many parts of the world, ports are the points of convergence from which inland transport systems, particularly rail, were laid. Most ports, especially those that are ancient, owe their initial emergence to their site as most harbors take [advantage of a natural coastline or a natural site along a river](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/changing-geography-of-seaports/harbor-types/). Four major elements define a port site: - **Maritime access**. Refers to the physical capacity of the site to accommodate ship operations. It includes the tidal range, which is the difference between the high and low tide, as normal ship operations cannot handle variations of more than 3 meters. Channel and berth depths are also very important to accommodate modern cargo ships. A standard Panamax ship of 65,000 deadweight tons requires a draft of more than 12 meters (40 feet). However, about 70% of world ports have depths of less than 10 meters and are unable to accommodate ships of more than 200 meters in length. Many ports are also impacted by sedimentation, particularly ports in river deltas. This requires continuous [dredging](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3286), which adds to the costs of port operations. Some river ports may be impacted by periods of flooding and drought, while other ports may be impeded or closed during winter because of ice conditions. While inland port sites (such as at the end of a bay or along a river) generally have the advantage of being closer to the final market, they imply longer deviations from maritime shipping routes. - **Maritime interface**. Indicates the amount of space available to support maritime operations, namely the amount of shoreline with good maritime access. This attribute is critical since ports are linear entities. Even if a port site has excellent maritime access, namely deepwater waterways, there may not be enough land available to guarantee its future development and expansion. Containerization has expanded the [land consumption requirements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3527) of many ports. Therefore, it is not surprising to see that contemporary port expansion projects involve significant capital investments to create artificial port facilities providing, through land reclamation, more room for this interface. - **Infrastructures and equipment**. The port site must have infrastructures such as piers, basins, stacking or storage areas, warehouses, and equipment such as cranes, all of which involve high levels of capital investment. In turn, these infrastructures have a footprint, which must be available to ensure port expansion. Keeping up with the investment requirements of modern port operations has become a challenge, particularly considering containerization, which requires substantial amounts of terminal space to operate. Modern container terminals rely on a unique array of infrastructure, including [portainers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3491), [stacking yards](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2701) serviced by [gantry cranes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3502), and the vehicles used to move containers around the terminal, such as [straddle carriers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3496). Container ports have also developed infrastructure for refrigerated containers (reefers) with separated stacking areas. Many terminals are also becoming automated, particularly for stacking areas with automated cranes and vehicles. - **Land access.** Access from the port to industrial complexes and markets ensures its growth and importance. This requires efficient inland distribution systems, such as fluvial barges, rail unit trains, and roads handling intense heavy truck traffic. Land access to ports located in densely populated areas is facing increasing congestion. For instance, the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach have invested massively to develop the Alameda rail corridor to promote inland access and reduce truck congestion. A similar trend has occurred in Europe, where ports such as Rotterdam and Antwerp have been involved in setting up inland barge and rail shuttle services. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_3619.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Dredging Ship at the Port of Zeebrugge, Belgium | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/dredging-ship-zeebrugge/img_3619/)Dredging Ship at the Port of Zeebrugge Belgium[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_3873.JPG?w=900&ssl=1 "Portainer, APM Terminal, Port Newark (New York) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/portainer-apm-terminal-newark/apm_new-york-crane/)Portainer APM Terminal Port Newark New York[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_1875.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Rubber-Tired Overhead Gantry Crane (RTG), Halterm Terminal, Halifax | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/overhead-rubber-tired-gantry-crane/img_1875/)Rubber Tired Overhead Gantry Crane RTG Halterm Terminal Halifax[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_3572.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Container Straddler, Port of Gothenburg, Sweden | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/container-straddler-port-gothenburg/img_3572/)Container Straddler Port of Gothenburg Sweden[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_3148.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Stacked 40-Foot Empty Containers, Yantian, China | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/stacked-containers-yantian/img_3148/)Stacked 40 Foot Empty Containers Yantian ChinaEconomies of scale have incited the construction of larger ships, namely tankers, bulk carriers, and containerships. An outcome is that many port sites can **no longer provide suitable maritime access** to cargo operations. Since container terminals were constructed much more recently, they have a better nautical profile, as depth and available space were fundamental factors in site selection. There are thus incentives to [increase channel depth](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/channel-depth-ports-north-america/ "Channel Depth at Major North American Container Ports") where possible, but this is a costly and environmentally controversial endeavor. Berths and access channel depth have become important constraints for maritime operations considering growing ship sizes. There is also an array of problems related to port infrastructures. Ports along rivers continuously face **dredging problems**, and the width of rivers strongly limits their capacity since it provides constraints to navigation. Rarely a port along a river is able to handle the new generation of mega-ships, namely [Post Panamax containerships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2206). These ships have put additional pressure on port infrastructures to accommodate growing operational constraints in terms of volume and throughput. Ports next to the sea commonly face a **lateral spread** of their infrastructures. Several ports have growth problems, forcing them to spread their infrastructure far from the original sites. Older port sites associated with the centrality of cities are facing congestion problems where the transport network has the least capacity to be improved. The city and the port often **compete for the same land**, creating prioritization problems. Ports thus have a complex set of relationships, sometimes conflicting, with the cities they service, often a function of the port and city size. While ports are sources of employment and commercial interactions, they also generate externalities such as noise and congestion near their access points. The pressure of many ports on their sites is even more demanding than that of airports because they must be adjacent to deep water. Such sites are very limited and may give rise to conflicts with the city that sees waterfront land as potential high-value residential and commercial areas, park space, or as environmentally sensitive. Many ports are now constrained by **urban and environmental pressures**, which did not exist when their initial facilities were developed. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-North-America-Container-Ports-Depth.png?resize=768%2C451&ssl=1 "Channel Depth at Major North American Container Ports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/channel-depth-ports-north-america/map-north-america-container-ports-depth/)Channel Depth at Major North American Container Ports[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evelyn_maersk.jpg?resize=850%2C460&ssl=1 "'E' Class Containership, The Evelyn Maersk | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/e-class-containership-evelyn-maersk/evelyn_maersk/)E Class Containership The Evelyn Maersk# 2. Port Functions and Traffic Ports are defined by their traffic since it is their [primary function](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3274) to supply **services to freight** (warehousing, transshipment, etc.) and **ships** (piers, refueling, repairs, etc.). Consequently, it is misleading to strictly consider a port as a maritime terminal since it acts concomitantly as a land terminal where inland traffic originates or ends. Ports are cargo-oriented facilities involving a [wide array of activities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3340) related to their management and operations. The cargo base of a port can expand through the intensification of its fundamental hinterland, the expansion of its hinterland to new areas, and the development of transshipment. In addition to significant cargo-related functions, many ports are involved in other activities such as fishing, ferries, cruises, and recreational activities, including marinas. Ports are becoming increasingly regional in their dynamics, representing a new development from their traditional local function, namely as **industrial clusters**. For instance, the port of Hong Kong owes its wealth to its natural site and its geographical position as a transit harbor for southern China. Shanghai assumes a similar function serving central China through the Yangtze River system. For its part, Singapore has been favored by its location at the outlet of the strategic Strait of Malacca and is, therefore, a point of convergence of Southeast Asian transportation. More than 90% of the traffic it handles is strictly transshipments, which involve cargo moving from one maritime service to another without exiting the port terminal. New York has traditionally acted as the gateway of the North American Midwest through the Hudson / Erie Canal system, a function that Western European ports such as Rotterdam or Antwerp perform with access to the Rhine system. A port throughput is linked to various local and regional industrial activities, as the largest ports in the world are gateways to large industrial regions. However, comparing ports on a [tonnage basis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3330) requires caution as it does not indicate the nature and value of the cargo. For instance, a mineral port (e.g. iron ore), an energy port (e.g. coal or oil), and a container port could handle a similar tonnage but significantly different value levels. They will also be related to different supply chains as bulk ports are separate entities from container ports. Regarding the freight they handle, ports can be classified into monofunctional and polyfunctional ports. > **Monofunctional ports** (resource ports) transit a limited array of commodities, most often dry or liquid bulks (raw materials). They have specialized piers designed to handle specific commodities and where the flows a commonly outbound, implying that they are usually load centers. > **Polyfunctional ports** are vast harbors where transshipment and industrial activities are present. They have a variety of specialized and general cargo piers linked to a wide range of modes that can include containers, bulk cargo, or raw materials. They tend to be more inbound-related facilities. The oil ports of the Persian Gulf or the mineral ports of Australia, Africa, and, in some measure, Canada are monofunctional. About 3,700 commercial ports operate worldwide, but only less than one hundred ports can be considered gateways or hubs of global importance. Of this, there are about 680 container ports, with 150 handling traffic above a million TEU. Maritime traffic has a high concentration of port activity, a process mainly attributed to maritime access and infrastructure development. Major ports have established themselves as [**gateways**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1416) of continental distribution systems and have access to high-capacity inland freight distribution corridors, notably rail. Such a position is difficult to challenge unless a port faces acute congestion, forcing maritime shipping companies to seek alternatives. Gateways, as locations of high accessibility to maritime and inland transportation networks, have seen the development of port-centric logistics activities that support export and import-based activities. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_sites_functions.png?resize=900%2C568&ssl=1 "Port Sites and Functions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-site-functions/port_sites_functions2/)Port Sites and Functions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_activities.png?resize=900%2C435&ssl=1 "Range of Activities Performed by Ports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-activities-types/port_activities/)Range of Activities Performed by Ports[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Ports.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's Major Ports, 2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-ports-tonnage/map-world-largest-ports/)Worlds Major Ports 2016[![Grain Elevator Halifax](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/grain_elevator_halifax.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Grain Elevator Complex, Port of Halifax | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/grain-elevator-port-halifax/img_1854/)Grain Elevator Complex Port of Halifax[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-2020.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "World's Major Container Ports, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/map-teu-2020/)Worlds Major Container Ports 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_container_throughput2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Container Throughput | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/world-container-throughput/world_container_throughput2/)World Container Throughput 1980 2021 millions of TEUThe [world container throughput](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2629) is the summation of all containers handled by ports, either as imports, exports, or transshipments. As of 2022, about 866 million TEUs were handled by container ports, including the notable growth in containers transshipped at intermediate locations, as well as the repositioning of empty containers. This means that **a container is at least counted twice**. First, as an import and export, and second, each time it is handled at an intermediary location, such as at a transshipment hub, where it will be counted when unloaded and reloaded. Empty containers, most of them being repositioned, account for about 20% of the world’s throughput. Thus, throughput should ideally be counted in container moves, but both port authorities and terminal operators prefer to communicate throughput figures in TEU for commercial and strategic reasons. The world container traffic is the absolute number of containers being carried by sea, excluding the double counts of imports and exports as well as the number of involved transshipments. The throughput reflects the level of transport activity (handles and rehandles subject to revenue), while the traffic reflects the level of trade activity (imports and exports). # 3. Port Authorities and Port Holdings Ports are subject to active governance and management. Due to the growing complexity of port operations, **public port authorities** were created at the beginning of the 20th century. For instance, the London Port Authority, the world’s first, was established in 1908 by consolidating all the existing harbor facilities. Such a governance structure became a standard adapted to many other ports, leading to adaptation to local political and jurisdictional realities. For North America, in 1921, the States of New York and New Jersey created the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which has become one of the world’s most diversified port authorities with a portfolio including port facilities, bridges, airports, and public transit systems. Administratively, port authorities regulate infrastructure investments, their organization and development, and their relationships with customers using its services. > **Port Authority**. An entity of state or local government that owns, operates, or otherwise provides wharf, dock, and other marine terminal investments and services at ports. The primary rationale behind the setting of many port authorities was their **ability to manage port facilities more efficiently as a whole** rather than privately owned and operated terminals. Since port facilities were becoming more complex and capital-intensive, it was perceived that public agencies would be better placed to raise investment capital and mitigate the risk of such investments. Port authorities tend to be vertically integrated entities as they are involved in most of the [activities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-authorities/activities-landlord-port-authorities/) related to port operations, from constructing and maintaining infrastructure to marketing and managing port services. Yet, their activities are limited within their jurisdictions, an attribute that became increasingly at odds with the transformations of the maritime shipping industry as globalization accelerated in the latter part of the 20th century. Occasionally, terminals were leased to private companies, but throughout the greater part of the 20th century, public ownership and operation of ports were dominant. Most port authorities are owned by federal, state, or municipal agencies. From the 1980s, [privatization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3348) marked a reversal in this trend since many became inefficient, unable to cope with market expectations (performance, reliability, and quality of service), and provided adequate financing for infrastructure and equipment, becoming increasingly capital intensive. As public agencies, many port authorities were seen by governments as a source of revenue. They were mandated to perform various non-revenue generating community projects, or at least to provide employment. Recently, port authorities have been called upon to facilitate the port community in coping with the challenges and opportunities brought by the sustainability debate, energy transition, and digital transformation. The emergence of specialized and capital-intensive container terminals servicing global trade has created a new environment for managing port terminals, both for port authorities and terminal operators. Port authorities are gradually incited to look at a new array of issues related to the governance of their area. They are increasingly acting as **cluster managers**, interacting with various stakeholders and marketing the port. With the availability and diffusion of information technologies, port authorities have been proactive in developing port community systems enabling many key actors to interact better and share information, such as customs, freight forwarders, and carriers. For port operations that port authorities have conventionally assumed, an increase in the role of private operators has been a dominant trend where major port holdings have emerged to manage a [wide array of terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3363), the vast majority of which are containerized. > **Port holding**. An entity, commonly private, that owns or leases port terminals in a variety of locations. It is also known as a port terminal operator. In an era characterized by lower levels of direct public involvement in managing transport terminals and port terminal privatization, specialized companies involved in managing port terminals are finding opportunities to develop. They thus tend to be horizontally integrated entities focusing on terminal operations in a variety of locations. The primary tool for global port operators to achieve control of port terminals has been through **concession agreements**. > A **concession agreement** is a long-term lease of port facilities involving the requirement that the concessionaire undertakes capital investments to build, expand, or maintain the cargo-handling facilities, equipment, and infrastructure to agreed-upon standards. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/public_private_roles_port_management2.png?resize=900%2C352&ssl=1 "Public and Private Roles in Port Management | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/public-private-roles-ports/public_private_roles_port_management2/)Public and Private Roles in Port Management[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Terminal-Surface-1.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Container Terminals of the World's Major Port Holdings, 2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/container-terminals-port-holdings/map-terminal-surface-1/)Container Terminals of the Worlds Major Port Holdings 2019Several issues are involved in the decision of a terminal operator to invest in a particular port, namely the transparency of the bidding process and the quality of infrastructures (port and inland). The **market potential,** however, remains one of the determining criteria. The range of port terminals controlled by port holdings covers several of the largest freight markets. As globalization permitted the emergence of large multinational corporations managing assets in a variety of locations, global port holdings are a similar trend concerning the management of port terminal assets. The emergence of global terminal operators has changed the parameters of port competition. Ports have always, to some extent, been competing to service their hinterland, known as **inter-port competition**. For large ports, concessions agreements have permitted the presence of more than one terminal operator competing over the port foreland and hinterland. This is known as **intra-port competition**. # 4. Port Regionalization and Transshipment Hubs In the current stage of their development, ports are going beyond their facilities to help accommodate additional traffic and the complexity of freight distribution, namely by improving hinterland transportation. [Port regionalization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3577) is such an outcome and indicates a higher level of integration between maritime and inland transport systems, particularly by using rail and barge transportation, which are less prone to congestion than road transportation. The development of global supply chains increased the pressure on maritime transport, port operations, and inland freight distribution, which has incited the setting of satellite terminals and transloading activities in the vicinity of port terminals. Inland accessibility has become a cornerstone in port competitiveness since it can be serviced by several road, rail, and barge transportation systems. Those three options a particularly present in Europe, while North America is dominated by road and rail hinterland access. Port regionalization is characterized by strong functional interdependency and joint development of a specific load center and logistics platforms in the hinterland. This ultimately leads to the formation of a regional load center network, strengthening the position of the port as a gateway. Many factors favor the emergence of this phase, namely: - **Local constraints**. Ports, especially large gateways, are facing a wide array of local constraints that impair their growth and efficiency. The lack of available land for expansion is one of the most acute problems. This issue is exacerbated by the deepwater requirements for handling larger ships. Increased port traffic may also lead to diseconomies as local road and rail systems are heavily burdened. Environmental constraints and local opposition to port development are also of significance. Port regionalization thus enables to circumscribe partially local constraints by externalizing them. - **Supply chain management**. Global production and consumption have substantially changed distribution with the emergence of regional production systems as well as large consumer markets. No locality can efficiently service the distribution requirements of such a complex web of activities. For instance, globally integrated logistics zones, including Free Trade Zones (FTZ), have emerged near many load centers. However, seeing logistics zones as functionally integrated entities may be misleading as each activity is part of a specific supply chain. Port regionalization thus permits the development of a distribution network that corresponds more closely to fragmented production and consumption systems. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_regionalization.png?resize=900%2C487&ssl=1 "Port Regionalization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/stages-port-regionalization/port_regionalization/)Port Regionalization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Intermediate-Hubs-Transshipment-Incidence-1024x631.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "| The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/?attachment_id=3460)Worlds Main Intermediate Hubs and MarketsCargo at ports always required some **transshipment** to smaller ships used feeders to smaller ports. For economic reasons, it is impossible to connect all possible port pairs directly, so transshipment is required to ensure connectivity within the global trading system. Transshipment was initially developed to service smaller ports unable to accommodate larger containerships, which is common because of the limited draft and port infrastructure. However, as maritime networks became increasingly complex, specialized transshipment hubs emerged. Transshipment requires significant yard space as containers are stored up for a few days while waiting for the connecting ship(s) to be serviced. > An **intermediate hub** (or transshipment hub) is a port terminal used for ship-to-ship operations within a maritime transport system. These operations do not take place directly, which requires the temporary storage of containers in the port’s yard, usually for one to three days. The term **offshore hub** has often been used to characterize such locations because the cargo handled at the port of destination is transshipped at a location commonly in a third country. The growth in global trade has involved greater quantities of containers in circulation, which has incited maritime shipping companies to rely more on transshipment hubs to connect different world regions. In such a context, many gateway ports faced the challenge of jointly handling export, import, and transshipment containers. This went on par with the growing share of transshipments to around 28 to 30% of maritime containerized traffic. Maritime shipping companies elect for transshipment as a way to use their networks rationally as more ports are serviced without increasing ship assets. A typical maritime range, such as the American East Coast or Northern Europe, involves several port calls in a conventional deep-sea container service. If the volume is insufficient, this may impose additional costs for maritime companies facing the dilemma between market coverage and operational efficiency. The growing size of containerships incites a lower number of port calls, with smaller ports usually dropped. Using an intermediate hub terminal with feeder shipping services can reduce the number of port calls and increase the throughput of the port calls left. A [geography of transshipment hubs](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-container-shipping/worlds-intermediate-hubs-markets/) has emerged along with several regional markets and with different levels of specialization. The most common market pattern is hubbing, where an intermediate hub links regional port calls to mainline long-distance services. Intermediate hub terminals can thus become effective competitive tools since the frequency and possibly the timeliness of services can be improved. By using an intermediate hub terminal in conjunction with short sea shipping services, often organized along a sequence, it is possible to reduce the number of port calls and increase the throughput of the port calls left. Transshipment also comes with a level of risk for the cargo since containers are handled more times than for direct services. The intermediate hub enables a level of accessibility that incites them to look beyond their conventional transshipment role. This includes actions to extract more value from cargo passing through and, as such, get more economic rent out of transshipment facilities. Such strategies have led some transshipment hubs, such as Gioia Tauro and Algeciras, to develop inland rail services to capture and directly serve the economic centers in the distant hinterlands. The multiplying effects of being an intermediate hub regarding the frequency of port calls and connectivity to the global economy can thus be leveraged for developing hinterland activities. As they were throughout history, ports remain as important in the 21st century, supporting the massive commercial exchanges of the global economy. Since maritime shipping is the **highest capacity and lower cost** form of transportation, including energy consumption, ports allow the connectivity between the land and maritime geography to take place. They remain terminals strongly bound by geography, from the characteristics of their sites to their connectivity to forelands and hinterlands. --- ## Related Topics - [5.4 – Maritime Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/ "5.4 – Maritime Transportation") - [5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/ "5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization") - [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/ "6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals") - [6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/ "6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands") - [Terminals and Terminal Operators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/terminals-and-terminal-operators/) (PEMP external link) - [The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9527) - [B.21 – The Changing Geography of Seaports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/ "B.21 – The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey") (PEMP external link) ## Bibliograhpy - Bird J.H. (1971) Seaports and Seaport Terminals, London: Hutchison. - Ducruet, C. and S.W. Lee (2006) “Frontline soldiers of globalization: port-city evolution and regional competition”, GeoJournal, 67(2), pp. 107-22. - Hoyle, B.S. (1967) “East African Seaports: An application of the concept of Anyport”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, pp. 163-83. - Hoyle B.S. (1989) “The port-city interface: trends problems and examples”. Geoforum, Vol. 20, pp. 429-35. - Lee, S-W., D-W Song, and C. Ducruet (2008) “A tale of Asia’s world ports: The spatial evolution in global port cities”, Geoforum, Vol. 39, pp. 372-385. - McCalla, R.J. (2004) “From ‘Anyport’ to ‘Superterminal’”, in Shipping and Ports in the Twenty-first Century (eds) D. Pinder and B. Slack (London: Routledge) 123-142. - Notteboom, T. (2013) Maritime Transportation and Seaports, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2005) “Port Regionalization: Towards a New Phase in Port Development”, Maritime Policy and Management, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 297-313. - Notteboom, T., A. Pallis and J-P Rodrigue (2022) Port Economics, Management and Policy, New York: Routledge. - Slack, B. and A. Fremont (2005) “Transformation of Port Terminal Operations: From the Local to the Global”, Transport Reviews, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 117-130. - Weigend, G.G. (1958) “Some Elements in the Study of Port Geography”, Geographical Review, Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 185-200. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Alameda Rail Corridor](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/alameda-corridor/) **Published:** November 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/alameda_corridor.png?resize=900%2C473&ssl=1 "The Alameda Rail Corridor | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Alameda Rail Corridor*Source: adapted from Alameda Corridor Transportation Authority.* The Alameda Corridor is a 20-mile-long rail high-capacity freight expressway linking the port cluster of Long Beach and Los Angeles to the transcontinental rail terminals near downtown Los Angeles. It was built to provide better rail access to the San Pedro Bay port cluster, which is the most important in North America both in terms of the volume and value of its containerized traffic; it handles about 70% of the American West Coast containerized traffic. The Alameda Corridor consists of a series of bridges, underpasses, overpasses, and street improvements that separate rail freight circulation from local road circulation. The outcome is a higher level of efficiency of both systems, particularly since a large number of rail crossings were removed. The main engineering achievement of the corridor is a 10-mile-long, 33-foot-deep trench that virtually removes the rail infrastructure from local communities. Construction started in April 1997, and the corridor began operations in April 2002. From an operational standpoint, the Alameda Corridor is jointly used by BNSF (Burlington Northern Santa Fe; 40%) and Union Pacific (60%) railway companies, the two major railroad operators in the American West. Their rail yards, Hobart (BNSF) and East Los Angeles (UP), handled respectively 1.37 million and 358,000 lifts in 2007. About 30% of the port transshipment traffic is handled through the Alameda corridor, implying that still, 70% of the freight traffic involves trucks using local roads. Typical transit times between the port and downtown Los Angeles rail yards have been reduced from 2-6 hours (depending on congestion) to a reliable 45 minutes with average train speeds of 40 miles per hour. Traffic is not uniform and corresponds to the arrival of containerships in the port cluster, so there are periods of peaks and troughs. In spite of its numerous advantages, the corridor did not perform as planned, as competition from trucking is stronger than expected. Because of the benefits of transloading maritime into domestic containers, the growth of the Alameda corridor is somewhat curtailed. The slow start the corridor is facing can be attributed to the following: - **Locally bound freight flows**. About 80% of all freight tonnage originating in Southern California stays in the region. For international trade, Southern California is the destination of nearly 25% of all inbound cargo coming through the ports. Another 25 to 35% of the cargo temporarily transits through Southern California as part of a value-added process within commodity chains. Thus, 50 to 60% of all inbound cargo is not very suitable to be carried through the Alameda Corridor. Because of the implied lower costs and shorter transit times, local and regional shippers find it more convenient to haul freight directly from the port cluster. - **Relative transport costs**. The trucking industry has experienced significant rationalization since the Alameda project was planned in the 1980s, with the emergence of large carriers that efficiently manage their distribution and lower costs. The anticipated comparative advantage of using the corridor has not fully materialized, making it cheaper and easier to move containers by truck than by train. Corridor fees are $24.51 per TEU for a full container and $6.11 per TEU for an empty container. - **Relocation of the bottleneck**. Travel time reduction provided by the corridor could be offset by congestion at other rail terminals up the chain, starting at downtown Los Angeles. For some cargo, particularly time-sensitive freight, a direct haul by truck from the port cluster to an inland intermodal facility is more efficient than using the Alameda Corridor. For instance, the Intermodal Container Terminal Facility (ICTF) is located just 5 miles from the port and performed 710,000 rail lifts in 2007. It is mainly used for containers trucked to and from the port in a more time-effective way than the corridor. - **High intermodal costs**. It is a well-known fact in transport economics that due to rather high intermodal costs, rail starts to have cost advantages for distances of more than 1,000 miles. This enables rail operators to amortize these intermodal costs. In addition, drayage and terminal handling for the Alameda Corridor add 8 to 24 hours compared to trucking. Intermodal rail operations have limited activities for distances under 750 miles. The corridor thus represents an unusual distance for regular intermodal freight distribution. - **Freight distribution centers**. There is a large concentration of FDCs in the Los Angeles metropolitan area performing their value-added functions (sorting, assembling, packing, etc.). The great majority of those FDCs were designed to accommodate trucks. For these activities, using the Alameda Corridor would imply additional costs and delays. In addition, several distribution centers are receiving international containers trucked from the port. They are then unloaded and their contents placed in 53 domestic containers, which are trucked back to a rail yard and shipped to their final destination. Domestic containers are easier to handle on the national intermodal transport system and have greater capacity. Thus, three maritime containers can be transshipped into two domestic containers. The Alameda corridor thus represents an unusual intermodal system for freight distribution. Its long-term success depends mainly on efficient intermodal handling at both the port cluster and the rail yards. If transshipment costs and delays can be reduced, the corridor could gather additional traffic and fulfill the role it was designed for. The Alameda Corridor has a maximum capacity of more than 150 train trips per day, while in 2018 there were about 38 trains per day using the corridor. A [plateau](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2023) appears to be emerging in the growth of traffic, underlining the commercial limits of the Alameda Corridor. This is a classic inertia phase in a modal shift as users are reluctant to abandon existing freight distribution practices. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/alameda-corridor/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/alameda-corridor/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/alameda-corridor/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/alameda-corridor/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major North American Rail Corridors Improved since 2000](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-corridors-north-america-improvement/) **Published:** November 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Corridor-Projects.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Major North American Rail Corridors Improved since 2000 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major North American Rail Corridors Improved since 2000[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA-Corridor-Projects.pdf) The double-stacking of many rail corridors, which took place in the 1980s and 1990s, allowed rail operators to have additional capacity with essentially the same line infrastructure. As intermodal demand increased sharply in the late 1990s and early 2000s, a substantial wave of investment took place over strategic segments of the American rail system with the goal of improving the capacity and efficiency of long-distance corridors. The improvements are multiple, namely better grades, double (or triple) tracking, new and improved intermodal terminals, and better signal and management systems. A particular effort has also been made to better connect the rail infrastructure with major port facilities, notably with on-dock and near-dock rail terminals. Both the capacity and speed of rail operations have been improved. The most significant projects include: - Transcon corridor (BNSF): The most heavily used intermodal corridor in North America. $2 billion. - Crescent corridor (NS): $2 billion. NS estimates that there may be up to one million truckloads that could be switched to rail along this corridor. - Southeast corridor (CSX): $250 million. - Heartland corridor (NS): $260 million. - Meridian Speedway (NS/KCS): $300 million. - Mexico corridor (KCS): $NA. - Sunset corridor (UP): $2 billion. - Donner Pass corridor (UP): Improvement of a significant bottleneck across the Sierra Nevada to double-stack standards and longer train lengths. - National corridor (CSX): $842 million. Construction began in 2009 and the project is expected to be completed in 2014. - Asia Pacific Gateway and Corridor Initiative (CN/CP): Over $1 billion in various modal projects, with rail/road grade separation projects at key locations. Mostly because of gradient, there are energy consumption differences between long-distance corridors. For instance, the Prince Rupert – Chicago corridor established by CN in 2007 has a notable fuel efficiency advantage over other West Coast long-distance intermodal corridors. While the Prince Rupert – Chicago corridor is of longer distance, it consumes 5.2 gallons per ton of cargo moved, while the Seattle – Chicago and Los Angeles – Chicago corridors consume, respectively, 6.6 and 6.0 gallons per ton of cargo moved. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-corridors-north-america-improvement/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-corridors-north-america-improvement/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-corridors-north-america-improvement/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-corridors-north-america-improvement/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Composition of the North American Intermodal Rail Fleet](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-composition-north-america/) **Published:** November 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/intermodal_car_fleet_na.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "Composition of the North American Intermodal Rail Fleet | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Composition of the North American Intermodal Rail Fleet*Source: adapted from T. Prince (2001) “Towards an international intermodal network”, American Shipper, November.* An important shift in the composition of the North American intermodal rail fleet took place in the 1990s with the move away from piggybacking (Trailer on Flat Car; TOFC) towards Containers on Flat Car (COFC). The development of long-distance corridors linking major port gateways such as Los Angeles / Long Beach to inland destinations incited the setting of double-stacked unit train services. TOFC services that once dominated have become marginal. This is related to more efficient use of rail assets enabled by double-stacked services, as well as trucking companies’ commitment to integrate their drayage services with long-distance intermodal rail services. Also, most well cars can accommodate 53-foot domestic containers, undermining the need for piggybacking. What used to be carried as TOFC is now carried as COFC. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-composition-north-america/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-composition-north-america/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-composition-north-america/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-composition-north-america/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Air Traffic Flows Between Regions, 2010](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-traffic-flows/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_traffic_flows.png?resize=900%2C462&ssl=1 "Major Air Traffic Flows Between Regions, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Air Traffic Flows Between Regions 2010*in % of passenger-kilometers.* *Source: IATA, World Air Transport Statistics.* In 2010, about 2.6 billion passengers traveled by air transport. A large share (39%) of air traffic flows in terms of passenger-km occurs within three regions: North America (19%), Europe (13%), and China (7%). Most international movements in Europe have a regional scale. For instance, although a flight between Paris and London is considered international, it is barely longer than a Boston-New York regional air shuttle service, which is counted as a national flight. Air traffic predominantly takes place on the east-west axis over the Northern Hemisphere, with other continents, such as South America, Africa, and Oceania, serving as feeders, but with significant growth of regional traffic. Important international routes link the most economically active regions of the world: - **North Atlantic route**. Represents the most intensively used and competitive air route in the world with 8.7% of the passenger-km. If flows between Europe and Latin America are included, this share climbs to 11.9%. - **Trans-Pacific route**. Accounts for 5% of the global traffic. The strong growth rates of Pacific Asian economies have induced a strong growth in air traffic. The Pacific Asian market has grown in waves involving different markets at different points in time, starting with Japan, then followed by the “Tigers” (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore), and then by China and emerging economies such as Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Philippines. - **Europe – Far East route**. Accounts for 5.4% of the global traffic. - **Middle East hub**. In recent years, the Middle East has been playing a rising role as a hub (Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Doha), particularly in linking Southeast Asia, South Asia, East Africa, and Europe. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-traffic-flows/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-traffic-flows/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-traffic-flows/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-traffic-flows/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Monthly International Tourist Arrivals, 2011](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/monthly-international-tourist-arrivals/) **Published:** February 24, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/monthly_tourist_arrivals.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "Monthly International Tourist Arrivals, 2011 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Monthly International Tourist Arrivals 2011The seasonality of tourism involves a summer peak season, which has a strong influence on the [seasonality of air travel](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9653). This peak season corresponds to summer vacations in the northern hemisphere, the largest source of tourists. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/monthly-international-tourist-arrivals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/monthly-international-tourist-arrivals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/monthly-international-tourist-arrivals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/monthly-international-tourist-arrivals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Share of International Tourist Arrivals by Region, 1950-2015](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals-region/) **Published:** February 24, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tourism_arrivals_regions.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "Share of International Tourist Arrivals by Region, 1950-2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of International Tourist Arrivals by Region 1950 2015*Source: World Tourism Organization.* Europe accounts for the largest share of international tourist arrivals, as its tourist industry is well developed and includes many world-class cultural destinations, with France being the most visited country in the world. The share of Europe is somewhat inflated because, due to the small distances involved with what may be labeled as regional (interstate) touristic flows in North America, it is considered international touristic flows in Europe (e.g., France – Netherlands). Still, the share of Europe and North America has declined. With the development of the airline industry, a decline in airfares, and growing levels of discretionary incomes, Asia has experienced remarkable growth in its tourism industry, accounting for close to one quarter of the world’s arrivals. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals-region/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals-region/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals-region/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals-region/?share=reddit) - --- ### [On-Dock Rail Lifts, Port of New York, 1991-2016](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/expressrail-port-new-york-lifts/) **Published:** February 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/PANYNJ_expresslift.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "On-Dock Rail Lifts, Port of New York, 1991-2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")On Dock Rail Lifts Port of New York 1991 2016*Source: Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.* The promotion of rail transport has been a priority to improve the efficiency of the port, especially at Port Elizabeth and Port Newark, which are the main container terminals. Three ‘ExpressRail’ on-dock rail terminals were built: Port Newark, Elizabeth, and Staten Island. The first, a 35-acre (14 ha) ExpressRail terminal, built by the intermodal freight operator Maher Terminals (Port Elizabeth), opened in 1991. It enables direct doublestaking ship-to-rail and rail-to-ship transshipment capabilities. To expand on-dock rail capacity, a new terminal with further improved truck and rail access opened in 2003, implying that all the main container facilities now have direct access to on-dock rail facilities. On-dock operations were expanded in 2007 at the Howland Hook on Staten Island. In 2016, construction started for a new on-dock facility (ExpressRail Port Jersey) near the Global Container Terminal. Once this project was completed in 2018, all the container terminal facilities at the Port of New York and New Jersey would be equipped with on-dock rail. From 43,000 containers handled in 1992, volumes grew to above 500,000 lifts in 2016. It was expected that the rail’s share of intermodal movements would climb to 25-30 percent of transshipped containers by 2010. However, as of 2012, this share was at 12.3%, implying that modal shift expectations have only attained half the goal. This lower than expected share is in part attributed to the main [hinterland of the port of New York](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9579), which is dominantly within the metropolitan area and the adjacent states, all of which are effectively serviced by trucking. Still, the number of on-dock rail lifts in relation to the total number of containers handled by the port of New York has been steadily increasing. This is indicative a growing market share as each container moved by rail replaces the equivalent of 1.5 truck moves. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/expressrail-port-new-york-lifts/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/expressrail-port-new-york-lifts/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/expressrail-port-new-york-lifts/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/expressrail-port-new-york-lifts/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Container Traffic Handled by the Port of New York, 1991-2016](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/container-traffic-port-new-york/) **Published:** February 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containertrafficnynj.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "Container Traffic Handled by the Port of New York, 1991-2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Container Traffic Handled by the Port of New York 1991 2016*Source: Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.* While the New York metropolitan area houses 20 million people, an extra 80 million can be reached within 24 hours, making the direct market area of the Port of New York the largest in North America and one of the most extensive in the world. This market density is thus significant, as approximately 55% of the U.S. population resides within 700 miles of the port. Under such circumstances, the late 1990s witnessed an impressive growth in container traffic for New York, in line with the significant expansion of the American economy. Still, the rank of New York among the world’s largest container ports continued to decline to the 23rd position in 2015. Its national share has also improved since 2000, as the Port of New York/New Jersey accounted for 13.5% of all containers handled by American ports and for 59% of all containers on the North Atlantic coast. The changes in the average TEU per container handled are also revealing and indicate that the average box size is increasing. Import-based ports typically import more 40-foot containers (including high-cube containers) than standard 20-foot containers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/container-traffic-port-new-york/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/container-traffic-port-new-york/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/container-traffic-port-new-york/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/container-traffic-port-new-york/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Distribution of General Cargo Operations, Port of New York, 1959, 1987 and 2000](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/cargo-operations-port-new-york/) **Published:** February 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trafficshiftportofnynj.png?resize=850%2C518&ssl=1 "Distribution of General Cargo Operations, Port of New York, 1959, 1987 and 2000 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Distribution of General Cargo Operations Port of New York 1959 1987 and 2000*Source for years 1959 and 1987: Moss, M.L. (1988) “New York vs. New Jersey: A New Perspective”, Portfolio, Summer. Source for year 2000: Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.* The above figure depicts a classic example of port terminal expansion and relocation. Most, if not all, port activities were thus disconnected from the traditional urban core (Manhattan and Brooklyn) and relocated toward peripheral settings (New Jersey and Staten Island) with available land and greater access to rail and interstate road infrastructure. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/cargo-operations-port-new-york/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/cargo-operations-port-new-york/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/cargo-operations-port-new-york/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/cargo-operations-port-new-york/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Digital Intermodalism: Blockchains and Intermodal Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-intermodal-transportation/) **Published:** January 15, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/digital_intermodalism.png?resize=900%2C547&ssl=1 "Blockchains and Intermodal Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Blockchains and Intermodal TransportationThe above figure illustrates a simple intermodal chain involving an exporter, an importer, as well as the different carriers and terminals in between. It assumes one full dry container load (reefers or hazardous materials trade would generate more transactions and information). For an intermodal transportation chain to take place, a series of operations and their related information flows are required. Although blockchain technology has little to do with the operations, it does substantially change how the related information flows are stored and shared among the involved parties. For instance, the preparation of an order may require tasks such as packaging and stuffing the consignment into a container. This order generates information flows such as a certificate of origin, a commercial invoice, a packing list, an insurance certificate, as well as the booking of a carrier (or a third-party logistics provider) to move the container consignment to a specified destination. This information can be stored in a blockchain and made available to the carriers and other concerned actors along the intermodal transport chain to use for their own purposes. One particular use is the construction of **blockchain bills of lading**. The truck carrier uses the information in the blockchain to issue its bill of lading, which is appended to the blockchain and comes into force once the container has been picked up. This blockchain is populated with additional blocks as the carrier performs its transportation service, such as the equipment used (truck and chassis), the date the container was picked up, the container identification number, as well as any notable events during transportation. An event can be passing at a specific location (e.g., a toll), the duration of a stop (for rest), or a change of driver and/or truck. Through the use of sensors, it is possible to automatically input event information in the blockchain, such as location. At the container port terminal, various operations will continue to populate the blockchain. The time the container entered the terminal gate, its yard storage location, as well as the customs export clearance, are among the most important. A series of events can also be inputted into the blockchain, such as the equipment used to handle the container or if it was re-stacked (for yard management purposes). Once the container has been brought quayside and loaded into a contrainership, a **smart contract** can automatically be executed if the [Incoterms](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5614) involved are Free On Board (FOB), which would pay the supplier since the terms of the contract have been met (under this contract, the supplier would also pay the truck carrier and the terminal operator). There is also the possibility to use cryptocurrencies to settle blockchain smart contracts as well as acting as booking deposits in case of no-shows from the shipper or over-booking from the carrier. The shipping line issues a master bill of lading, which is its obligation to carry the container from the stated port of origin to the port of destination. A series of events can also be recorded, such as daily location or the use of a transshipment hub involving terminal operations and a change of ship (and even of shipping line). A few days before the arrival, the shipping line can issue an arrival notice (with ETA) on the blockchain to the consignee, so that land transportation can be arranged. At the port of destination, similar intermodal operations are performed and appended to the blockchain. If the [Incoterms](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5614) are Cost Insurance Freight (CIF), then a smart contract can automatically pay the supplier (including the shipping line, the terminal operator, and the truck carrier). Once the container received customs clearance (duties paid and appended on the blockchain) it is ready to be picked up by the land carrier. In this case, we assume a rail link performed from an on-dock rail facility with its own bill of lading to be appended to the blockchain. Then, the sequence is repeated for the last-mile truck haulage with all the appended information to the blockchain. At the destination, the final operations are performed on the container, such as destuffing and stocking the items in the distribution center. Upon inspection, if the shipment matches the order, then the commercial invoice can be cleared, the blockchain updated, and the supplier paid if the Incoterms were Carriage and Insurance Paid (CIP). This marks the end of this blockchain, which now contains the complete transport, intermodal and transactional sequence of this intermodal chain. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-intermodal-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-intermodal-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-intermodal-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-intermodal-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Types of Blockchain Uses](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/main-types-of-blockchain-uses/) **Published:** September 10, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/blockchain_uses.png?resize=900%2C305&ssl=1 "Main Types of Blockchain Uses | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Types of Blockchain UsesThe use of blockchains can fall into four major categories that are related on one side to keeping records and on the other at facilitating transactions. - **Static registry**. A distributed database (ledger) used to store reference data that needs to be immutable and verifiable. For transportation, this can involve the record of asset ownership (vehicles, conveyances) and registration information. Static blockchains tend to be less computationally intensive since records are not frequently changed. - **Smart contracts**. A distributed database that contains recorded conditions required to trigger when an action is met, such as a payment or the transfer of an asset. Transportation operations are prone to smart contracts such as fare collection and insurance. For instance, if a container enters a terminal or if a parcel is delivered, then a payment can be automatically made, and the transaction is considered completed. - **Dynamic registry**. Similar to a static registry, but in this case the database can be updated frequently as additional information is added and as assets are exchanged. A [supply chain](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8112) is a relevant example of a dynamic registry that is constantly updated because of the intensiveness of related transactions. - **Payment infrastructure**. A distributed database that supports cryptocurrencies and the related transactions. Linked with smart contracts, cryptocurrencies have the potential to be used to settle contracts once defined conditions (e.g., delivery) have been met. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/main-types-of-blockchain-uses/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/main-types-of-blockchain-uses/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/main-types-of-blockchain-uses/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/main-types-of-blockchain-uses/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Risk Transfer and Private Sector Involvement in Public-Private Partnerships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-risk-transfer/) **Published:** January 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/risk_transfer_ppp.png?resize=850%2C556&ssl=1 "Risk Transfer and Private Sector Involvement in Public-Private Partnerships | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Risk Transfer and Private Sector Involvement in Public Private Partnerships*Source: adapted from The Canadian Council for Public-Private Partnership, 2009.* The governance of a transportation infrastructure project is often a function of the level of risk the private sector is willing to assume. If the private sector is only given the task of designing and building infrastructure, then there is little risk involved since the public sector assumes the financing and operations of the infrastructure. However, in this case, the private sector would not share any of the potential operational revenue. Conversely, in an entirely private context, the private sector assumes all the risks and the revenues. When large and complex infrastructure projects are involved, the private sector is reluctant to assume all the risks, even if the potential revenue could be significant. Pure privatization is, therefore, not always the most suitable option. A public-private partnership involves a level of risk transfer from the public to the private sector, which can take many forms depending upon the degree of private sector involvement. Concessions tend to be the preferred form of PPP for many infrastructure projects, particularly port terminals, since the public sector becomes a landlord (port authority). In contrast, the private sector assumes most of the risks, but also the rewards in the likely case that the investment is profitable. They are particularly dependent on: - A well-defined concession contract where the roles and responsibilities are clearly identified. This contract serves as a conflict resolution tool and a frame of reference. - The expected profitability of the concession. Since the private sector is looking for a level of return on their investments, the concession must be articulated in terms that are financially attractive. - A mutually acceptable balance between the risk assumed by the private and public sectors. Concessions are the PPP mechanism likely to involve the highest level of risk from the private sector. - A commitment for innovation and long-term productivity improvements as the outcome of the concession. This is particularly relevant since the private sector can be more concerned by the short-term valuation of a concession and may thus invest in infrastructure and technologies accordingly. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-risk-transfer/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-risk-transfer/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-risk-transfer/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-risk-transfer/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.18 - Spatial Interactions and the Gravity Model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/) **Published:** January 18, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > A spatial interaction is a realized flow of passengers or freight between an origin and a destination. It is a transport demand / supply relationship expressed over a geographical space. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Conditions for Spatial Flows](#1_Conditions_for_Spatial_Flows) - [2. Origin / Destination Matrices](#2_Origin_Destination_Matrices) - [3. Spatial Interaction Models](#3_Spatial_Interaction_Models) - [4. The Gravity Model](#4_The_Gravity_Model) # 1. Conditions for Spatial Flows Estimating flows between locations is a methodology of relevance to transportation. These flows, known as **spatial interactions**, enable the evaluation of the demand (existing or potential) for transport services. They cover forms of mobility such as journeys to work, migrations, tourism, public facilities usage, information or capital transmission, retailing activities, market areas, international trade, and freight distribution. Mobility can be physical (passengers or freight) or intangible (information), and each form of mobility is subject to a form of friction. Economic activities are **generating** (supply) and **attracting** (demand) movements. The simple fact that a movement occurs between an origin and a destination underlines that the costs incurred by a spatial interaction are lower than the benefits derived from such an interaction. As such, a commuter is willing to drive one hour because this interaction is linked to income, while [international trade concepts](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3919), such as comparative advantages, underline the benefits of specialization and the ensuing generation of trade flows between distant locations. [Three interdependent conditions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8578) are necessary for a spatial interaction to occur: - **Complementarity**. There must be a supply and a demand between the interacting locations. A residential zone is complementary to an employment zone because the first supplies workers while the second supplies jobs. The same can be said concerning the complementarity between a store and its customers and between an industry and its suppliers (freight movements). An economic system is based on a large array of complementary activities. - **Intervening opportunity** (lack of). Refers to a location that may offer a better alternative as a point of origin or as a point of destination. For instance, in order for a customer to interact with a store, there must not be a closer store that offers a similar array of goods. Otherwise, the customer will likely patronize the closer store, and the initial interaction will not occur. - **Transferability**. Transport infrastructures must support mobility, implying that the origin and destination must be linked. Costs to overcome distance must not be higher than the benefits of the related interaction, even if there is complementarity and no alternative opportunity. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/realization_spatial_interaction.png?resize=900%2C417&ssl=1 "Conditions for the Realization of a Spatial Interaction | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/conditions-spatial-interaction/condition_spatial_interactions/)Conditions for the Realization of a Spatial InteractionSpatial interaction models seek to explain existing spatial flows. As such, it is possible to measure flows and predict the consequences of **changes in the conditions** generating them. When such attributes are known, allocating better transport resources such as conveyances, infrastructure, and terminals is possible. # 2. Origin / Destination Matrices Each spatial interaction, as an [analogy for a set of movements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8584), is composed of a discrete origin/destination pair. Each pair can be represented as a cell in a matrix where rows are related to the locations (centroids) of origin, while columns are related to locations (centroids) of destination. Such a matrix is commonly known as an **[origin/destination matrix](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8589)** (O/D matrix), or a spatial interaction matrix. **A****B****C**Total**A***Ti***B****C**Total*Tj**T*In the O/D matrix, the sum of a row (*Ti*) represents the total outputs of a location (flows originating from), while the sum of a column (*Tj*) represents the total inputs (flows bound to) of a location. The summation of inputs is always equal to the summation of outputs. Otherwise, some movements are coming from or going outside the considered system. The sum of inputs or outputs gives the total flows taking place within the system (*T*). It is also possible to have O/D matrices according to age group, income, gender, etc. Under such circumstances, they are labeled sub-matrices since they account for only a share of the total flows. If the sample is small and disaggregated, it is possible to use a simple list of interactions instead of a matrix. Still, an origin/destination matrix can be constructed out of this list. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/movement_spatial_interaction.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "Representation of a Movement as a Spatial Interaction | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-movement/vector_spatial_interactions/)Representation of a Movement as a Spatial Interaction[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/constructing_od_matrix.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Constructing an O/D Matrix | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/od-matrix-construction/o_d_matrix/)Constructing an OD MatrixIn many cases where spatial interaction information is relied on for planning and allocation purposes, origin/destination matrices are **unavailable or incomplete**. Overcoming this lack of data commonly requires surveys. With economic development, the addition of new activities, and transport infrastructures, spatial interactions tend to change very rapidly as flows adapt to a new spatial structure. The problem is that an origin/destination survey is very expensive in terms of effort, time, and costs. In a complex spatial system such as a region, O/D matrices are quite large. For instance, considering 100 origins and 100 destinations would imply 10,000 separate O/D pairs for which information has to be provided. In addition, the data gathered by spatial interaction surveys will become obsolete as economic and spatial conditions change. Therefore, it is important to find a way to **estimate as precisely as possible spatial interactions**, particularly when empirical data is lacking or incomplete. Further, the emergence of ‘big data’ enabled the collection of large amounts of personal mobility information that is possible to convert into flows between spatial units. In such a context, the purpose of a **spatial interaction model** is to complement and even replace empirical observations through reliable estimates of flows between locations. # 3. Spatial Interaction Models Spatial interaction models are usually the first two steps in the [standard four step transportation / land use model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8634), as they estimate the spatial generation and distribution of trips. The basic assumption concerning many spatial interaction models is that flows are a function of the **attributes of the locations of origin**, the **attributes of the locations of destination**, and the [friction of distance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8618) between the concerned origins and the destinations. The general formulation of a spatial interaction model is as follows: Tij=f(Vi,Wj,Sij)T\_{ij} = f(V\_{i}, W\_{j},S\_{ij}) - *Tij* : Interaction between location *i* (origin) and location *j* (destination). Its units of measurement vary and can involve the number of passengers, tons of freight, traffic volume, etc. It also relates to a time period, such as interactions by hour, day, month, or year. - *Vi* : Attributes of the location of origin *i*. Variables often used to express these attributes are socio-economic in nature, such as population, number of jobs available, industrial output, or any proxy of the level of economic activity, such as gross domestic product. - *Wj* : Attributes of the location of destination *j*. It uses similar socio-economic variables to the previous attribute to underline the reciprocity of the locations. - *Sij* : Attributes of separation between the location of origin *i* and the location of destination *j*. Also known as **transport friction,** **friction of distance**, or **impedance**. Variables often used to express these attributes are distance, transport costs, or travel time. The attributes of *V* and *W* tend to be paired to express complementarity in the best possible way. For instance, measuring commuting flows (work-related movements) between different locations would likely consider a variable such as working-age population as *V* and total employment as *W*. From this general formulation, [three basic types of interaction models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8596) can be constructed: - **Gravity model**. Measures interactions between all the possible location pairs. - **Potential model**. Measures interactions between one location and every other location. - **Retail model**. Measure the boundary of the market areas between two locations competing over the same market based on the intensity of their respective interactions. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/four_stages_tlu_model.png?resize=900%2C404&ssl=1 "Four Stages Transportation / Land Use Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/transportation-land-use-four-stages-model/fourstep_landuse_model/)Four Stages Transportation Land Use Model[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relationships_distance_interactions2.png?resize=900%2C542&ssl=1 "Relationship between Distance and Interactions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-distance-decay/distance_decay/)Relationship between Distance and Interactions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/three_basic_interactions_models.png?resize=900%2C493&ssl=1 "Three Basic Types of Interaction Models | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-basic-models/interaction_models/)Three Basic Types of Interaction Models# 4. The Gravity Model The gravity model is the most common formulation of the spatial interaction method. It is named as such because it uses a similar formulation to Newton’s law of gravity. Gravity-like representations have been applied in a wide variety of contexts, such as migration, commodity flows, traffic flows, commuting, and evaluating boundaries between market areas. Accordingly, the attraction between two objects is **proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to their respective distance**. Consequently, the general formulation of spatial interactions can be adapted to reflect this basic assumption to form the **elementary formulation** of the gravity model: Tij=kPiPjdijT\_{ij} = k \\frac{P\_{i} P\_{j}} {d\_{ij}} - *Pi* and *Pj* : Importance of the location of origin and the location of destination. - *dij* : Distance between the location of origin and the location of destination. - *k* is a proportionality constant related to the rate of the event. For instance, if the same system of spatial interactions is considered, the value of *k* will be higher if interactions were considered for a year compared to the value of *k* for one week. Thus, spatial interactions between locations *i* and *j* are proportional to their respective importance divided by their distance. The gravity model can be extended to include several calibration parameters: Tij=kPiλPjαdijβT\_{ij} = k \\frac{P\_{i}^{\\lambda} P\_{j}^{\\alpha}} {d\_{ij}^{\\beta}} - *P*, *d*, and k refer to the variables previously discussed. - β (beta): A parameter of transport friction related to the efficiency of the transport system between two locations. This friction is rarely linear, as the further the movement, the greater the friction of distance. For instance, two locations serviced by a highway will have a lower beta index than if they were serviced by a regular road. - λ (lambda): Potential to generate movements (emissivity). For movements of people, lambda is often related to an overall level of welfare. For instance, it is logical to infer that a location with higher income levels will generate more movements (customers) for retailing flows. - α (alpha): Potential to attract movements (attractiveness). Related to the nature of economic activities at the destination. For instance, a center having important commercial activities will attract more flows. A significant challenge related to the use of spatial interaction models, notably the gravity model, is their **calibration**. Calibration consists of finding the value of each model parameter (constants and exponents) to ensure that the estimated results are similar to the observed flows, that those results can be replicated, and that changing the parameters would generate valid results. If not the case, the model is of limited use as it predicts or explains little. It is impossible to know if the calibration process is accurate without **comparing estimated results with empirical evidence**. Consistent calibration makes the model more rigorous and adaptable to other contexts. In the two formulations of the gravity model that have been introduced, the simple formulation offers good flexibility for calibration since four parameters can be modified. [Altering the value of beta, alpha, and lambda](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8605) will influence the estimated spatial interactions. Furthermore, the value of the parameters can change over time due to factors such as technological innovations, new transport infrastructure, and economic development. For instance, improvements in transport efficiency generally have the consequence of [reducing the value of the beta exponent](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8611) (friction of distance). Economic development is likely to influence the values of alpha and lambda, reflecting growth in mobility. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/beta_alpha_pamba_spatial_interactions.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Effects of beta, alpha and lambda on Spatial Interactions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-beta-alpha-lambda/calibration_spatial_interactions/)Effects of beta alpha and lambda on Spatial Interactions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/chicago_beta_values.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Chicago's beta Values for Air Transportation, 1949-1989 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/chicago-beta-graph-air/beta_calibration_chicago/)Chicagos beta Values for Air Transportation 1949 1989Calibration can also be considered for different O/D matrices according to age, income, gender, type of merchandise, and modal choice. Part of the scientific research in transport and regional planning aims to find accurate parameters for spatial interaction models. This is generally a costly and time-consuming but very useful process. Once a spatial interaction model has been validated for a city or a region, it can be used for simulation and prediction purposes, such as how many additional flows would be generated if the population increased or if better transport infrastructures (lower friction of distance) were provided. Outside the gravity model, other models can be used to measure spatial interactions. **Destination choice models** are considered an extension of the gravity model that is gaining popularity since they provide a more extensive range of factors explaining the assignment of spatial interactions. While the gravity model assumes that flows are generated as a function of attributes of the origin and destination weighted by impedance functions, the destination choice model allows for additional behavioral attributes to mobility, including income, walkability, the availability of parking, and psychological barriers. The main goal is to explain flows that the standard gravity model does not capture well. --- ## Related Topics - [The Notion of Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6945) - [Urban Land Use and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4613) - [Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4617) - Transportation / Land Use Modeling ## Bibliography - Colwell, P. F. (1982) “Central place theory and the simple economic foundations of the gravity model”, Journal of Regional Science, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 541-546. - Condeco-Melhorado, A., A. Reggiani and J. Gutierrez (eds) (2014) Accessibility and Spatial Interaction, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. - Fotheringham, A.S. (1983) “Some Theoretical Aspects of Destination Choice and their Relevance to Production-Constrained Gravity Models”, Environment and Planning, Vol. 15A, pp. 464-488. - Fotheringham, A.S. and M.E. O’Kelly (1989) Spatial Interaction Models: Formulations and Applications. London: Kluwer Academic. - Fotheringham, A.S., P. J. Densham, and A. Curtis (1995) “The zone definition problem in location-allocation modeling”. Geographical Analysis, 27 (1), pp. 60-77. - Huff, D.L. and G.F. Jenks (1968) “A Graphic Interpretation of the Friction of Distance in Gravity Models”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 814–824. - Ullman, E.L. (1956) “The Role of Transportation and the Bases for Interaction”, in W.L. Thomas jr. et al. (eds) Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. - Zipf, G.K. (1946) “The P1P2/D Hypothesis: On the Intercity Movement of Persons”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 11, pp. 677-686. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Monthly Value of Surface Trade between the United States, Canada and Mexico, 1993-2016](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/nafta-trade-value/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/NAFTA_trade_value.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "Monthly Value of Surface Trade between the United States, Canada and Mexico, 1993-2016 (USD) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Monthly Value of Surface Trade between the United States Canada and Mexico 1993 2016 USDSource: BTS, Transportation Statistics Annual Report. Since the 1970s, trade with the United States has been an increasingly important driver of economic growth for Canada and Mexico. Moreover, freight transport between Canada and the United States has become the number one growth factor in the trucking industry, underlining the dependency of the Canadian economy on American supply chains. The trade relationships between the United States and Canada are facilitated by factors of geographical proximity, the world’s longest demilitarized boundary (more potential interactions), complementary economic activities, large movements of tourists, and a common language. With the setting of NAFTA in 1994, surface trade between Canada, the United States, and Mexico increased substantially. By 2014, Mexican surface trade by truck with the United States surpassed that of Canada. Peak trucking activity is usually around the month of March, while the lowest level of activity is in July and December. For crossborder rail flows, the rate of increase has been slower than trucking, while the gap between Canadian and Mexican flows has not narrowed significantly. This underlines a better level of integration between Canadian and American rail networks. However, the value of crossborder trade flows between Canada and the United States has been declining since 2015, while that of Mexico continued to increase. Still, as of 2016, trade reached a peak. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/nafta-trade-value/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/nafta-trade-value/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/nafta-trade-value/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/nafta-trade-value/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/dallas-fort-worth-airport/) **Published:** December 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dfw_aerialview.jpg?resize=784%2C756&ssl=1 "Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport | The Geography of Transport Systems ")DallasFort Worth International Airport*Source: Background image from Google Earth.* The Dallas / Fort Worth Airport (DFW) is located about 28 km (20 miles) from the respective city centers of Dallas and Fort Worth. It represents a unique example of airport integration along an urban corridor. The five terminals (A to E) are oriented along a north/south axis with a highway running along this axis. Given the importance of the car in the North American context (particularly in Texas), vast parking spaces are available at each terminal and at the airport’s northern and southern extremities, which are used for long-term parking. A series of connected terminals in the form of half circles sets this airport apart from other large airports. An automatic train network links each terminal and the airport hotel. Essentially, each terminal functions as its own airport with its own parking facilities, restaurants, shops, baggage claims, customs clearance, and ticketing counters. Of the five terminals, Terminal D serves most of the international airlines. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/dallas-fort-worth-airport/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/dallas-fort-worth-airport/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/dallas-fort-worth-airport/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/dallas-fort-worth-airport/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Shinkansen High Speed Rail Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/shinkansen-high-speed-rail-network/) **Published:** December 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Japan_Shinkansen.png?resize=700%2C640&ssl=1 "The Shinkansen High Speed Rail Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Shinkansen High Speed Rail NetworkThe Japanese Shinkansen, or “bullet train” was one of the first high-speed train networks to be established in 1964 after beginning construction in 1959. Its initial speed was 220 km/hour, reducing travel times between Tokyo and Osaka by about half; from more than 8 hours to 4 hours. Two trains per hour were leaving Tokyo (60 per day), totaling 61,000 passengers per day. Through a set of technical improvements, operational speeds are now above 300 km/hour. By 2000, the travel time between Tokyo and Osaka was reduced to 2.5 hours with 285 trains per day (11 per hour) carrying more than 357,000 passengers per day. The Shinkansen network now links the most important Japanese cities, including Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka (better known as Tokaido). It has been an effective competitor with air transport, and the Shinkansen accounts for about 88% of the market share for passengers between Tokyo and Osaka ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/shinkansen-high-speed-rail-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/shinkansen-high-speed-rail-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/shinkansen-high-speed-rail-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/shinkansen-high-speed-rail-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Subtropolis Underground Warehousing Facility, Kansas City](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/subtropolis-warehouse-kansas-city/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/subtropolis.jpg?resize=851%2C639&ssl=1 "Subtropolis Underground Warehousing Facility, Kansas City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Subtropolis Underground Warehousing Facility Kansas City*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2007.* The underground warehousing facility, called Subtropolis, represents a unique initiative to take advantage of the space made available by a former limestone mine. The facility, which spans 4.5 square kilometers, has several advantages: - **Temperature stability**. Because the facility is underground, the ambient temperature is in the range of 18 to 21 degrees Celsius year-round. This makes it highly suitable for any activity requiring the warehousing of temperature-controlled products since utility costs are at least 50% cheaper than a regular above-ground warehouse. For low-temperature warehousing that is part of cold chain logistics, the utility costs are even lower, in the range of 70%. - **Security**. The facility is underground and only accessible through a limited number of entrances, conferring a high level of security against theft and damage for the warehoused cargo. This is a reason why the United States Postal Service is renting space in the facility to house its collectible stamps division. It is also a designated Free Trade Zone by the US Customs Office, allowing tenants to defer taxes on imports. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/subtropolis-warehouse-kansas-city/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/subtropolis-warehouse-kansas-city/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/subtropolis-warehouse-kansas-city/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/subtropolis-warehouse-kansas-city/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Meat Cold Chain](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/meat-cold-chain/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/meat_cold_chain.jpg?resize=600%2C369&ssl=1 "Meat Cold Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Meat Cold Chain*Photo: Courtesy of Hermani AG.* Meat transportation is particularly dependent on the cold chain since, once slaughtered, unfrozen meat has a limited storage life. In North America, meat animals are collected alive and transported to major slaughterhouses/stockyard complexes (e.g., Chicago, Fort Worth, Kansas City). Then, the carcasses are frozen and transported mainly by refrigerated railcars to consumption markets. There, they will be butchered, packed, and sold, commonly in large supermarkets with a temperature-controlled room. In Europe, meat is commonly transported live and slaughtered close to the point of sale. However, since grocery store sizes tend to be smaller and lack refrigerated space, butchering tends to take place in specialized facilities that serve a number of stores. In the above photo, meat has been butchered into smaller pieces that will be shipped to specific stores where they can be cut down to the customers’ needs. The system uses insulated rolling containers where the temperature is maintained for several hours with dry ice stored in a drawer on the top shelf (eutectic plates can also be used). The refrigerated shipments are then rolled into a regular truck for delivery. At the destination, the containers are simply rolled into the store and unloaded in a refrigerator, with the integrity of the cold chain being maintained. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/meat-cold-chain/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/meat-cold-chain/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/meat-cold-chain/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/meat-cold-chain/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Income per Capita and Perishable Share of Food Imports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/income-perishables-share-imports/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/income_perishables.png?resize=850%2C514&ssl=1 "Income per Capita and Perishable Share of Food Imports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Income per Capita and Perishable Share of Food Imports*Source: adapted from Lufthansa Consulting, 2009.* Rising incomes per capita are associated with a diversification of the diet, including a higher consumption level of fruits, vegetables, and meats. Higher-income economies thus have a greater share of their food imports accounted for by perishable products. A low-income economy may have its food imports dominated by grains, while a high-income economy may import a wide variety of perishable products to satisfy complex demand, including a large share of income spent on eating outside the home. Thus, the higher the income, the more reliant an economy is on cold chain logistics. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/income-perishables-share-imports/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/income-perishables-share-imports/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/income-perishables-share-imports/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/income-perishables-share-imports/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Grocery Chain Cold Storage Facility, Regina](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-storage-facility-regina/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cold_storage_dc_regina.jpg?resize=776%2C582&ssl=1 "Grocery Chain Cold Storage Facility, Regina | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Grocery Chain Cold Storage Facility Regina*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2011.* The growing efficiency and reliability of cold chain logistics has enabled major grocery store chains to establish large cold storage distribution facilities servicing large market areas. This strategy confers economies of scale (lower operating costs) as well as the ability to supply a [wider variety of cold chain retail goods](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6671). The above photo depicts a cold storage facility of Loblaw Companies, the largest food retailer in Canada, located at the Global Transportation Hub inland port in the vicinity of Regina, Saskatchewan (5 km from the city). It services most of the chain’s grocery stores in Western Canada. The facility was built on the [cross-docking model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4453), meaning inbound cargo (from suppliers) is received on one side, grocery products are stored in the middle, and outbound cargo to grocery stores is on the opposite side. In the photo above, an array of domestic 53-foot reefer containers is being loaded with orders for specific stores (“no name” refers to the generic store brand). Like reefers, most cold storage facilities are painted white to confer a high albedo (light reflection factor). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-storage-facility-regina/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-storage-facility-regina/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-storage-facility-regina/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-storage-facility-regina/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Wealth Consumption Investment in Transport Infrastructure: Repaving a Sidewalk](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/wealth-consumption-investment-sidewalk/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sidewalk_wealth_consumption.jpg?resize=750%2C284&ssl=1 "Wealth Consumption Investment in Transport Infrastructure: Repaving a Sidewalk | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Wealth Consumption Investment in Transport Infrastructure Repaving a Sidewalk*Photos: Gregory Levine.* Transport investments tend to be depicted as wealth-producing, providing employment, and improving accessibility. Such an assertion must, however, be nuanced by the type of infrastructure and the setting in which the investment takes place. On this point, the above example of a sidewalk repaving project (City of Claremont, California, June 2010) is illustrative of a wealth-consumption investment that provides little, if any, real return. Its marginal utility is essentially zero, or even negative: - In a car-dependent city, sidewalks **contribute little to urban mobility**, except in central areas where pedestrian traffic is more frequent. Still, sidewalks have a limited impact on economic productivity. They cannot be considered wealth-producing investments, but as tools to improve convenience and aesthetics. - The above project **does not improve in any visible way the utility of the sidewalk** since the prior sidewalk did not appear to be defective in a way that would impair its use. The project was thus simply done in an opportunistic (American Recovery and Reinvestment Act) and discretionary manner. - Two wheelchair ramps were laid on each side of the disabled parking spot. Therefore, this project comes at the expense of an additional parking slot, implying **reduced car accessibility** for local businesses, as well as a small amount of green space lost to make room for a ramp. - During the construction phase, local businesses were disrupted by reduced accessibility, resulting in a **loss of revenue**. Therefore, aside from the labor and materials used for construction, the capital invested in this project can be considered wasted. It is a perverse example of the “broken window fallacy” principle, particularly since, at the start, the “window was not broken”. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/wealth-consumption-investment-sidewalk/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/wealth-consumption-investment-sidewalk/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/wealth-consumption-investment-sidewalk/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/wealth-consumption-investment-sidewalk/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Relationship between GDP and Motorization, Selected Asian Countries, 1960-1990](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/motorization-gpd-asia/) **Published:** December 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gpd_motorization_asia.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Relationship between GDP and Motorization, Selected Asian Countries, 1960-1990 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Relationship between GDP and Motorization Selected Asian Countries 1960 1990*Source: adapted from R. Carruthers (2003) The Impacts of Motorization and What Can Be Done to Mitigate Them, The World Bank.* As societies become wealthier, they undergo a motorization transition in which the number of vehicles per capita increases significantly. Looking at major Asian economies, including Japan, China, South Korea, and Singapore, at different points from 1960 to 1990 underscores this transition, with a clear exponential relationship between GDP per capita and motorization. After the $2,000 per capita threshold is crossed, motor vehicle ownership and expected mobility increase significantly. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/motorization-gpd-asia/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/motorization-gpd-asia/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/motorization-gpd-asia/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/motorization-gpd-asia/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.17 - The Gini Coefficient](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/) **Published:** February 7, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The Gini coefficient measures the degree of concentration (inequality) of a variable in a distribution of its elements. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Lorenz Curve](#1_The_Lorenz_Curve) - [2. Index of Dissimilarity (ID)](#2_Index_of_Dissimilarity_ID) - [3. Gini’s Coefficient (G)](#3_Ginis_Coefficient_G) # 1. The Lorenz Curve The Gini coefficient compares the [Lorenz curve](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9236) of a ranked empirical distribution with the **line of perfect equality**. This line assumes that each observation has the same contribution to the total summation of the values of all the observations. The Gini coefficient ranges between 0, where there is no concentration (**perfect equality**), and 1, where there is total concentration (**perfect inequality**). The Gini coefficient can be used in numerous instances, such as assessing income distribution among a set of contiguous regions (or countries) or to measure other spatial phenomena, such as industrial location. Its major purpose as a method in transport geography has been measuring traffic concentration, mainly at terminals, such as assessing changes in [port system concentration](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-traffic-concentration/ "Traffic Concentration and Lorenz Curves"). Economies of scale in transportation can favor traffic concentration at transport terminals such as [ports and airports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/gini-coefficient-container-airports/ "World’s Largest Container Ports, Passenger Airports and Freight Airports"). At the same time, other considerations, such as accessibility to regional markets, can be perceived as a countervailing force to concentration. So, the temporal variations of the Gini coefficient reflect changes in the comparative advantages of a location within the transport system. Three different **measures of inequality** linked to the Gini Coefficient are presented below. They are all linked to the concept of [comparing the Lorenz curve with the lines of perfect equality and inequality](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9256). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lorenz_curve2.png?resize=900%2C705&ssl=1 "The Lorenz Curve | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve/lorenz_curve/)The Lorenz Curve[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/traffic_concentration_lorenz.png?resize=900%2C568&ssl=1 "Traffic Concentration and Lorenz Curves | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-traffic-concentration/traffic_concentration_lorenz_curve/)Traffic Concentration and Lorenz Curves[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Gini-Container-Ports-Airports-2018.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World’s Largest Container Ports, Passenger Airports and Freight Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/gini-coefficient-container-airports/gini-container-ports-airports-2010/)Worlds 50 Largest Container Ports Passenger Airports and Freight Airports[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lorenz_perfect_inequality.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Lorenz and Perfect Inequality Differences | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-perfect-inequality/lorenz_perfect_equality/)Lorenz and Perfect Inequality Differences# 2. Index of Dissimilarity (ID) The **dissimilarity index** is the summation of vertical deviations between the Lorenz curve and the line of perfect equality, also known as the summation of Lorenz’s differences. The closer the ID is to 1 (or 100 if percentages are used instead of fractions), the more dissimilar the distribution is to the line of perfect equality. ID=0.5∑i=1N|Xi−Yi|ID = \\displaystyle 0.5 \\sum\_{i=1}^{N} | X\_i – Y\_i | Where X and Y are percentages (or fractions) of the total number of observations and their respective values (traffic being the most common). N is the number of observations. For instance, the following considers the distribution of traffic among 5 terminals: **Terminal****Traffic****X****Y****|X-Y|**A25,0000.20.4380.238B18,0000.20.3160.116C9,0000.20.1580.042D3,0000.20.0530.147E2,0000.20.0350.165Total57,0001.01.00.708Terminal B, with traffic of 18,000, accounts for 0.2 (or 20%; X) of all terminals and 0.316 (or 31.6%; Y) of all traffic. The dissimilarity index of this distribution is 0.354 (0.708 \* 0.5), which indicates an average concentration level. A more complex example is provided [here](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9261). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/calculation_index_dissimilarity.png?resize=900%2C1049&ssl=1 "Calculation of the Index of Dissimilarity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/dissimilarity-index-calculation/index_dissimilarity/)Calculation of the Index of Dissimilarity # 3. Gini’s Coefficient (G) The Gini Coefficient represents the area of concentration between the Lorenz curve and the line of perfect equality. It expresses a proportion of the area enclosed by the triangle defined by the line of perfect equality and the line of perfect inequality. The closer the coefficient is to 1, the more unequal the distribution. G=1−∑i=1N(σYy−1)(σXi−1−σXi)G = 1 – \\sum\_{i=1}^{N} (\\sigma Y\_{y-1}) (\\sigma X\_{i-1} – \\sigma X\_i) Where σX and σY are cumulative percentages of Xs and Ys (in fractions), and N is the number of elements (observations). Using the same example as above, the following table demonstrates the calculation of the Gini coefficient: **Terminal****Traffic****X****Y****σX****σY****σXi-1 – σXi (B)****σYi-1 + σYi (A)****A\*B**A25,0000.20.4380.20.4380.20.4380.088B18,0000.20.3160.40.7540.21.1920.238C9,0000.20.1580.60.9120.21.6660.333D3,0000.20.0530.80.9650.21.8770.375E2,0000.20.0351.01.0000.21.9650.393Total57,0001.01.000 1.427The Gini coefficient for this distribution is 0.427 (|1-1.427|). A more complex example is provided [here](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9269). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/calculation_gini_coefficient.png?resize=900%2C596&ssl=1 "Calculation of the Gini Coefficient | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/gini-coefficient-calculation/gini_calculation/)Calculation of the Gini Coefficient--- ## Related Topics - [Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1498) - [Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3235) - [Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3717) - The Specialization Index and the Location Coefficient ## Bibliography - Duncan, O.D and B. Duncan (1995) “A methodological analysis of segregation indexes”, American Sociological Review. Vol. 20, pp. 210-17. - Kuby, M. and N. Reid (1992) “Technological change and the concentration of the U.S. general cargo ports system: 1970-88”, Economic Geography, 68(3), pp. 272-288. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.16 - The Specialization Index and the Location Coefficient](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/specialization-index-location-coefficient/) **Published:** March 30, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The specialization index and the location coefficient look at the level of concentration of an activity at a location such as a terminal in relation to a group of locations. # 1. The Specialization Index In transport, to find out if a terminal is specialized in the transshipment or the handling of a particular merchandise or if, inversely, it transfers a wide variety of merchandises, a **specialization index** can be calculated. > The **specialization index** can be used to know if a facility (e.g. a terminal) is specialized in the handling of a certain type of product (e.g. containers) or if it handles a wide range of merchandises. As a consequence, such an index is quite versatile and has a variety of applications; it informs geographers on the activities of any type of terminal (port, train, and airport). In the case of an airport terminal, one could ask whether a given airport handles only a single type of flight/passenger (local, national, international, etc.) or welcomes several. The specialization index (SI) is calculated using the following formula: SI=∑iti2(∑iti)2SI = \\frac{\\sum\_i t\_i^2}{\\left(\\sum\_i t\_i\\right)^2} It is the total of the squares of the tonnage (or monetary value) of each type of merchandise i (ti) handled at a terminal over the square of the total tonnage (or monetary value) of merchandise handled at the terminal. So, if the specialization index **tends toward 1**, such a result indicates that the terminal is **highly diversified**. If, inversely, the index **tends toward 0**, it means that the terminal’s activity is **specialized**. Thus, the specialization index evaluates the degree of specialization or diversification of a port, an airport, a train station, or any type of terminal. # 2. The Location Coefficient Some merchandises are often transshipped at particular terminals rather than at others. Thus, the degree of concentration of a certain type of traffic in a terminal (port, airport, train station) compared with the average for all the terminals can be measured by using the **location coefficient**. > The **location coefficient** is the share of traffic occupied by a type of merchandise at a terminal over the share of traffic of the same type of merchandise among the total traffic of all terminals of the same type. In the field of transportation, the location coefficient (LC) is calculated by using the following formula: LC=(Mti∑tMti)/(∑tMt∑M)LC = \\left( \\frac{M\_{ti}}{\\sum\_t M\_{ti}} \\right) \\big/ \\left( \\frac{\\sum\_t M\_t}{\\sum M} \\right) Where *Mti* is the traffic of a merchandise *t* at a terminal *i*, *Mt* is the total of all merchandises of type *t* for all terminals and *M* is the total of all types of merchandises for all terminals. The greater the value of the index, the greater is the degree is the degree of traffic of a certain type of merchandise. Possible outcomes are of three types: - A figure **lower than 1**, indicate that the traffic of the chosen merchandise in the terminal is **under-represented** compared to the same merchandise in all the terminals. - A figure **equal to 1**, indicates that the quantity of traffic of the chosen merchandise in a terminal is **proportional** to its participation to total traffic. - Finally, a coefficient **above 1** indicates that the traffic of the chosen merchandise in a given terminal is **preponderant** in total traffic. Besides using the location coefficient to evaluate the relative weight of a type of traffic in a terminal to it, the location coefficient can be used to appreciate the importance of an economic activity for a community compared with the importance of the same activity within a defined larger area (e.g., province, country, world, etc.). The larger geographic entity is also known as the benchmark and is critical in the calculation of the location coefficient. --- ## Related Topics - [The Gini Coefficient](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9229) ## Bibliography - Duncan, O.D and B. Duncan (1995) “A methodological analysis of segregation indexes”, American Sociological Review. Vol. 20, pp. 210-17. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/specialization-index-location-coefficient/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/specialization-index-location-coefficient/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/specialization-index-location-coefficient/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/specialization-index-location-coefficient/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.4 - Transportation and Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Accessibility is a key element in transport geography and geography in general since it is a direct expression of mobility either in terms of people, freight, or information. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Defining Accessibility](#1_Defining_Accessibility) - [2. Connectivity and Total Accessibility](#2_Connectivity_and_Total_Accessibility) - [3. The Shimbel Index and the Valued Graph](#3_The_Shimbel_Index_and_the_Valued_Graph) - [4. Geographic and Potential Accessibility](#4_Geographic_and_Potential_Accessibility) # 1. Defining Accessibility Mobility is a choice made by users and is, therefore, a way to evaluate the impacts of infrastructure investment and related transport policies on regional development. Well-developed and efficient transportation systems offer high accessibility levels, while less-developed ones have lower levels of accessibility. Thus, accessibility is [linked with an array of economic and social opportunities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6950), but congestion can also have a negative impact on mobility. > **Accessibility** is the measure of **the capacity of a location to be reached from, or to be reached by, different locations**. Therefore, the capacity and the arrangement of transport infrastructure are key elements in the determination of accessibility. All locations are not equal because some are more accessible than others, which implies inequalities. Thus, accessibility is a proxy for spatial inequalities and remains fundamental since only a small subset of an area is the most accessible. The notion of accessibility relies on two core concepts: - The first is **location,** where the relativity of space is estimated in relation to transport infrastructures since they offer the means to support mobility. Each location has a set of referential attributes, such as its population or level of economic activity. - The second is **distance**, which is derived from the physical separation between locations. Distance can only exist when there is a possibility to link two locations through transportation. It expresses the friction of distance, and the location with the least friction relative to others is likely to be the most accessible. The friction of distance is commonly expressed in units such as kilometers or in time, but variables such as cost or energy spent can also be used. There are [two spatial categories applicable to accessibility problems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6957), which are interdependent: - The first type is **topological accessibility**, which is related to measuring accessibility in a **system of nodes and paths** (a transportation network). It is assumed that accessibility is a measurable attribute significant only to specific elements of a transportation system, such as terminals (airports, ports, or subway stations). - The second type is **contiguous accessibility,** which involves measuring accessibility **over a surface**. Under such conditions, accessibility is a cumulative measure of the attributes of every location over a predefined distance, as space is considered contiguous. It is also referred to as **isochrone accessibility**. Last, accessibility is a good indicator of the [underlying spatial structure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6962) since it takes into consideration **location** as well as the **inequality conferred by distance to other locations**. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_opportunities2.png?resize=900%2C467&ssl=1 "Relationship between Distance and Opportunities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessopportunities-2/distance_opportunities/)Relationship between Distance and Opportunities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/topological_contiguous_accessibility.png?resize=900%2C518&ssl=1 "Topological and Contiguous Accessibility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessplace/topological_contiguous/)Topological and Contiguous Accessibility[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/accessibility_spatial_structure2.png?resize=900%2C814&ssl=1 "Accessibility and Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/spatial-structure-accessibility/accessibility_spatial_structure/)Accessibility and Spatial Structure[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-Global-Accessibility-1.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Global Accessibility: Time to the Nearest Large City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/global-accessibility-time-nearest-city/map-global-accessibility-1/)Global Accessibility Time to the Nearest Large City# 2. Connectivity and Total Accessibility The most basic accessibility measure involves **network connectivity,** where a network is represented as a [connectivity matrix](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7620) (C1), which expresses the connectivity of each node with its adjacent nodes. The number of columns and rows in this matrix is equal to the number of nodes in the network, and a value of 1 is given for each cell where there is a connected pair and a value of 0 for each cell where there is an unconnected pair. Simple networks and their [connectivity matrices](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/connectivitymatrix-2/ "Simple Connectivity Matrix") are rare. Thus, the matrix becomes exponentially [more complex](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/connectivitymatrix2/ "More Complex Connectivity Matrix") with the number of nodes. The summation of this matrix provides a very basic measure of accessibility, also known as the **degree of a node**: C1=∑jnCijC1 = \\sum\_{j}^{n} C\_{ij} - *C1* = degree of a node. - *Cij* = connectivity between node *i* and node *j* (either 1 or 0). - *n* = number of nodes. The connectivity matrix does not consider all the possible indirect paths between nodes. Under such circumstances, two nodes could have the same degree but may have different accessibility. To consider this attribute, the [Total accessibility matrix](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/totalaccessibility/ "Total Accessibility Matrix (T)") (T) is used to calculate the total number of paths in a network, including direct and indirect paths. Its calculation involves the following steps: T=∑k=1DCkT = \\sum\_{k=1}^{D} Ck C1=∑jnCijC1 = \\sum\_{j}^{n} C\_{ij} Ck=∑in∑jncij1×cjik−1(∀k≠1)Ck = \\sum\_{i}^{n} \\sum\_{j}^{n} c\_{ij}^{1} \\: \\times \\: c\_{ji}^{k-1} (\\forall k \\neq1) - D = the diameter of the network. Thus, total accessibility would be a more comprehensive accessibility measure than network connectivity. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/connectivity_matrix_link_table.png?resize=900%2C387&ssl=1 "Creation of a Connectivity Matrix with a Link Table | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Creation of a Connectivity Matrix with a Link Table![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/simple_connectivity_matrix2.png?resize=900%2C398&ssl=1 "Simple Connectivity Matrix | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Simple Connectivity Matrix![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/complex_connectivity_matrix.png?resize=900%2C464&ssl=1 "More Complex Connectivity Matrix | The Geography of Transport Systems ")More Complex Connectivity Matrix![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/total_accessibility_matrix.png?resize=900%2C568&ssl=1 "Total Accessibility Matrix (T) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Total Accessibility Matrix T# 3. The Shimbel Index and the Valued Graph The main focus of measuring accessibility does not necessarily involve measuring the total number of paths between locations but rather the shortest paths between them. Even if several paths between two locations exist, the shortest one is likely to be selected. In congested networks, the shortest path may change according to the current traffic level in each segment. Consequently, the Shimbel index calculates the **minimum number of paths** necessary to connect one node with all the nodes in a defined network. The [Shimbel accessibility matrix](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6990), also known as the D-Matrix, includes each possible node pair with the shortest path. The Shimbel index and its D-Matrix fail to consider that a topological link between two nodes may involve variable distances. Thus, it can be expanded to include the notion of distance, where a value is attributed to each link in the network. The [valued graph matrix](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6996), or **L-Matrix**, represents such an attempt. It is very similar to the Shimbel accessibility matrix. The only difference is that instead of showing the minimal path in each cell, it provides a **minimal distance** between each node of the network. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/shimbel_distance_d_matrix.png?resize=900%2C482&ssl=1 "Shimbel Distance Matrix (D-Matrix) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/shimbelmatrix/shimbel_matrix/)Shimbel Distance Matrix D Matrix[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/valued_graph_l_matrix.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Valued Graph Matrix (L-Matrix) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/valuedgraph/valued_graph_matrix/)Valued Graph Matrix L Matrix# 4. Geographic and Potential Accessibility From the accessibility measure developed so far, it is possible to derive two simple and highly practical measures, defined as geographic and potential accessibility. [Geographic accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7001) considers that the accessibility of a location is the **summation of all distances** between other locations divided by the number of locations. The lower its value, the more accessible a location is. A(G)=∑in∑jndijnA(G) = \\sum\_{i}^{n} \\sum\_{j}^{n} \\frac {d\_{ij}}{n} dij=L\\large d\_{ij} = L - *A(G)* = geographical accessibility matrix. - *dij* = shortest path distance between location *i* and *j*. - *n* = number of locations. - *L* = valued graph matrix. This measure (A(G)) is an adaptation of the Shimbel Index and the Valued Graph, where the most accessible place has the lowest summation of distances. Locations can be nodes in a network or cells in a spatial matrix. Potential accessibility is a more complex measure than geographic accessibility since it simultaneously includes the **concept of distance weighted by the attributes of a location**. All locations are not equal, and thus, some are more important than others. [Potential accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7007) can be measured as follows: A(P)=∑inPi+∑jnPjdijA(P) = \\sum\_{i}^{n} P\_{i}+ \\sum\_{j}^{n} \\frac {P\_{j}}{d\_{ij}} - *A(P)* = potential accessibility matrix. - *dij* = friction of distance between place *i* and *j* (derived from valued graph matrix). - *Pj* = attributes of place j, such as population, retailing surface, parking space, etc. - *n* = number of locations. The potential accessibility matrix is not transposable since locations do not have the same attributes, which brings the underlying notions of emissiveness and attractiveness: - **Emissiveness** is the capacity to leave a location, the sum of the values of a row in the A(P) matrix. - **Attractiveness** is the capacity to reach a location, the sum of the values of a column in the A(P) matrix. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/geographic_accessibility2.png?resize=900%2C664&ssl=1 "Geographic Accessibility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/geoaccessibility/geographic_accessibility/)Geographic Accessibility[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/potential_accessibility2.png?resize=900%2C559&ssl=1 "Potential Accessibility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/potaccessibility/potential_accessibility/)Potential AccessibilityAlthough accessibility can be solved using a spreadsheet (or manually for simpler problems), **Geographic Information Systems** have proven to be a very useful and flexible tool to measure accessibility, notably over a surface simplified as a matrix (raster representation). This can be done by generating a distance grid for each place and then summing all the grids to form the total summation of distances (Shimbel) grid. The cell having the lowest value is thus the most accessible location. --- ## Related Topics - [1.2 – Transportation and Space](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=322) - [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1006) - [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1498) - [A.2 – Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6741) - [A.18 – Spatial Interactions and the Gravity Model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8565) ## Bibliography - BTS (2001) Special Issue on Methodological Issues in Accessibility, Journal of Transportation and Statistics, Vol. 4, No. 2/3, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Sept/Dec. - Burns, L.D. (1979) Transportation, Temporal, and Spatial Components of Accessibility. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. - El-Geneidy, A.M., and D.M. Levinson (2006) Access to Destinations: Development of Accessibility Measures. Retrieved from the University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy, https://hdl.handle.net/11299/638. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.6 - Graph Theory: Measures and Indices](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Cesar Ducruet and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Graph theory relies on several measures and indices that assess the efficiency of transportation networks. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Measures at the Network Level](#1_Measures_at_the_Network_Level) - [2. Indices at the Network Level](#2_Indices_at_the_Network_Level) - [3. Measures and Indices at the Node Level](#3_Measures_and_Indices_at_the_Node_Level) # 1. Measures at the Network Level Transportation networks are composed of many **nodes** and **links**, and as they rise in complexity, their comparison becomes challenging. For instance, it may not be at first glance evident to assess which of the two transportation networks is the most accessible or the most efficient. Several measures and indices can be used to analyze network efficiency, with many initially developed by Kansky in the 1960s: - Expressing the relationship between values and the network structures they represent. - Comparing different transportation networks at a specific point in time. - Comparing the evolution of a transport network at different points in time. Outside the description of a network size by the **number of nodes and edges**, and its total length and traffic, several measures are used to define the structural attributes of a graph; the diameter, the number of cycles, and the order of a node. > **[Diameter](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6086) (*d*).** The length of the shortest path between the most distanced nodes of a graph. It measures the extent of a graph and the topological length between two nodes. The diameter enables us to measure the [development of a network in time](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6095). A high diameter implies a less-linked network. In the case of a complex graph, the diameter can be found with a **topological distance matrix** (Shimbel distance), which computes for each node pair its minimal topological distance. Graphs whose extent remains constant, but with higher connectivity, have lower diameter values. Planar networks often have a large diameter due to many intermediate stops between two distant nodes. > **[Number of Cycles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6100) (*u*)**. The maximum number of independent cycles in a graph. This number (*u*) is estimated through the number of nodes (*v*), links (*e*) and of sub-graphs (*p*)*.* Trees and simple networks have a value of 0 since they have no cycles. The more complex a network is, the higher the number of cycles, so it can be used as an indicator of the level of development and complexity of a transport system. u=e−v+pu = e-v+p [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/graph_diameter.png?resize=900%2C445&ssl=1 "Diameter of a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/diameter-graph/graph_diameter/)Diameter of a Graph[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/diameter_2_graph.png?resize=900%2C541&ssl=1 "Changes in the Diameter of a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/diameter-change-graph/diameter_2_graph/)Changes in the Diameter of a Graph[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cycles_graph2.png?resize=900%2C446&ssl=1 "Number of Cycles | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/number-cycles-graph/cycles_graph2/)Number of Cycles# 2. Indices at the Network Level Indices are more complex methods to represent the structural properties of a graph since they involve the comparison of one measure over another. Some indices consider spatial features (distance, surface) and the level of activity (traffic), while others solely rest on the topological dimension of the network. > **[Cost](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6107)**. Represents the total length of the network measured in real transport distances where *aij* is the presence (1) or absence (0) of a link between *i* and *j* and *lij* the length of the link. This measure can also be calculated based on two other dimensions of the network; the Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) and the Greedy Triangulation (GT). The MST represents the shortest and/or lowest cost subtree of the network; it can be obtained by applying shortest path algorithms, the Kruskal algorithm, which allows finding the lowest cost route connecting all nodes in the network. The GT refers to the maximal connected planar graph keeping the same number of nodes than in the original network but adding all possible links without breaking its planarity. Such operations consider both the topology and the geography of the network, while comparing the latter with its optimal configurations. More efficient networks have relative costs near to 1, while less efficient networks are closer to 0. Cost=∑i,jaijlijCost = \\sum\_{i,j} a\_{ij} l\_{ij} Costrel=Cost−CostMSTCostGT−CostMSTCost\_{rel} = \\frac {Cost-Cost^{\\text{MST}}}{Cost^{GT}-Cost^{\\text{MST}}} > **Detour Index**. A measure of the efficiency of a transport network in terms of how well it overcomes distance or the friction of distance. The closer the detour index gets to 1, the more the network is spatially efficient. Networks having a detour index of 1 are rarely, if ever, seen and most networks would fit on an asymptotic curve getting close to 1, but never reaching it. For instance, the straight distance, *D(*S), between two nodes may be 40 km but the transport distance*, D(T)*; real distance, is 50 km. The detour index is thus 0.8 (40 / 50). The [complexity of the topography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6113) is often a good indicator of the level of detour since rugged areas are associated with higher detour indexes. DI=D(S)D(T)DI= \\frac {D(S)}{D(T)} > In order to derive a measure of relative efficiency, the Detour Index Relative Efficiency is the ratio between the Detour Index calculated from the original network and the Detour Index calculated either from the MST (minimum spanning tree) or the GT (greedy triangulation). Erel=DI−DIMSTDIGT−DIMSTE\_{rel}= \\frac {DI-DI^{\\text{MST}}}{DI^{GT}-DI^{\\text{MST}}} > **Network Density**. Measures the territorial occupation of a transport network in terms of km of links (*L*) per square kilometers of surface (*S*). The higher it is, the more a network and an economy is developed. ND=LSND= \\frac {L} {S} > **Pi Index.** The relationship between the total length of the graph L(G) and the distance along its diameter D(d). It is labeled as Pi because of its similarity with the real Pi value, which is expressing the ratio between the circumference and the diameter of a circle. A high index shows a developed network. It is a measure of distance per units of diameter and an indicator of the [shape of a network](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6121)*.* Π=L(G)D(d)\\Pi = \\frac{L(G)}{D(d)} > **[Eta Index](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6128).** Average length per link. Adding new nodes will cause a decrease of Eta as the average length per link declines. Complex networks tend to have a low eta value. η=L(G)e\\eta = \\frac{L(G)}{e} > **[Theta Index](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6136).** Measures the function of a node, which is the average amount of traffic per intersection. The higher theta is, the greater the load of the network. The measure can also be applied to the number of links (edges) where it represents the average load per link. Θ=Q(G)v\\Theta = \\frac{Q(G)}{v} [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cost_in_graph.png?resize=900%2C500&ssl=1 "Cost in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/cost-graph/cost/)Cost in a Graph[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/topography_route_selection2.png?resize=900%2C562&ssl=1 "The Effects of Topography on Route Selection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/topography-route-selection/topography_route_selection/)The Effects of Topography on Route Selection[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pi_index_transport_networks.png?resize=900%2C472&ssl=1 "Pi Index and the Shape of Transportation Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/pi-index-shape-transport-network/pi_index_graph/)Pi Index and the Shape of Transportation Networks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/eta_index.png?resize=900%2C522&ssl=1 "Eta Index in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/eta-index-graph/eta_index_graph/)Eta Index in a Graph[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/theta_index.png?resize=900%2C522&ssl=1 "Theta Index in Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/theta-index-graph/theta_index_graph/)Theta Index in Graph> **[Beta Index](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6143).** Measures the level of connectivity in a graph and is expressed by the relationship between the number of links (e) over the number of nodes (v). Trees and simple networks have Beta value of less than one. A connected network with one cycle has a value of 1. More complex networks have a value greater than 1. In a network with a fixed number of nodes, the higher the number of links, the higher the number of possible paths in the network. Complex networks have a high value of Beta. The rich-club coefficient is the Beta index applied to relations among larger order (degree) nodes; it verifies whether the connectivity is higher among larger degree nodes than for the whole network. β=ev\\beta = \\frac{e}{v} > **[Alpha Index](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6149).** A measure of connectivity which evaluates the number of cycles in a graph in comparison with the maximum number of cycles. The higher the alpha index, the more a network is connected. Trees and simple networks will have a value of 0. A value of 1 indicates a completely connected network. Measures the level of connectivity independently of the number of nodes. It is very rare that a network will have an alpha value of 1, because this would imply very serious redundancies. This index is also called Meshedness Coefficient in the literature on planar networks*.* α=u2v−5\\alpha = \\frac{u}{2v – 5} α=e−vv(v−1)2−(v−1)\\alpha = \\frac{e – v}{\\frac{v(v – 1)}{2} – (v – 1)} > **[Gamma Index](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6157).** A measure of connectivity that considers the relationship between the number of observed links and the number of possible links. The value of gamma is between 0 and 1 where a value of 1 indicates a completely connected network and would be extremely unlikely. Gamma is an efficient value to measure the progression of a network in time. γ=e3v−6\\gamma = \\frac{e}{3v – 6} γ==ev(v−1)2\\gamma = = \\frac{e}{\\frac{v(v – 1)}{2}} Being solely based on the number of nodes and links, Alpha, Beta, and Gamma indices remain limited in revealing structural differences between networks of equal size. More robust measures have thus been proposed by physics, which considers the internal complexity of the graph. > **[Hierarchy (h)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6164)**. The exponent of the slope for the power-law line drawn in a bi-log plot of node frequency over degree distribution. Networks characterized by strong hierarchical configurations, such as scale-free networks (few large degree nodes and many small degree nodes), often have values over 1 or 2. A value lower than 1 indicates the absence of scale-free properties and a limited hierarchy among nodes. y=axhy = a x^{h} > **[Transitivity (t)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6171)**. Also called clustering coefficient, it is the overall probability for the network to have adjacent nodes interconnected, thus revealing the existence of tightly connected communities (or clusters, subgroups, cliques). It is calculated by the ratio between the observed number of closed triplets and the maximum possible number of closed triplets in the graph. Another way calculating transitivity is to calculate the average clustering coefficient of all nodes. Complex networks and notably small-world networks often have a high transitivity and a low diameter. Because triplets are not the only way for looking at neighborhood density among nodes, this measure can be extended to cycles of length 4 and 5. Ci=λG(v)τG(v)C\_i = \\frac{\\lambda\_G(v)}{\\tau\_G(v)} [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/beta_index.png?resize=900%2C490&ssl=1 "Beta Index in Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/beta-index-graph/beta_index_graph/)Beta Index in Graph[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/alpha_index.png?resize=900%2C473&ssl=1 "Alpha Index in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/alpha-index-graph/alpha_index_graph/)Alpha Index in a Graph[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gamma_index.png?resize=900%2C483&ssl=1 "Gamma Index in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/gamma-index-graph/gamma_index_graph/)Gamma Index in a Graph[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hierarchy_graph.png?resize=900%2C316&ssl=1 "Hierarchy in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/hierarchy-graph-h/hierarchy/)Hierarchy in a Graph h[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transitivity_graph.png?resize=900%2C552&ssl=1 "Transitivity in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/transitivity-graph/transitivity/)Transitivity in a Graph> **Average shortest path length (s)***. A measure of efficiency that is the average number of stops needed to reach two distant nodes in the graph. The lower the result, the more efficient the network in providing ease of circulation. In comparison, the diameter is the maximum length of all possible shortest paths.* lG=1n(n−1)∑i,jd(vi,vj)l\_G = \\frac{1}{n (n – 1) \\sum\_{i,j} d(v\_i, v\_j)} > **Assortative coefficient (r)**. This coefficient is the Pearson correlation between the order (degree) of nodes at both ends of each link (edge) in the network. The result ranges from -1 (low degree nodes often connect high degree nodes) to 1 (nodes of equal or similar degree are often connected). Disassortative networks (r is significantly negative) are often those with strong hierarchical configurations with large nodes connecting smaller nodes, as in scale-free networks, while regular networks are often assortative. r=M−1∑ijiki−\[M−1∑i12(ji+ki)\]2M−1∑i(ji2+ki2)−\[M−1∑i12(ji+ki)\]2r = \\frac{ M^{-1}\\sum\_i j\_i k\_i – \\left\[M^{-1}\\sum\_i \\tfrac{1}{2}(j\_i + k\_i)\\right\]^2 }{ M^{-1}\\sum\_i (j\_i^2 + k\_i^2) – \\left\[M^{-1}\\sum\_i \\tfrac{1}{2}(j\_i + k\_i)\\right\]^2 } # 3. Measures and Indices at the Node Level Numerous measures exist for highlighting the situation of a node in a network. Some are made at the “local level” based on links with adjacent nodes, while others are made at the “global level” and consider the node’s situation in the whole network. > **[Order (degree) of a Node](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6180) (*o*).** The number of its attached links and is a simple, but effective measure of nodal importance. The higher its value, the more a node is important in a graph as many links converge to it. Hub nodes have a high order, while terminal points have an order that can be as low as 1. A perfect hub would have its order equal to the summation of all the orders of the other nodes in the graph and a perfect spoke would have an order of 1. The percentage of nodes directly connected in the entire graph is thus a measure of reachability. An isolate is a node without connections (degree equals to 0). The difference between in-degree and out-degree in a directed graph (digraph) may underline interesting functions of some nodes as attractors or senders. The order may be calculated at different depths: adjacent nodes (depth 1), adjacent nodes of adjacent nodes (depth 2), etc. The weighted degree is simply the total of values associated with links. ki=CD(i)=∑jNxijk\_i = C\_D(i) = \\sum\_{j}^{N} x\_{ij} [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/node_order.png?resize=900%2C810&ssl=1 "Order in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/node-order-graph/order_node_graph/)Order in a Graph> **Koenig number** *(or associated number, eccentricity). A measure of farness based on the number of links needed to reach the most distant node in the graph.* e(x)=maxy∈X⁡d(x,y)e(x) = \\max\_{y \\in X} d(x, y) > **Shimbel Index** (or Shimbel distance, nodal accessibility, nodality). A measure of accessibility representing the sum of the length of all shortest paths connecting all other nodes in the graph. The inverse measure is also called closeness centrality or distance centrality. Ai=∑j=1NdijA\_i = \\sum\_{j=1}^{N} d\_{ij} > **Betweenness centrality** (or shortest-path betweenness). A measure of accessibility that is the number of times a node is crossed by shortest paths in the graph. Anomalous centrality is detected when a node has a high betweenness centrality and a low order (degree centrality), as in air transport. CB(i)=gjk(i)gjkC\_B(i) = \\frac{g\_{jk}(i)}{g\_{jk}} > **Hub Dependence (hd)**. A measure of node vulnerability that is the share of the highest traffic link in total traffic (weighted degree). Weak nodes depending on few links will have a high hub dependence, especially if they locate in the neighborhood of a large node, while hubs will have a more even traffic distribution among their connections. It indicates to what extent removing the largest traffic link would affect the node’s overall activity. The measure can be extended to more links (2, 3 … 10 largest flow links). > **Average nearest neighbors degree (knn)**. A measure of neighborhood indicating the type of environment in which the node situates. A node with low order (degree) may be surrounded by a variety of other nodes, small or large, which has a direct influence on its own centrality and growth potential. A network is assortative or disassortative depending on the similarity of the order (degree) among neighboring nodes, which can be tested by means of Pearson correlation (assortativity coefficient). Neighbor connectivity is the correlation between the order (degree) of nodes and the average order (degree) of their neighbors. km,i=1ki∑jaijkjk\_{m,i} = \\frac{1}{k\_i} \\sum\_j a\_{ij} k\_j > **Cohesion index (ci)**. For a given (link) edge ij, this index measures the ratio between the number of common neighbors connected to nodes i and j and the total number of their neighbors. Links with highest values typically connect dense communities (or clusters) in the graph, and can be removed in order to bisect the graph and reveal such subgroups. Multiplying this index by the weight (e.g. traffic) of links allows coupling topology and flows. This cohesion index is also called Strength index and it corresponds to the observed number of cycles of length 3 and 4 to which the edge belongs divided by the maximum number of such cycles. ws(e)=γ3,4(e)γmax⁡(e)w\_s(e) = \\frac{\\gamma\_{3,4}(e)}{\\gamma\_{\\max}(e)} > **Within-module degree (Zi; or z-score)**. Shows how well connected a node is to other nodes in the same module (or cluster, community), where Ki is the order (degree) of node i in the cluster si, Ksi is the average order (degree) of all nodes in the cluster si, and δKsi is the standard deviation of K in si. Because two nodes having same z-score may play different roles within the cluster, this measure is often compared with the Participation Coefficient (Pi). Both measures are applied to nodes once the clusters in the network are known. Zi=Ki−KSiσKSiZ\_i = \\frac{K\_i – K\_{S\_i}}{\\sigma\_{K\_{S\_i}}} > **Participation coefficient (Pi)**. Compares the number of links (order, degree) of node i to nodes in all clusters with its number of links within its own cluster. Zi and Pi reveal whether nodes are truly hubs in the network, while others are bound to local links and therefore do not act as connectors between clusters. Pi=1−∑s=1nM(κsiκi)2P\_i = 1 – \\sum\_{s=1}^{n\_M} \\left( \\frac{\\kappa\_{s\_i}}{\\kappa\_i} \\right)^2 Several critiques have been made towards such indexes as they do not always consider the real length, quality, and weight of the links; networks of equal size may exhibit contrasted topological forms. However, they remain useful for describing the changing structure of a given network. --- ## Related Topics - [The Geography of Transportation Networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=623) - [Graph Theory: Definition and Properties](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5976) - [Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6741) - [Transportation and Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6945) - [Network Data Models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7610) ## Bibliography - Arlinghaus, S.L., W.C. Arlinghaus, and F. Harary (2001) Graph Theory and Geography: An Interactive View. New York: John Wiley & Sons. - Jiang B. and C. Claramunt (2004) “Topological analysis of urban street networks”, Environment and Planning B, Vol. 31, pp. 151-162. - Kansky, K. (1963) Structure of transportation networks: relationships between network geography and regional characteristics, University of Chicago, Department of Geography, Research Papers 84. - Waters, N.M. (2006) Network and Nodal Indices: Measures of Complexity and Redundancy: A Review. In A. Reggiani & P. Nijkamp (eds) Spatial Dynamics, Network and Modelling, Cheltenham, UK & Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar. - Watts, D.J., Strogatz, S.H. (1998) “Collective dynamics of ‘small-world’ networks”, Nature 393 (6684): 440–442. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Value Per Ton of U.S. Freight Shipments by Transportation Mode, 1993-2007](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/value-ton-shipments-united-states/) **Published:** November 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_shipments_USA.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "Value Per Ton of U.S. Freight Shipments by Transportation Mode, 1993-2007 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Value Per Ton of US Freight Shipments by Transportation Mode 1993 2007*Source: BTS.* When transportation systems are taken individually, they carry commodities in accordance with standard transport economics; the value of what is being transported is related to the transport costs of the mode being used. Commodities strictly carried by rail have the lowest value per ton (e.g., coal, grain) while those carried by trucks tend to have a higher value. It is not surprising to see that parcel shipments and, finally, air transport shipments have the highest value per ton. Freight carried by air transport is about 450 times more valuable than freight carried by rail and 115 times more valuable than freight carried by truck. Air freight tends to involve high-value goods such as electronics and pharmaceutical products. When modes are used in combination, the situation changes significantly, and the freight carried is much more valuable than what is individually carried on any of the concerned modes. For instance, the value of freight carried by a truck and rail combination is 7 times more valuable than rail only and twice as valuable as truck only. From a system-wide perspective, the value of commodities carried on multiple modes is 8 times as much as those carried on single modes. This indicates that intermodal freight transportation concerns specific commodity chains, more sophisticated products carried over longer distances (often internationally), as well as the potential added value conferred by intermodal transshipment. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/value-ton-shipments-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/value-ton-shipments-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/value-ton-shipments-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/value-ton-shipments-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Hybrid Container Chassis](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/hybrid-container-chassis/) **Published:** November 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/container_hybrid_chassis.jpg?resize=850%2C638&ssl=1 "Hybrid Container Chassis | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Hybrid Container Chassis*Photo: Dr. jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2012.* Most container chassis are single-purpose, meaning they are used only to carry containers. There are some cases where a hybrid chassis can be used to carry containers, the most prevalent being the flatbed trailer that can also carry other cargoes. The above photo depicts a unique type of hybrid container chassis that can also carry automobiles. It is used for drayage operations in ports with significant container volumes and car terminal facilities. The driver has the advantage of being able to carry containers and automobiles with the same equipment without needing to switch chassis. For instance, an import container full of car parts can be brought from the container terminal to an assembly line. After the container has been dropped off, the driver can pick up cars to be brought to the car terminal for exports. Although this does not represent an optimal use of the chassis (the chassis is larger than the container in the above photo), it expands its commercial opportunities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/hybrid-container-chassis/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/hybrid-container-chassis/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/hybrid-container-chassis/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/hybrid-container-chassis/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Macadam Road Construction, Maryland, 1823](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/macadam-road-maryland-1823/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/8264102921_20d2e7cef7_3k.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Macadam Road Construction, Maryland, 1823 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Macadam Road Construction Maryland 1823*Source: United States Department of Transportation – Federal Highway Administration, Painting by Carl Rakeman.* The macadam road construction principle permitted the first modern all-weather hard surface roads. The above painting shows the process being applied to build the first macadam surface road in the United States in 1823. It linked Hagerstown and Boonsboro, Maryland. The road was composed of three layers of compacted rocks, with the top layer cemented with water to create a concrete-like surface. A curved road surface ensured drainage, with runoff water accumulating in side ditches. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/macadam-road-maryland-1823/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/macadam-road-maryland-1823/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/macadam-road-maryland-1823/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/macadam-road-maryland-1823/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Roman Road (Appian Way)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/roman-road-appian-way/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Appian-Way.jpg?resize=768%2C683&ssl=1 "Roman Road (Appian Way) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Roman Road Appian Way*Source: Wikipedia, Appian Way.* The Appian Way was completed around 312 BC, linking Rome to the port city of Brundisium (Brindisi). It played a fundamental role in helping expand the Roman hegemony, which was then in its early stages. It also set engineering standards that would be applied to most of the roads subsequently built through the Roman Empire, leading to an [extensive system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1060). A road was typically surfaced with stone paving blocks, had a drainage ditch on each side, and was built on a foundation of laid rock constructed from a large ditch. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/roman-road-appian-way/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/roman-road-appian-way/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/roman-road-appian-way/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/roman-road-appian-way/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Download Slides](https://transportgeography.org/media/media-slides/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** The following material can be used for **personal and educational purposes only**, such as for classroom lectures. Any other use, such as published reports and conference presentations, requires consent. Media elements cannot be redistributed or published in any form. Files are in PDF format. - [Chapter 1 Slides – Transport and Geography.](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_1_WS.pdf) - [Chapter 2 Slides – Transportation and the Spatial Structure](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_2_WS.pdf) - [Chapter 3 Slides – Transport, Economy and Society](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_3_WS.pdf) - [Chapter 4 Slides – Transport, Energy and Environment](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_4_WS.pdf) - [Chapter 5-I Slides – Transportation Modes](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_5_Part_I_WS.pdf) - [Chapter 5-II Slides – Transportation Modes](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_5_Part_II_WS.pdf) - [Chapter 6 Slides – Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_6_WS.pdf) - [Chapter 7 Slides – Trade, Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_7_WS.pdf) - [Chapter 8 Slides – Urban Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_8_WS.pdf) - [Chapter 9 Slides – Transport Planning and Policy](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_9_WS.pdf) - [Chapter 10 Slides – Challenges for Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/GTS_Chapter_10_WS.pdf) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/media/media-slides/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/media/media-slides/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/media/media-slides/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/media/media-slides/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation and the Mobility of Passengers and Freight](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportmobility-2/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transportation_mobility_passengers_freight.png?resize=900%2C488&ssl=1 "Transportation and the Mobility of Passengers and Freight | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation and the Mobility of Passengers and FreightThe mobility of passengers and freight has very different spatial dynamics. While passenger transportation primarily concerns short distances, freight transportation spans a wide range of geographies. The majority of passenger mobility is related to commuting, shopping, and recreation. These mobilities are predominantly constrained by the time constraints of individuals unwilling to spend more than 1 hour per day commuting. Only when passenger movements are less bound to time constraints, such as for business and tourism (when an individual has days instead of hours), can their geographical range be extended. A large share of air transportation occurs at the regional level, such as within Europe, North America, and China (flights of less than 2-3 hours dominate). Intercontinental travel accounts for only a small share of air transport activity, albeit an important one. Again, this reflects the unwillingness of most people to commit large amounts of time to travel. Unlike passengers, **most cargo does not have acute time constraints**, although some, like perishables, do. This means that the intensity of freight movements varies across a much wider range of geographical conditions. While waste disposal and local distribution (stores and home deliveries) have a limited range, it is at the level of commodity and supply chains (agriculture, manufacturing) that the highest intensity is observed. The substantial volume of goods traded internationally, including energy and raw materials, also matters. In a global economy, most passenger movements are still bound by a distance/time ratio, but freight movements are more a function of comparative advantages in production. While both passengers and freight movements can span the world, because of the value of time considerations, it is freight transportation that has the highest geographical range intensity. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportmobility-2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportmobility-2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportmobility-2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportmobility-2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Spatial Consideration of a Movement](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/movement-mobility-spatial-consideration/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/spatial_consideration_movement2.png?resize=900%2C571&ssl=1 "The Spatial Consideration of a Movement | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Spatial Consideration of a MovementThe transfer of a unit of freight or a passenger between an origin A and a destination B is influenced by the **friction of distance**, which is the time effect that each unit of distance may have on a movement. Spatial constraints such as distance, physiography (elements of the landscape, such as rivers and elevations), or administrative divisions (notably for international transportation) impede mobility and its duration. Furthermore, modes and infrastructure must be present and available in order to support a movement. Although not the rule, it is common for transfer costs to increase **proportionally with distance**. If costs are prohibitive, a transfer cannot occur or is economically unsound. Consequently, a distance after which a transfer cannot be economically justified, but this varies according to the mode used. Because of their performance, specific transportation modes are strongly influenced by spatial considerations. For instance, given the same amount of time (t), a pedestrian may cross a D(W) distance, which involves a friction of distance t/D(W), while a cyclist and a car driver would cross a D(B) and a D(A) distance and have a friction of distance of t/D(B) and t/D(A), respectively. Different modes have consequently different relationships with space because of their respective frictions of distance. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/movement-mobility-spatial-consideration/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/movement-mobility-spatial-consideration/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/movement-mobility-spatial-consideration/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/movement-mobility-spatial-consideration/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Space - Time Convergence](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/space-time-convergence/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/space_time_convergence.png?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Space - Time Convergence | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Space Time ConvergenceSpace-time convergence (also labeled as space/time compression) refers to the decline in travel time between similar locations. This implies that two locations can be reached in a lesser amount of time, which is usually the outcome of innovations in transport and telecommunications. Space-time convergence investigates the evolving relationship between space and time, including the impacts of [transportation improvements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7180) on that relationship. It is closely related to the concept of speed, which indicates how much space can be traded for a given amount of time. To measure space-time convergence (*STC*), travel time information is required for at least two locations and two time periods. Variation in travel time (*ΔTT*) is divided by the time period (*ΔT*) over which the process took place; the slope of the curve. The figure above illustrates space-time convergence between locations A and B. In 1950, it took 6.2 hours to travel between A and B. By 2000, the travel time had been reduced to 2.6 hours. Consequently, STC was -0.072 hours per year, or -4.32 minutes per year. The value is negative because the time value is reduced (fewer hours traveled). If the value were positive, a space-time divergence would be observed, implying that it takes longer than before to connect the two locations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/space-time-convergence/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/space-time-convergence/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/space-time-convergence/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/space-time-convergence/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chapter 1 - Transportation and Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/) **Published:** October 27, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** Mobility has always been a fundamental component of the economic and social life of societies. Contemporary economic processes have been accompanied by a significant increase in mobility and higher levels of accessibility. A historical perspective on the evolution of transport systems underlines the impacts of technological innovations and how transportation improvements were interdependent with economic, social, and spatial changes. Thus, the current transport systems are the outcome of a long historical evolution marked by periods of rapid change where new transport technologies were adopted. Following the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, transportation systems were mechanized with the development of steam engine technology, which enabled the establishment of networks serving regions. This process was further expanded in the 20th century with global air transport, container shipping, and telecommunication networks. However, this requires the capacity to manage, support, and expand the mobility of passengers and freight as well as their underlying information flows. Societies have become increasingly dependent on their transport systems to support a wide variety of activities, ranging from commuting and tourism to meeting energy needs and distributing parts and final goods. Developing transport systems has been a continuous challenge to satisfy mobility needs, support economic development, and participate in the global economy. --- ## Contents ### [1.1 – What is Transport Geography?](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/ "1.1 – What is Transport Geography?") ### [1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/ "1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment") ### [1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ "1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems") ### [1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1000) ### [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481) --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Mobility of Freight (Selected Cargo)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/freight-mobility-cargo/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mobility_freight-scaled.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Mobility of Freight | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mobility of Freight*Note: g/cc: grams per cubic centimeter.* Mobility refers to the ease with which a passenger or a freight unit can move across a transportation system. High mobility requires limited effort, while low mobility is related to complexity and high costs. Passenger mobility has constant requirements (unless involving people with disabilities), with parameters related to tolerance to acceleration and deceleration, basic comfort, air pressure, and ambient temperature (for air transport). For freight, mobility is cargo-dependent, with some commodities having limited storage requirements but being heavy to carry. There are four major factors influencing mobility: - **Weight**. A simple indicator of the amount of energy that must be spent to carry the cargo. Heavy cargo requires more energy to transport, as well as heavier modes of transport and equipment to handle it. Commodities such as coal, grain, and petroleum have a high density (weight-to-volume ratio). Containers can carry cargo loads of 15 to 20 tons each, irrespective of the nature of the cargo. - **Storage**. The complexity related to holding the cargo in inventory before it can be used. This can range from simple piling to complex temperature-controlled warehousing. Commodities tend to have simple storage requirements, whereas retail goods require handling in distribution centers to ensure rapid market delivery. At the end of the spectrum, many food and pharmaceutical products require complex storage and handling procedures. - **Fragility**. The ease with which the cargo can be damaged during transport. Ores tend to have limited requirements since they do not degrade during handling, and similar considerations apply to petroleum, albeit with the added risk of flammability. Fragile cargoes require additional handling and storage procedures since they will lose their market value if damaged. - **Perishable**. Some cargo degrades after being harvested or manufactured. After a specific duration, their commercial value declines or becomes negligible. Because of time constraints, perishable cargo has much lower mobility than cargo that does not degrade over time. All these factors must be considered when transporting cargo as they influence the transport mode to be used and its commercial potential. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/freight-mobility-cargo/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/freight-mobility-cargo/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/freight-mobility-cargo/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/freight-mobility-cargo/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Operational Differences between Passengers and Freight Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/operational-differences-passenger-freight/) **Published:** November 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/operational_differences_passengers_freight-scaled.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "Operational Differences between Passengers and Freight Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Operational Differences between Passengers and Freight Transportation*Source: adapted from EU-funded Urban Transport Research Project Results.* There are fundamental differences between passenger and freight transport systems, as they commonly use **separate conveyances** and, occasionally, operate on separate networks. However, the differences are most acute at their respective terminals, since they involve facilities that are often located in different places. This is particularly the case for rail transportation, where passenger and freight terminals are at very different locations. Rail passenger terminals are usually located in central urban areas, while rail freight terminals are located on the periphery. Airports share the same location but usually have distinct facilities for passengers and freight within the complex, with the exception of luggage handling. A similar observation applies to ports where cruise and ferry terminals are distinct from other freight-only facilities, such as bulk and container terminals. While each passenger is an independent decision-making unit, each freight load must be managed from its origin to its destination, which is the purpose of logistics. Passengers make their own mobility decisions, including modal choice, which may not always be rational, as they may prioritize utility and comfort. In the above figure, the passenger terminal relates to Chek Lap Kok airport in Hong Kong, while the freight terminal concerns a distribution center in Shenzhen (China). Although they are located just 40 km apart, they are operationally a world apart. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/operational-differences-passenger-freight/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/operational-differences-passenger-freight/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/operational-differences-passenger-freight/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/operational-differences-passenger-freight/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Core Principles of Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-principles-transport-geography/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/core_principles_transport_geography.png?w=900&ssl=1 "The Core Principles of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Core Principles of Transport GeographyTransport geography can be better understood from a series of eight core principles: 1. **Transportation is the spatial linking of a [derived demand](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=186)**. It occurs because of other economic activities that link its spatial components through flows of people, goods, and information. For instance, commuting is the spatial linking of labor flows resulting from the demand for labor at one location (e.g., a commercial district) and its supply at another (e.g., a residential district). Distribution links providers of parts and finished goods to the demand, such as final consumers or manufacturers. A market economy could not function without the capacity of transportation to link supply and demand, allowing for transactions to literally “take place”. 2. **Distance is a relative concept** involving space (how much is accessible), time (the duration of transportation), and effort (the cost or energy expense). How [distance is perceived](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=194 "Representations of Distance") is a function of the effort required to overcome it, commonly expressed as transport costs that indirectly reflect the friction of distance. A longer physical distance traveled with ease (e.g., at low cost or in a short amount of time) implies less friction than a shorter physical distance subject to delays, congestion, and high costs. 3. **Space is simultaneously the generator, support, and constraint for mobility**. Space is the support for mobility as it will shape the nature and structure of the transport system. Spatial differences in attributes such as resources, employment, and population act as generators and attractors of movements. How space constrains transport is often relative and paradoxical. For instance, oceans and rivers act as constraints for land transport systems such as roads and railways, but can support maritime transportation. While the atmosphere provides the physical support for air transport operations (air corridors), weather can be a constraining factor under specific conditions (e.g., snowstorms, thunderstorms, hurricanes). Further, transportation is a space by itself, an **activity space**, implying that socioeconomic activities are taking place during the transportation process, either in modes or at terminals. 4. **The relation between space and time can converge or diverge**. Every form of transport involves the consumption of a unit of time in exchange for a given amount of space (this is how speed is measured). Over time, this process has mostly [converged](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=462 "Global Space/Time Convergence: Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe"), implying that more space can be reached in the same amount of time (or the same amount of space can be reached in less time). This is the result of technological improvements as well as greater capacity and extent of transport infrastructure. The relationship between space and time can also diverge when congestion becomes significant, and each additional unit of movement increases delays. Disruptions in a transport system, such as accidents, equipment failures, or weather events, commonly create a temporary space-time divergence as capacity is lost. 5. **A location can be a central or an intermediate element of mobility**. Locations are [central](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3130 "Centrality and Intermediacy") when they act as generators (origins) or attractors (destinations) of movements. Locations are labeled as [intermediate](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3130 "Centrality and Intermediacy") when movements are passing (transiting) through on their way to other locations. The structure of transportation networks coordinates the centrality and intermediacy of locations. Hubs usually involve intermediacy within the same mode, while gateways concern intermediacy between modes. Ports and airports are often intermediate locations, serving as gateways or hubs within complex transport networks. 6. **To overcome geography, transportation requires a footprint**. Transportation infrastructure is an important consumer of space, including rights-of-way (e.g., roads and rail lines) and terminals. Jointly, they form transportation networks. The more extensive a transport system and the higher its mobility level, the larger its footprint. For instance, roads and parking spaces can consume up to 50% of the land in highly motorized cities. Globalization has been linked with the setting of massive terminal facilities such as container ports, airports, and distribution centers. While space consumed by road infrastructure is mostly linked to local and regional activities, the space consumed by rail, port, and airport terminals is linked to activities on a larger scale. 7. **Transportation seeks massification but is constrained by atomization**. Transport systems are most effective when they achieve economies of scale, particularly in the loads (passengers or freight) they can carry. [Massification](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=51 "Atomization versus Massification in Transportation Modes") involves conveyances with higher capacity and supported by larger terminals. However, the first and last segments of a transport sequence may require atomization, which implies that transport loads (passengers or freight) must be consolidated and deconsolidated. For instance, passengers taking a flight must be consolidated into a planeload at an airport terminal and deconsolidated at the destination airport. So, the higher the level of massification, the more complex atomization becomes. Massification conveys benefits but restricts mobility options, while atomization is more expensive but provides more mobility options. Although public transit can technically be more cost-efficient, many prefer individual (atomized) modes of transportation, such as the automobile, because of their point-to-point capabilities. 8. **Velocity is a modal, intermodal, and managerial effort**. Velocity does not necessarily mean speed; it refers to the time it takes for a passenger or a unit of freight to move along a transport chain. For instance, the speed advantage of air transportation is undermined if a passenger spends several hours between connecting flights. Therefore, the velocity of passengers or freight is a joint consideration of the effectiveness of the respective modes involved and of the intermodal operations connecting them. Also, the complexity of transport systems requires effective operational management, such as scheduling, booking, and settlement of transactions (e.g., fares). Logistics has become a key activity for ensuring that freight is distributed effectively across geographies. All of the above jointly contribute to improving the velocity of flows carried by transport systems. Recent efforts at the digitalization of transportation aim to increase the velocity of transportation through better management of existing assets and by creating [exchange platforms](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10887) between providers and users of transportation services. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-principles-transport-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-principles-transport-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-principles-transport-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/core-principles-transport-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Sisyphus Analogy in Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/sisyphus-analogy-transportation/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/sisyphus_analogy.jpg?resize=900%2C888&ssl=1 "The Sisyphus Analogy in Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Sisyphus Analogy in TransportationSisyphus was a character of Greek mythology who, for his misdeeds, was condemned to roll a stone up a hill, only to see it roll back down and start over again. The legend offers several analogies to introduce key concepts in transportation: volume, distance, friction, and effort. - **Volume**. Represents a number of passengers or freight that can be carried as a single load. - **Friction**. The difficulty of moving a volume per unit of distance is often referred to as the **friction of distance**. For instance, it can be related to the quality of transport infrastructure, including capacity and maintenance. - **Effort**. The amount of energy required to move a volume per unit of distance, considering the friction. It is commonly represented as the **transport cost**. Essentially, Effort = f(volume, distance, friction). If friction were reduced (lower angle on the above figure), it would require less effort to move the same volume over the same distance. Consequently, a core goal of transportation is to reduce the friction of distance, mostly through infrastructure, capacity, and technological improvements. Another element of the myth is its repetitiveness, which also applies to transportation. Commuting is an activity that must be repeated constantly, as the effort spent on one commute cannot be transferred to another. The same applies to supplying goods to the market, a process that must be repeated continuously since current transportation efforts cannot be substituted for past efforts. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/sisyphus-analogy-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/sisyphus-analogy-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/sisyphus-analogy-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/sisyphus-analogy-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Vessel Size Groups](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/vessel-size-groups/) **Published:** November 8, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vessel_size_groups2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Vessel Size Groups | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Vessel Size Groups in deadweight tons*Source: UNCTAD (2000) Review of Maritime Transport.* Major ship size groups include: - **Handy and Handymax**: Traditionally, the workhorses of the dry bulk market, the Handy, and the more recent Handymax types are ships with less than 60,000 dwt. The Handymax sector operates in a large number of geographically dispersed global trades, mainly carrying grains and minor bulks, including steel products, forest products, and fertilizers. The vessels are well-suited for small ports with length and draft restrictions and also lack transshipment infrastructure. This category is also used to define small-sized oil tankers. - **Panamax**: Represents the largest acceptable size to transit the Panama Canal, which can be applied to both freighters and tankers; lengths are restricted to a maximum of 275 meters, and widths to slightly more than 32 meters. The average size of such a ship is about 65,000 dwt. They mainly carry coal, grain and, to a lesser extent, minor bulks, including steel products, forest products, and fertilizers. - **Capesize**: Refers to a rather ill-defined standard that has the common characteristic of being incapable of using the Panama or Suez canals, not necessarily because of their tonnage, but because of their size. These ships serve deepwater terminals handling raw materials, such as iron ore and coal. As a result, “Capesize” vessels transit via Cape Horn (South America) or the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa). Their size ranges between 80,000 and 175,000 dwt. - **VLOC / ULOC**: Very Large Ore Carrier / Ultra Large Ore Carrier. A specific bulk carrier class above 200,000 dwt designed to carry iron ore. The largest ships of the ULOC class, above 300,000 dwt, carry iron ore between Brazil and global markets (mostly Europe and Asia). Due to their size, there is only a comparatively small number of ports around the world with the infrastructure to accommodate such vessel size. - **Aframax**: A tanker of standard size between 75,000 and 115,000 dwt. The largest tanker size in the AFRA (Average Freight Rate Assessment) tanker rate system. - **Suezmax**: This standard, which represents the limitations of the Suez Canal, has evolved. Before 1967, the Suez Canal could only accommodate tanker ships with a maximum of 80,000 dwt. The canal was closed between 1967 and 1975 because of the Israel – Arab conflict. Once it reopened in 1975, the Suezmax capacity went to 150,000 dwt. An enlargement to enable the canal to accommodate 200,000 dwt tankers is being considered. - **VLCC**: Very Large Crude Carriers, 150,000 to 320,000 dwt in size. They offer good flexibility for using terminals since many can accommodate their draft. They are used in ports that have depth limitations, mainly around the Mediterranean, West Africa, and the North Sea. They can be ballasted through the Suez Canal. - **ULCC**: Ultra Large Crude Carriers, 320,000 to 550,000 dwt in size. Used for carrying crude oil on long haul routes from the Persian Gulf to Europe, America, and East Asia, via the Cape of Good Hope or the Strait of Malacca. The enormous size of these vessels requires custom-built terminals. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/vessel-size-groups/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/vessel-size-groups/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/vessel-size-groups/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/vessel-size-groups/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Intermodal and Transmodal Connectivity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transmodal-connectivity/) **Published:** October 25, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/integrated_freight_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C575&ssl=1 "Intermodal and Transmodal Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Intermodal and Transmodal ConnectivityIntermodal and transmodal connectivity can involve passenger and freight transport systems. For freight transport systems, connectivity can either involve intermodal (between modes) or transmodal (within a mode): - **Intermodal Connectivity**. A port container yard is a major form of intermodal connectivity by allowing containers to be transloaded between maritime transportation, trucks, or rail ([on-dock rail terminal](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3664 "On Dock Intermodal Rail Facility, Port of Veracruz")). A [transloading facility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3697 "CP Lachine Intermodal Rail Terminal, Montreal, Canada") allows containers to be moved between rail and road. Many rail terminals are connected to ports and act as inland terminals for maritime transportation. - **Transmodal Connectivity**. For maritime transportation, the [transshipment hub](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/?page_id=1620) is the major form of transmodal connectivity, enabling connections between maritime shipping networks, such as between deepsea and feeder services. Locations such as Singapore, Dubai, Suez, and Panama are major transshipment hubs. Less common is the thruport, a facility allowing the movement of containers between different parts of a rail system. This can be done because of a change in ownership (different carriers operating different networks) or a gauge change, such as over the [Eurasian Landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7197 "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge)"). The last form of transmodal connectivity involves a [cross-docking facility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4453 "Cross-Docking Distribution Center") (or a distribution center) that moves cargo from different road distribution services, a common strategy for distribution systems involving retail activities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transmodal-connectivity/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transmodal-connectivity/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transmodal-connectivity/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transmodal-connectivity/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Jet Fuel Prices, 1990-2026](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/jet-fuel-prices/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/jet_fuel_prices.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Jet Fuel Prices, 1990-2026 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Jet Fuel Prices 1990 2026*Source: US Energy Information Administration, U.S. Gulf Coast Kerosene-Type Jet Fuel Spot Price FOB, USD per gallon.* Fuel accounts for about 40% to 50% of air transport [operating costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7287) of a single flight, depending on the type of plane used (economies of scale and [fuel efficiency](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2491) are directly related). While jet fuel prices were very stable during the 1990s, the beginning of the 21st century is marked by a surge in prices and large fluctuations. Since 2000, the airline industry has faced an environment of much higher fuel prices and greater volatility. Between 2005 and 2016, fuel prices ranged from 20% to 35% of an airline’s operating expenses. In the 2010s, jet fuel prices stood at six times the level in the 1990s. While jet fuel prices declined sharply at the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic, they bounced back afterward due to inflationary pressures and the war in Ukraine in early 2022. This volatility complicates long-term planning for air operations, as aircraft design prioritizes fuel efficiency. Then, in 2026, at the onset of the Hormuz Crisis, a surge in jet fuel prices resulted from the scarcity induced by the interdiction of the world’s most important energy shipping lane. Since the profit margins of airlines are low, they are highly sensitive to fuel price fluctuations. When jet fuel prices rise significantly, airlines are likely to cancel services and connections where profitability is low, as operational costs exceed revenue. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/jet-fuel-prices/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/jet-fuel-prices/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/jet-fuel-prices/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/jet-fuel-prices/?share=reddit) - --- ### [First Containership, Ideal-X, 1956](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/idealx-first-containeriship-1956/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/first-containers-loading-ss-ideal-x-1956.jpg?resize=900%2C706&ssl=1 "Containers Being Loaded on the First Containership, Ideal-X, 1956 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Containers Being Loaded on the First Containership Ideal X 1956*Source: Maersk/SeaLand.* The dawn of container shipping can be traced to the Port of New York & New Jersey. On April 26th, 1956, the Ideal-X left the Port of Newark, New Jersey, for the Port of Houston, Texas, which was called five days later. It carried 58 35-feet (8 feet wide by 8 feet high) containers, along with a regular load of 15,000 tons of bulk petroleum. The containers were loaded in less than eight hours, substantially faster than conventional handling of break-bulk cargo. The 35-foot unit was the standard truck size in the United States at that time, particularly because there were very few highways and the turning radius on standard roads did not allow for long trailers. This first containership was converted from a T2 oil tanker under the initiative of Malcolm McLean (1914-2001), a trucking magnate who saw the tremendous potential of containerization, particularly in terms of loading and unloading costs. In 1937, while delivering cotton bales from North Carolina (Lafayette) to New York Harbor, McLean was forced to wait several days while longshoremen manually loaded the cargo. The time- and cost-intensive nature of standard break-bulk cargo operations was an important impediment to trade and shipping. McLean calculated that in 1956, loading a medium-sized ship the conventional way cost $5.83 a ton. By comparison, loading containers (using the Ideal-X as a frame of reference) would cost less than $0.16 per ton. The economic advantages of such a mode of transportation became clear to the shipping industry. The initial goal of McLean was to create an integrated transport system in the United States where coastal shipping would complement road and rail transportation. This goal was difficult to achieve because of the segmented nature of the industry. Further, the development of the [Interstate Highway System](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1864) in the United States during the 1960s improved trucking efficiency considerably, particularly over long distances over which rail and coastal shipping were conventionally more competitive. To better support intermodalism between road and rail, McLean initially proposed that an entire truck trailer be handled as a unit (as a trailer on a flatcar is handled by rail). This proved impractical because it was taking away too much cargo volume on the ship. Containers and chassis became separate intermodal units. In 1960, McLean founded SeaLand, a major container shipping line, which was purchased in 1999 by Maersk, the world’s largest container shipping company at the time. The Ideal X carried containers until 1964, when it was scrapped. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/idealx-first-containeriship-1956/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/idealx-first-containeriship-1956/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/idealx-first-containeriship-1956/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/idealx-first-containeriship-1956/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Channel Depth at Major North American Container Ports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/channel-depth-ports-north-america/) **Published:** November 19, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-North-America-Container-Ports-Depth.png?resize=768%2C451&ssl=1 "Channel Depth at Major North American Container Ports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Channel Depth at Major North American Container Ports*Note: Only include ports with traffic exceeding 250,000 TEU. MLW (mean low water): The average height of the low waters over a 19-year period. Source: Adapted from US Department of Transportation, Port Performance Freight Statistics Program & Port Authorities. Note: Containership capacity refers to full ships. A port can accommodate larger ships if they are partially loaded or if they use the high-tide navigation window.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-North-America-Container-Ports-Depth.pdf) Port locations and sites are preliminarily constrained by the maritime access they can provide. A core component of this access is related to the depth of the waterway system, the port access channels, and, more practically, the berth depth. The above map illustrates the channel depths of major container ports in North America as well as the potential [containership capacity such depths may accommodate](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2237). This does not necessarily mean that the port has the physical capacity to accommodate those ships since it could be lacking berth space, turning basins, equipment (cranes), or yard space to do so. The North American continent, unlike Europe and China, is not very prone to inland waterway distribution and is composed of three major maritime facades: - The **Eastern Seaboard**, except for the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes system, has no significant navigable river system, as the Appalachian Mountains lie just a few hundred kilometers inland. The upper Great Lakes (Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Superior) offer good navigation depths, but navigation is limited by the waterways between the lakes and by winter ice. Further, access to the Atlantic is limited by the depth and lock size of the St. Lawrence Seaway, which is closed for a few months during the winter. The St. Lawrence allows deep-sea vessels to travel far inland, and maritime vessels can reach Montreal with a draft of 37 feet (11.3 meters), accommodating ships up to 4,200 TEUs. Up to the mid-2010s, there were channel depth limitations for accessing several East Coast ports, with many of them limited to ships around the Panamax class (4,500 TEUs) except for Halifax (55 feet), Baltimore (50 feet), and Hampton Roads (50 feet) to enable these ports to accommodate Post-Panamax containerships. The expansion of the Panama Canal in 2016 provided an impetus to improve the nautical profile of many East Coast ports beyond the Panamax standard for which they were initially designed. New York and Charleston also reached draft depths of 50 feet and 52 feet, respectively, with substantial dredging investments. Savannah, a major container port, was able to extend its draft to 37 feet. Based on tidal conditions, it is possible for some Post-Panamax containerships in the range of 6,000 TEUs to call East Coast ports within a depth of 45 feet (Post Panamax I). However, the Eastern Seaboard also has a complex but underused coastal waterway transport system. The Intracoastal Waterway services most of the Eastern Seaboard and consists of a series of bays, inlets, sounds, and artificial canals. - For the **Gulf of America/Mexico**, the Mississippi inland waterway system is extensive but limited to depths of less than 15 feet for the most part. Ports have a mean low water depth of fewer than 45 feet, limiting the containership capacity to less than 8,000 TEUs. The exception is Houston, which has undertaken massive channel widening and deepening, known as Project 11, to accommodate containerships above 8,000 TEUs. Ports along the Mississippi predominantly handle barges loaded with agricultural commodities, implying highly seasonal traffic (at the end of summer and into fall). Additionally, the Mississippi system has a north-south orientation, while most commercial flows are east-west, suggesting limited potential to serve intermodal freight movements. For the Eastern Seaboard, the Intracoastal Waterway ranges from Texas to Florida. - The **Western Seaboard** has four major deepwater gateways, Vancouver, Seattle / Tacoma (SeaTac Alliance), San Francisco / Oakland, and Los Angeles / Long Beach, but poor waterway access to the interior because of the Sierra Nevada and the Rockies. The only exception is the Columbia River basin, accessible to deep-sea ships up to Portland (draft of 42 feet), which is about 160 km inland. From Portland, container barge services go an additional 575 km inland. Most West Coast ports can accommodate ships of 12,000 TEUs or more. Prince Rupert is the container port with the deepest berth and can technically accommodate the largest containerships currently designed. As the world’s container fleet upgrades to larger ships, major ports face the challenge of accommodating deeper vessel drafts. While a 39-foot channel could accommodate a typical Panamax container ship, post-Panamax I container ships handling above 5,000 TEUs require a berth depth of 42 feet or more. A depth of 50 feet is required to handle ships above 10,000 TEUs. Under such circumstances, many ports were inaccessible to the new post-Panamax container ships. The expansion of the Panama Canal to a depth of 50 feet and a capacity of 12,500 TEU (with its associated Neo-Panamax ships class) has also placed additional pressure. This has triggered a “race to the bottom” in dredging at several East Coast ports, including Miami (50 feet achieved in 2014), New York (50 feet achieved in 2016), Charleston (52 feet in 2022), Savannah (47 feet in 2022), Houston (46.5 feet in 2025), and Mobile (50 feet in 2025). Other ports have dredging plans. Yet, such projects are costly and require careful consideration of the marginal benefits they convey. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/channel-depth-ports-north-america/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/channel-depth-ports-north-america/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/channel-depth-ports-north-america/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/channel-depth-ports-north-america/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Customs Pre-Clearance Airports for the United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/pre-clearance-airports-united-states/) **Published:** November 23, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US-Pre-Clearance-Airports.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "Customs Pre-Clearance Airports for the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Customs Pre Clearance Airports for the United StatesCustoms pre-clearance involves a traveler (and their belongings) clearing customs procedures in a third country before arriving in the destination country. It is the outcome of a bilateral agreement that sets the locations and conditions (facilities, security, personnel) for pre-clearance. Although pre-clearance can be used for many transportation modes and cargoes, it is most common for the air transportation of passengers, where each traveler undergoes immigration, customs, and agriculture inspection before boarding a direct flight to the destination country. For air transport, pre-clearance involves an airport setting a facility solely reserved for this purpose, such as a wing including several gates. The procedures and the facility must meet the criteria set by the pre-clearance agreement. This also incurs additional costs assumed by the airport, which are reflected in airfares (often as additional security fees). However, passengers are commonly willing to assume these costs because of the convenience of not clearing customs at the destination airport. About half a million passengers per year are deemed the threshold for economically justified pre-clearance. The main advantages of customs pre-clearance are: - **Improved control**. By “pushing the border” outside its national boundary, a country can usually cope more effectively with immigration and security concerns. A traveler can be denied admission in a third country without incurring deportation costs (holding and travel costs). - **More destination choices**. An airline can use a pre-clearance airport to serve any destination airport in a third country, even if those airports lack customs facilities. This can substantially improve commercial opportunities by expanding the set of destinations. - **Less congestion at national gateways**. Customs pre-clearance can reduce the number of passengers handled at national ports of entry. This can help mitigate congestion and overburdened customs facilities and improve international travel time at the aggregate level. Pre-clearance takes time before boarding, which is more flexible than after disembarking. The world’s most significant pre-clearance agreement is between **Canada and the United States**, which involves nine Canadian airports: Calgary, Toronto (Bishop and Pearson), Edmonton, Halifax, Montreal, Ottawa, Vancouver, and Winnipeg. Pre-clearance began in 1952 at the Toronto airport, and by 1974, a formal agreement was reached. Since then, the agreement has been revised and expanded, with Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport becoming the latest preclearance airport in 2026. Although the agreement is bilateral, allowing pre-clearance in both countries, pre-clearance occurs only in Canada. The structure of transborder air flows is not conducive to having Canadian pre-clearance in the United States since the network involves a few Canadian airports connected to many American airports. Pre-clearance agreements also exist with Ireland (Dublin and Shannon), Aruba, the Bahamas (Freeport and Nassau), Bermuda, and the United Arab Emirates (Abu Dhabi). As of 2025, over 22 million passengers bound for the United States were handled through pre-clearance agreements, including 16 million from Canada. Thus, 16% of the air passengers bound for the United States use pre-clearance facilities. In light of the growing volume of international passenger flows and the congestion at major American ports of entry, the pre-clearance program is being expanded. An additional 21 airports are being considered in Europe, Latin America, and Japan, but the COVID-19 pandemic postponed the expansion. This is likely to reinforce further the hub function of these airports within international and regional air transport systems. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/pre-clearance-airports-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/pre-clearance-airports-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/pre-clearance-airports-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/pre-clearance-airports-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.8 - Petroleum: A Transportation Resource](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Petroleum remains a strategic resource in the global economy, underlining the challenges of producing and transporting oil. \[TO BE UPDATED\] CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Petroleum](#1_Petroleum) - [2. The Geopolitics of Petroleum](#2_The_Geopolitics_of_Petroleum) - [3. Petroleum Supply and Demand](#3_Petroleum_Supply_and_Demand) # 1. Petroleum Very few commodities have become as vital as petroleum since it can be used as a source of energy and a raw material in manufacturing plastics and fertilizers. > The **barrel** is the standard unit of measure for oil production and transportation volumes, even if it no longer has much concordance in reality (steel drums are sometimes used). Its usage has an unusual origin. In the 1860s, oil riggers were at a lossabout where to store the oil suddenly gushing out of new rigs. Empty whiskey barrels were used as a palliative and a convenient means to store and move oil for the emerging industry. Barrels have always been a convenient mode in a pre-motorized era since they could be manually handled by rolling them. By 1866, a standard barrel size of 42 US gallons (158.98 liters) was set. As a commodity of **strategic importance**, petroleum has, for long, been the object of geopolitical confrontations. Several contemporary geopolitical events were closely related to oil or had consequences on oil supply and prices. The first event that triggered the geopolitical importance of oil was the decision in 1912 by the British Admiralty to convert its warships from coal to oil propulsion because of the speed and range advantages it conferred. Coal-powered ships required a network of coaling stations, limiting their operational flexibility. Since Britain had no oil resources, it nationalized the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and committed itself to protect this resource in Persia (Iran after 1934). World War I underlined the growing importance of the internal combustion engine (trucks, tanks, and planes) in modern military operations. The 1920s were characterized by surging civilian demand for oil because as economies motorized; the automobile was becoming a significant mode of transportation. At the same time, the oil industry saw a rapid concentration and became controlled by a few major corporations that became the oil giants of today. The oligopolistic commercial control of the price and the production of oil was first established in 1928 by the **Achnacarry Agreements** between the “seven sisters”, the major oil multinationals of the time. > **“Seven Sisters”**. The seven major oil multinationals which by the early 20th century have achieved dominance over the industry. Five of them were American and the two others were British. The American companies included Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey), Mobil (Standard Oil of New York), and Socal (Standard Oil of California which later became Chevron), all of which were the result of the forced breakup of Standard Oil in 1911, and Gulf and Texaco which were created after the discovery of the Spindletop field in Texas in 1901. The British companies were Royal Dutch Shell (a joint venture with the Netherlands) and British Petroleum (BP), whose interest in world oil expanded with the discovery of oil fields in Persia (Iraq) and in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). Through mergers and acquisitions the “Seven Sisters” have become four; ExxonMobil, Chevron-Texaco, BP (acquired Amoco and Arco), and Royal Dutch Shell. These corporations invested massively in extraction infrastructures, especially in the Middle East and Latin America. They were effectively in control of the world’s oil supply and demand with a set of strategies such as fixing quotas, prices, and production. However, a **nationalization** trend started to emerge in many developing countries, sowing the seeds of future oil supply control and shocks. In 1938 Mexico forcefully took control, through expropriation, of its entire oil industry, undermining for a while its access to foreign markets but triggering sympathy in many developing countries as a symbol against foreign exploitation of national resources. World War II was revealed to be a conflict strategically dominated by oil, as key weapons were armored and air forces. The decision of the United States to establish an oil embargo on Japan in 1941 was one event that triggered the war in the Pacific. Japan’s strategic objectives were to secure the resources of Southeast Asia, especially the oil fields of Indonesia, and have planned fast operations to achieve these objectives. The same year, Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union had among its major objectives the securing of the oil fields around Baku in the Caucasus region. Both Germany and Japan failed to establish a secure source of oil, contributing to their defeat in 1945 by strategically more mobile allied forces. Allied nations controlled about 86% of the world’s oil supply. The post World War II era underlined the **growing geopolitical importance of the Middle East**, as Europe and the United States were importing growing quantities of oil from that region. In 1948, the Ghawar Field was discovered in Saudi Arabia, which accounted for the largest conventional oil field in the world. The supply was shifting rapidly to the Middle East as more oil reserves were discovered, particularly around the Persian Gulf. Attempts were made to integrate countries like Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia into alliances with Western powers. Still, a series of geopolitical events, such as the creation of OPEC and the rise of Islamic nationalism, would complicate access to oil resources. Changes in oil prices are typically driven by two main factors. The first is disruptive geopolitical events such as wars and revolutions, while the second is related to changes in the demand for oil, such as phases of growth and recessions. Both drivers are often interrelated. # 2. The Geopolitics of Petroleum Given the powerful economic control over oil production by Western multinational corporations (the Seven Sisters), several producing countries, most of them in the Middle East, had a goal to gather a greater share of the oil income by controlling supply. Venezuela, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait founded the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1960 at the Baghdad conference. From its foundation until the beginning of the 1970s, OPEC was unable to increase oil prices. The main reasons were that production was very important in non-member countries and because of the difficulty of OPEC members to agree on a common policy since economic theory clearly underlines that cartels are not effective at fixing prices. Consequently, developed countries were confident that the price of petroleum would remain relatively stable. In the United States, oil prices were regulated and subject to little fluctuation. In such an environment of **low petroleum prices and strong economic growth**, no developed country had an energy policy, and energy waste was common. In the 1970s, OPEC countries achieved control over more than 55% of the global oil supply and started to fix production quotas based on the oil reserves of each of its members. Each member began a process of **nationalization of their oil industry** (Libya, 1971; Iraq, 1972; Iran, 1973; Venezuela, 1975). By 1972, 25% of the ownership of oil operations in OPEC countries was nationalized, a figure that climbed to 51% by 1983**.** Another objective was to establish cooperation between producers in order to avoid competition that would bring prices down. This cartel objective was feasible in the context of growing market demand and the dependency on only a few oil suppliers, but very difficult to maintain in a competitive environment. However, the initial trigger of the surge in oil prices in the 1970s was a **monetary event**. In 1971, the United States decided to “close the gold window” essentially removing the convertibility of the US dollar in gold. The dollar thus became a fiat currency, only backed up by confidence in the American economy. Strong inflationary pressures thus began, as this event essentially became a “license to print”, which quickly percolated into commodity prices, including oil. Between 1970 and 1973, oil prices jumped from $1.80 to $3.29 per barrel as OPEC countries adjusted their price to reflect the American inflationary monetary policy. Further, by the early 1970s, the United States was running out of spare capacity in its domestic oil production. It became increasingly reliant on imports that were subject to global market prices. The **Kippur War** between Israel and Egypt (and several other Arab countries) in 1973 gave OPEC additional reasons to intervene by nationalizing production facilities, reducing production by 25%, and imposing export quotas. The goal was to undermine Israel’s support, mainly by the United States, but also to achieve an oil price structure more reflective of the economic conditions of rapid growth and inflation. Oil became a geopolitical weapon. On October 19, 1973, OPEC declared an oil embargo against the United States, which lasted until June 1974. The price of oil consequently climbed to $12 per barrel by the end of 1973, a fourfold increase. In a context of high oil demand, limited additional capacity in developed countries, and no readily available substitutes, OPEC gained the temporary ability to control the price of oil. The **market became controlled by supply** (oil producers), causing the **first oil shock**. Under the control of OPEC, the price of oil remained high but stable from 1974 to 1978, around $12 per barrel. Developed countries started to worry about the exhaustion of oil reserves and unreliable supply sources, but not much was done in this regard. The Iranian revolution of 1979 and the ensuing Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) were associated with the **second oil shock**, where the price of oil surged over $35 per barrel. Geopolitical uncertainties and the ongoing growth of demand created an environment of expectations of higher oil prices. These new market conditions imposed several drastic, but somewhat temporary, **measures to lower oil consumption**. It resulted in a relocation of energy-consuming industries, in strategies for consuming less energy (such as energy-efficient cars and appliances), in relying more on national energy sources (petroleum, coal, natural gas, hydroelectricity, nuclear energy), in [building strategic reserves](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6772), and in substituting petroleum for other energy sources when possible. It is estimated that about 2 billion barrels are held in strategic reserves around the world, the bulk of them in the United States, Japan, and Germany. The Carter Doctrine (1980) stated that the United States would intervene militarily if its oil supply was compromised, which is also the outcome of the uncertainties derived from the first and second oil shocks. The military presence of the United States in the Middle East was increased, as the oil of the Persian Gulf was clearly perceived as of foremost importance to national security. In 1980, a shift in monetary policy (tightening of monetary supply and an increase in interest rates) and a global recession lowered oil demand expectations. From 1982, divergences occurred within OPEC members to fix quotas and prices as competition increased. Furthermore, the share of OPEC dropped from 55% of all the petroleum exported in the 1970s to 42% in 2000, with an all-time low of 27% in 1985. That year, Saudi Arabia lowered its oil price to increase its market share while OPEC members were competing with each other to be allotted larger quotas. A decision was made to allocate quotas in proportion to proven oil reserves, leading to an array of “creative accounting” practices in the estimation of reserves. Thus, [reserves were indexed to fit production needs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/estimated-oil-reserves/ "Estimated Oil Reserves, Selected OPEC Countries, 1980-1991 (billions of barrels)"), leaving doubts about their true extent. For instance, Kuwait’s reserves surged from 64 to 92 billion barrels in just one year and without any new discoveries. The reserves of the United Arab Emirates were boosted from 31 to 92 billion barrels. Iran announced that its real reserves were 93 billion barrels, up from 47 billion barrels. The most significant “increase” in oil reserves in 1985 came from Iraq when its reserves went to 100 billion barrels, up from the previous 47 billion barrels. Those inflated reserve figures remain today. The result of this inflation of reserves and the larger export quotas they permitted was an oil counter-shock that lowered the barrel price to under 20 dollars, even reaching a record low of 15 dollars in 1988. The oil market was again a market **controlled by the demand**. At the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, OPEC countries lost their price-fixing power because of internal problems (economic and geopolitical conflicts between its members) and especially with the arrival of **new producers** such as Russia, Mexico, Norway, the United Kingdom, and Colombia. The higher oil price in the early 1980s incited large investments in exploration and new production, which started to become available by the mid-1980s. These new producers were not subject to OPEC policies and were free to fix their prices. Mexico, for instance, surpassed Saudi Arabia in 1997 to become the second-largest oil exporter to the United States. Latin American countries such as Columbia and Brazil boosted their oil production. Vietnam explored offshore fields, as are other Southeast Asian countries, hopeful that there are major reserves under the South China Sea. Henceforth, OPEC countries maintained control of [about 40% of global oil production](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6782). In the current setting, OPEC can be considered as a **dysfunctional cartel**. Formal price fixing mechanisms, both on the supply and demand sides, commonly fail as there are too many incentives not to abide, mainly if oil prices are different from expectations. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map_opec.png?resize=850%2C433&ssl=1 "map_opec | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/opec-members-reserves/map_opec/)OPEC Members and Countries with more than 10 Billion Barrels of Oil Reserves[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/USA_strategic_petroleum_reserves.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "United States Strategic Petroleum Reserves, 1977-2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/strategic-petroleum-reserves-united-states/usa_strategic_oil_reserves/)United States Strategic Petroleum Reserves 1977 2023[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/OPEC_reserves_surge.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "OPEC_reserves_surge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/estimated-oil-reserves/opec_reserves_surge/)Estimated Oil Reserves Selected OPEC Countries 1980 1991 billions of barrels[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/shareopec.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "shareopec | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/opec-persian-gulf-oil-production/shareopec/)Share of OPEC and the Persian Gulf in the World Crude Oil Production 1960 2016Abiding by production quotas became a major issue among OPEC members, with Kuwait producing well above quota. This transgression was a motivation, among others, for the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq in 1990, triggering the First Gulf War (1990-1991). The biggest concern was the possible invasion of Saudi Arabia and the resulting massive disruptions in oil production. The market reacted to these uncertainties, and the price of petroleum jumped to $23 per barrel. The United States applied the Carter Doctrine and intervened with a massive military operation, which ousted Iraqi forces of Kuwait. Then, an oil embargo on Iraq was established by the United Nations. However, other petroleum-exporting countries were quick to expand their production to replace Iraq’s and Kuwait’s shortfalls, and the price of oil fell to $15 per barrel by the end of the 1990s. In 1997, the Asian Financial Crisis and its impacts in other parts of the world created a deflationary pressure on oil prices, which lasted until 2000. The beginning of the 21st century saw increased insecurities in oil supply, political pressures, monetary debasement, and military interventions; a [**third oil shock**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5880) unfolded between 2003 and 2008. The **Second Gulf War** (2003) saw the American occupation of Iraq. The outcome was greater control of long term petroleum supply sources but with increasing political instability in the Middle East. Oil output from Iraq, which accounts for the fourth-largest reserves in the world, has remained problematic. Additionally, instability in Venezuela (corruption and nationalization) and Nigeria (civil unrest), have stretched the world’s extra capacity. Increased demands from developing economies, mainly from [China](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6792), which became by then the world’s second-largest importer, also placed significant pressures on global oil supplies. This ongoing demand pressure resulted in expectations of higher oil prices through the 2000s. Several large oil fields, such as the North Sea and producers started to experience a decline in their output, adding concerns about the capacity of the existing reserves to meet market demand. Further, the debasement of the US dollar by the monetary policies of the Federal Reserve was also contributing to higher oil prices through inflationary pressures also followed by the European Central Bank and the Central Bank of China. Attempts at mitigating the consequences of an asset inflation phase triggered by accommodating credit creation policies have spilled over the commodity and energy sectors that became the focus of speculative investments. Unlike the first two oil shocks, the third oil shock was related to an unhealthy mix of strained supplies, geopolitical risk, and [monetary debasement](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6803). By 2008, oil prices peaked $130 per barrel, underlining the speculative characteristics that segments of the oil market had become. The same year, a global financial crisis unfolded and triggered a major global recession. Demand expectations were quickly revised, and the price of oil collapsed to $40 per barrel. This collapse was perceived as an overreach as soon as the financial system stabilized in 2010, oil prices bounced back to the $80 to $100 per barrel range and remained as such through the 2010s. In 2011, events related to the ‘Arab Spring’ led to political unrest in parts of the Middle East and North Africa, such as the Libyan revolution and civil war in Syria, added to geopolitical risks. This new price level incited substantial investments in alternative sources of energy and non-conventional sources such as oil sands and shale oil. Producers in decline, such as the [United States](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6812), Canada, and Russia, even saw a growth in domestic oil production. By 2014, growth in tar sands and oil shale output combined with a global economic slowdown and the growing share of alternative sources of energy such as wind, solar, and biofuels, triggered a counter-shock in oil prices to around $50 per barrel. In this new environment, there are fewer concerns about the supply and availability of oil on global markets. Market and geopolitical considerations for strategic resources such as oil continue to underline volatility that is difficult to predict, implying the **recurring presence of shocks and counter-shocks**. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/chinaoilexpimp.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "chinaoilexpimp | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/crude-oil-china/chinaoilexpimp/)Crude Oil Production and Consumption China 1980 2016[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/declineoilproduction.png?resize=850%2C512&ssl=1 "declineoilproduction | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/declining-oil-regions/declineoilproduction/)Oil Production of Some Declining Regions 1973 2016[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/oilnominalreal.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "oilnominalreal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/oil-price-real-nominal/oilnominalreal/)Nominal and Real Oil Price 1870 2016 Dollars per Barrel[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/usoil.png?resize=850%2C512&ssl=1 "usoil | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/petroleum-production-consumption-imports-united-states/usoil/)Petroleum Production Consumption and Imports United States 1949 2016# 3. Petroleum Supply and Demand The oil industry is oligopolistic both in its supply, demand, control, and in its functional and geographical concentration. The demand is controlled by a few very large multinational conglomerates, each having a production and distribution system composed of refineries, storage facilities, distribution centers, and at the end of the supply chain, gas stations. The supply is controlled by a few countries where the oil industry is often nationalized or subject to OPEC cartel rules, regulating about 35% to 40% of the global oil production. There are numerous challenges facing the global oil industry in terms of additional capacity, refining capacity, and its distribution through a system of pipelines and tankers. Since the first commercial exploitation in Pennsylvania in 1859, the importance of oil has increased significantly in the global economy. In 1920, 95 million tons of oil were produced annually around the world. This number reached 500 million tons by 1950, a billion tons in 1960, and an average annual production of around 3 and 4 billion tons in the 1990s and 2010s. This strong growth rests largely on the availability of oil resources and their low cost. Like many other resources, petroleum reserves are [subject to variations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/resources-reserves/ "Reserves and Total Resources") related to discoveries and what can be economically extracted. Continuous technological innovations in surveying and extraction technologies enabled to [discover and economically exploit oil resources](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/oil-gas-reserves-types/ "Types of Oil and Gas Reserves") in previously inaccessible locations. This is particularly the case for the arctic and subarctic environmental conditions (e.g. Alaska and Siberia) or offshore locations (e.g. North Sea). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/resources_reserves.png?resize=850%2C630&ssl=1 "resources_reserves | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/resources-reserves/resources_reserves/)Reserves and Total Resources[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/oilgasreservestypes.png?resize=600%2C486&ssl=1 "oilgasreservestypes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/oil-gas-reserves-types/oilgasreservestypes/)Types of Oil and Gas Reserves## A. Reserves [Oil reserves](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6828) have a high concentration level, with 64% of proven reserves [located in the Middle East](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6833). The question remains about how many reserves of oil are available and how much time they would last. Figures about the totality of Earth’s oil reserves were between 2,100 and 2,800 billion barrels before oil began to be exploited in the 19th century. As of 2016, an estimated 1,700 billion barrels of proved oil reserves were available, and 900 billion barrels have been extracted, which represents about a third of all known oil reserves. To this figure, it can be added between 200 to 900 billion barrels of oil that potentially remain to be found. Considering these figures, global oil production should peak around 2015-2020 and then start to decline. This trend is being confirmed by the output of the world’s largest oil fields, all of which are either in decline or possibly declining, in addition to an ongoing decline in several [oil-producing regions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6798) in the West. From a long-term perspective, the control of OPEC may emerge again since the bulk of oil reserves is located within its jurisdiction. Saudi Arabia alone has about 25% of the world’s oil reserves, putting upward pressure on energy prices. However, there is a potential for tapping tar sands (particularly in Canada) to produce oil, but this process is energy-intensive and leads to low-quality fuels. ## B. Supply Oil production steadily increased in the second half of the 20th century to satisfy growing demand. On average, 92.1 million barrels of crude oil are produced each day (2016 figures), 32% of it in the Middle East, the single most important oil-producing region in the world. About 60% of all the oil being produced is already committed, and 40% is sold on open markets. More significantly, excess oil production is limited both in capacity and in its geographical origin. 90% of this excess oil production is located in the Persian Gulf, with Saudi Arabia, along with accounting for the world’s largest oil reserves, is the only major supplier able to provide instant additional capacity if required. Excess production capacity is of high relevance as if a major disruption in other suppliers occurs. The additional capacity can immediately be brought up to maintain the current oil supply level without significant price disruptions. Recent events, namely the conflict in Iraq, nationalization in Venezuela, and civil unrest in Nigeria, have increased uncertainty for oil supplies. ## C. Demand [Demand](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6838). An average of 96.5 million barrels of petroleum per day was consumed (2016 figures), compared with 31.2 million barrels in 1965. Economic systems, including industry, housing, energy generation, and transportation, became **dependent on cheap oil prices**, with the United States being the most eloquent example. While the United States ranks as the leading global consumer of oil (19.6 Mb/d), the rapid growth of the [Chinese economy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6792) in the last decade has propelled China to the second rank of oil consumers (12.4 Mb/d). China accounted for around 40% of the global growth in oil demand in recent years. Since transportation activities consume 55% of all oil (figure much higher in advanced economies), motorization is one of the driving forces behind the consumption of petroleum. Demand is also characterized by seasonality, with heating oil demands in the winter and more gasoline demands in the summer. ## D. Supply / Demand Relationships There are also concerns that, at the same time, global oil production could be leveling off and eventually decline, and exports could drop at a higher rate because of growing domestic consumption in oil-producing countries. Thus, potentially dwindling supply and increasing demand could create multiplying effects. This trend applies well to the United States, China, and Indonesia, which have shifted from being net exporters to becoming net importers. For many other cases, oil consumption has not changed significantly over time. Yet, new technologies and the development of new domestic oil resources can impact this trend. In recent years, both the level and origin of [American oil imports have substantially changed](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6848), underlining a level of flexibility in oil sourcing strategies that a nation can pursue. An overview of the geography of oil production and consumption thus underlines a strong [spatial differentiation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6853) between supply and demand because of geographical and geological factors. Oil is mainly produced in different locations from where it is consumed, resulting in acute geographical imbalances. These imbalances can only be overcome by [massive oil transportation infrastructures](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/modes-oil-transportation/ "Modes Used for Petroleum Transportation"), including pipelines, tankers, and storage facilities. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/major_crude_oil_reserves.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Major Crude Oil Reserves, 2000-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/crude-oil-reserves/major_crude_oil_reserves/)Major Crude Oil Reserves 2009 2015 Thousand Million Barrels[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/worldoilreserves.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "worldoilreserves | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/proven-oil-reserves/worldoilreserves/)Proven Oil Reserves 1980 2016 thousand million barrels[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/peak_oil.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Annual Oil Production (1900-2021) and Peak Oil | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/peak-oil/peak_oil/)World Annual Oil Production 1900 2016 and Peak Oil 2005 2020 Scenarios[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Petroleum-Market.png?resize=900%2C700&ssl=1 "Global Oil Market, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/global-oil-market/map-petroleum-market/)Global Oil Market 2009[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/export_land.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "export_land | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/export-land-theory/export_land/)Export Land Theory[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/usa_crude_imports.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "usa_crude_imports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/crude-oil-imports-united-states/usa_crude_imports/)Main Origin of Crude Oil Imports United States 1973 2016[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/worldoilbalance.png?resize=850%2C512&ssl=1 "worldoilbalance | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/world-oil-balance/worldoilbalance/)World Oil Balance 1965 2016[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modes_petroleum_transport.png?resize=900%2C420&ssl=1 "Modes Used for Petroleum Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/modes-oil-transportation/modes_petroleum_transport/)Modes Used for Petroleum Transportation--- ## Related Topics - [Transborder and Crossborder Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3913) - [Maritime Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1762) - [Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5717) - [Freight Transportation and Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3924) - [Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481) ## Bibliography - Zavitsas, K (2011) The Vulnerability of the Petroleum Supply Chain. London: Imperial College London. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Lifespan of Main Transport Assets](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/life_span_transport_asset.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Lifespan (Life Cycle) of Main Transport Assets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Lifespan Life Cycle of Main Transport Assets*Source: some data from Living Planet Report, 2006 and Summary result of second Eurostat questionnaire on CFC on public infrastructure, DOC.CFC 15, Eurostat, 2003.* The lifespan of a transport asset is the approximate number of years over which it is expected to perform under normal operating conditions while receiving regular maintenance (**average lifespan**). The lifespan is an approximate figure because of the various construction materials, techniques used, and operating conditions, since higher engineering requirements may further extend the lifespan (optimum lifespan). For complex transport infrastructures, such as a port or an airport, lifespan considerations are nuanced by the respective lifespans of components such as piers, runways, crane equipment, and individual buildings (e.g., terminals, warehouses). All of these facilities can be maintained and upgraded separately. Among the major transport assets, the automobile has the shortest lifespan in the range of 8 to 10 years, depending on the level of usage and the operating environment. However, there is evidence that the lifespan of cars is [increasing](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7340) due to technical improvements. A properly maintained jet plane can easily last 20 years, with some lasting beyond 30 years (ending their service life as cargo planes). Rail lines can last for decades, if not a century and a half (depending on the construction materials used), but require constant and capital-intensive maintenance. Transport investments must thus closely assess the expected lifespan of infrastructure to ensure proper amortization and to match the investment time frame with the expected lifespan of the transport asset. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Landbridges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/types-landbridges/) **Published:** December 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Types-of-Landbridge-1.png?resize=768%2C760&ssl=1 "Types of Landbridges | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Landbridges[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Types-of-Landbridge.pdf) Landbridges provide a level of continuity between maritime and long-distance inland transport networks. There are four main types of landbridges depending on the destination of the transoceanic cargo: - **Landbridge**. Using a landmass as a link in a maritime transport chain involving a foreign origin and destination. The continental mass is used as a link (bridge) between two maritime systems. The transport mode is almost exclusively rail because it offers faster long-distance service. This type of link is not highly used in the [North American](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7251) context as it is more convenient for Europe bound cargo from Asia to use the maritime route instead of the emerging [Eurasian landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7197) for niche cargo. - **Mini landbridge**. Using a landmass as a link in a transport chain involving a foreign origin and a destination at the end of the landmass. It involves a foreign origin, but the destination is a port reached from another port of the same continental mass. The Trans-Siberian was the first minibridge to be in operation, in 1967, linking harbors on the Pacific coast to harbors on the Baltic and Atlantic coasts of Europe. However, problems with railway gauging between Russia and Western Europe impose some delays as rail cargo needs to be transloaded. Still, a Europe-Asia link (Eurasian Landbridge or New Silk Road) that covers Siberia and ends at the Pacific coast of Russia or China is receiving serious consideration. - **Micro landbridge**. Using a landmass as a link in a transport chain involving a foreign origin and an inland destination. It involves a link between a foreign origin and an inland destination via a port of entry. A common type of service for Asian cargo bound to an inland North American market. The minibridge and the microbridge took more time to implement in North America because of the regulations of the maritime and railway sectors, which impeded collaboration (such as joint ventures) among companies of different transport sectors. - **Reverse landbridge**. It is similar to a microbridge, but the port of entry is on another facade than the most direct maritime route. Through a maritime detour, reaching an inland destination by using the closest maritime facade instead of the landbridge. In North America, this implies for transpacific trade the usage of the Panama Canal through an all-water route to reach an inland destination through an East Coast port. This type of landbridge has experienced remarkable growth due to the use of the Panama Canal to reach East Coast ports by an all-water route from Asia. The expansion of the Panama Canal in 2016 has increased the significance of this type of landbridge service with gateways such as Savannah and Houston. For Europe, this would imply that cargo from Pacific Asia arrives at a Northern European port, such as Antwerp, Rotterdam, or Hamburg, then reaches an inland destination in Southern Europe. Although each of these terms refers to a specific inland transport service configuration, the term landbridge has increasingly been used as a generic term to describe any form of long-distance inland transportation or an inland service that bypasses a maritime segment. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/types-landbridges/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/types-landbridges/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/types-landbridges/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/types-landbridges/?share=reddit) - --- ### [8.4 - Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/) **Published:** November 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The most important transport challenges occur when urban transport systems cannot adequately satisfy the requirements of urban mobility. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Urban Transportation at the Crossroads](#1_Urban_Transportation_at_the_Crossroads) - [2. Automobile Dependency](#2_Automobile_Dependency) - [3. Congestion](#3_Congestion) - [4. Mitigating Urban Congestion](#4_Mitigating_Urban_Congestion) - [5. The Urban Transit Challenge](#5_The_Urban_Transit_Challenge) # 1. Urban Transportation at the Crossroads Cities are locations having a high level of **accumulation and concentration of economic activities**. They are complex spatial structures supported by infrastructures, including transport systems. The larger a city, the greater its complexity and the potential for disruptions, particularly when this complexity is not effectively managed. Urban productivity is highly dependent on the efficiency of its transport system to move labor, consumers, and freight between multiple origins and destinations. Additionally, transport terminals such as ports, airports, and railyards are located within urban areas, helping anchor a city within a regional and global mobility system. Still, transportation infrastructure and terminals also contribute to a specific array of challenges. Some challenges are ancient, like congestion (which plagued cities such as Rome), while others are new, like urban freight distribution or environmental impacts. ## a. Traffic congestion and parking difficulties Congestion is one of the **most prevalent transport challenges in large urban agglomerations**. Although congestion can occur in all cities, it is particularly prevalent in those above a [threshold](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5117) of about 1 million inhabitants. These structures are **large and complex enough** to create conditions that generate a systematic congestion level. Further to size and complexity, congestion is particularly linked with **motorization** and the diffusion of the automobile, which has increased the demand for transport infrastructures. However, the infrastructure supply has often not been able to keep up with the pace of mobility growth. Since vehicles spend most of their time parked, motorization has expanded the demand for road infrastructure and [parking space](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5123). In turn, this created footprint problems, particularly in central areas where the footprint of parked vehicles is significant and consumes [scarce resources](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-brussels/ "Parking in a Public Park, Brussels"). By the 21st century, drivers are three times more likely to be affected by congestion than in the latter part of the 20th century. The provision of parking spaces also comes at a substantial cost, with estimates of $52,000 per parking space for an above-ground structure and $73,000 per parking space for an underground structure. Congestion and parking are also interrelated, as street parking consumes transport capacity by removing one or two lanes for circulation along urban roads. Further, looking for a parking space (called “cruising”) creates additional delays and impairs local circulation. In central areas of large cities, cruising may account for more than 10% of the local circulation, as drivers can spend up to 20 minutes looking for a parking spot. This practice is often judged more economically effective than paying for off-street parking facilities. The time spent looking for a free (or low-cost) parking space is offset by the monetary savings incurred. Parking also impairs deliveries, as many delivery vehicles will double-park at the closest possible spot to unload their cargo. Identifying the true cause of congestion is a **strategic issue** for urban planning since congestion is commonly the outcome of circumstances specific to a city, such as the lack of parking or poorly synchronized traffic signals. ## b. Longer commuting On par with congestion, people spend an increasing amount of time [commuting](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5134) between their residences and workplaces. Residential affordability is an important factor behind this trend, as housing located further away from central areas (where most of the employment remains) is more affordable. Therefore, commuters are exchanging commuting time for housing affordability. However, long commuting is linked with several social problems, such as isolation (less time spent with family or friends), as well as poorer health (obesity). Time spent during commuting is at the expense of other economic and social activities. However, information technologies such as smartphones have allowed commuters to perform a variety of tasks while traveling. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/city_size_tti_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "City Size and Roadway Congestion Index, United States, 1982-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states/travel_time_index_usa/)City Size and Roadway Congestion Index United States 1982 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cbd_parking.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Central Business District Monthly Parking Rate | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-rate-cbd/monthly_parking_index/)Central Business District Monthly Parking Rate 2011[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0561.JPG?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Parking in a Public Park, Brussels | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-brussels/brusselsparking/)Parking in a Public Park Brussels[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/home_to_work_trips_usa2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Home-to-Work Commute Profile, United States, 1977-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states/home_to_work_united_states/)Home to Work Commute Profile United States 1977 2017[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/road_fatalities_countries.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Road Fatalities per 100,000 People, Selected Countries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/road-fatalities-selected-countries/road_fatalities-1/)Road Fatalities per 100000 People Selected Countries[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pedestrian_fatalities_united_states.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Pedestrian Fatalities, United States, 1990-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatalities-united-states/pedestrian_fatalities_united_states/)Pedestrian Fatalities United States 1990 2020## c. Public transport inadequacy Many public transit systems, or segments of them, are either over or underused since the demand for public transit is subject to periods of peaks and troughs. During peak hours, crowdedness creates discomfort for users as the system copes with a temporary surge in demand. This creates the challenge of the provision of an adequate level of transit infrastructure and service levels. Planning for peak capacity leaves the system under-used during off-peak hours, while planning for an average capacity will lead to congestion during peak hours. Low ridership makes many services financially unsustainable, particularly in suburban areas where density is not high enough to justify such services. Despite significant subsidies and cross-financing (e.g. tolls), almost every public transit system **cannot generate sufficient income** to cover operating and capital costs. While deficits were deemed acceptable in the past because of the essential service public transit provided for urban mobility, its financial burden is increasingly controversial. ## d. Difficulties for non-motorized transport These difficulties are either the outcome of heavy traffic, where the mobility of pedestrians, bicycles, and other non-motorized vehicles is impaired, but also because of a blatant lack of consideration for pedestrians and micromobility in the physical design of infrastructures and facilities. On the opposite side, the setting of bicycle paths takes capacity away from roadways as well as parking space. A negative outcome would be allocating more space for non-motorized transport than the actual mobility demand, exacerbating congestion. ## e. Loss of public space Most roads are publicly owned and free of access. Increased traffic adversely impacts public activities, which once crowded the streets, such as markets, agoras, parades and processions, games, and community interactions. These have gradually disappeared to be replaced by automobiles. In many cases, these activities have shifted to shopping malls; in other cases, they have been abandoned altogether. Traffic flows influence the life and interactions of residents and their usage of street space. More traffic impedes social interactions and street activities. People tend to walk and cycle less when traffic is high. ## f. High infrastructure maintenance costs Cities facing the aging of their transport systems have to assume growing maintenance costs as well as pressures to upgrade to more modern infrastructure. In addition to the involved costs, maintenance and repair activities create circulation disruptions. Delayed maintenance is rather common since it conveys the benefit of keeping current costs low, but at the expense of higher future costs and, on some occasions, the risk of infrastructure failure. The more extensive the road and highway network, the higher the maintenance cost and financial burden. The same applies to public transit infrastructure that requires a system-wide maintenance strategy. ## g. Environmental impacts and energy consumption Pollution, including noise generated by circulation, has become an impediment to the quality of life and even the health of urban populations. Further, energy consumption by urban transportation has dramatically increased, as has the dependency on petroleum. These considerations are increasingly linked with peak mobility expectations where high energy prices incite a shift towards more efficient and sustainable forms of urban transportation, namely public transit. There are pressures to decarbonize urban transport systems, particularly with the diffusion of alternative energy sources such as electric vehicles. ## h. Accidents and safety The growth in the intensity of circulation in urban areas is linked to a growing number of [accidents and fatalities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5504), especially in developing economies. Accidents account for a significant share of recurring delays from congestion. As traffic increases, people feel less safe using the streets. The diffusion of information technologies leads to paradoxical outcomes. While users can access reliable location and navigation information, portable devices create distractions linked with a rise in accidents for drivers and [pedestrians](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12984) alike. ## i. Land footprint The footprint of transportation is significant, particularly for the [automobile](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4811). Between 30 and 60% of a metropolitan area may be devoted to transportation, an outcome of the over-reliance on infrastructures supporting road transportation. Yet, this [footprint](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10299) also underlines the strategic importance of transportation in the economic and social welfare of cities, as mobility is a sign of efficiency and prosperity. ## j. Freight distribution Globalization and increases in living standards have resulted in growing quantities of freight moving within cities. As freight traffic commonly shares infrastructures supporting the circulation of passengers, the mobility of freight in urban areas has become [increasingly controversial](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5139). The growth of e-commerce and home deliveries has created additional pressures on the urban mobility of freight. [City logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792) strategies can be established to mitigate the variety of challenges faced by urban freight distribution, namely delivery hours and parking. Many dimensions of the urban transport challenge are linked to the **dominance of the automobile**. # 2. Automobile Dependency Automobile use is related to a variety of **advantages,** such as on-demand mobility, comfort, status, speed, and convenience. These advantages jointly illustrate why [automobile ownership continues to grow worldwide](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1874), especially in urban areas and developing economies. When given a choice and the opportunity, most individuals will prefer using an automobile. Several factors influence the growth of the total vehicle fleet, such as sustained economic growth (increase in income and quality of life), complex individual urban movement patterns ([many households have more than one automobile](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5143)), more leisure time, and suburbanization (areas where mobility options are limited). Therefore, rising automobile mobility can be perceived as a positive consequence of economic development. The automotive sector, particularly car manufacturing, is a factor of economic growth, multiplying effects, and job creation, which can be actively promoted. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_production_fleet.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Automobile Production and Fleet | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/automobile-production-fleet-world/world_automobile_production-1/)World Automobile Production and Fleet 1965 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/household_vehicles_usa2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Percentage of Households by Number of Vehicles, 1960-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/household-vehicles-united-states/household_vehicles_usa2/)Percentage of Households by Number of Vehicles 1960 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_transport_development_paths.png?resize=900%2C449&ssl=1 "Urban Transport Development Paths | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-development-paths/urban_development_paths/)Urban Transport Development Paths[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/paradoxes_urban_transport_problems.png?resize=900%2C301&ssl=1 "Geographical Paradoxes behind Urban Transport Challenges | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/geographical-paradoxes-urban-transport/paradoxes_transport_problems/)Geographical Paradoxes behind Urban Transport ChallengesThe growth in the total number of vehicles also gives rise to congestion at peak traffic hours on major thoroughfares, in business districts, and often throughout the metropolitan area. Cities are important generators and attractors of mobility, which is associated with a set of [geographical paradoxes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5149) that are self-reinforcing. For instance, economic specialization leads to additional transport demands, while agglomeration leads to congestion. Over time, automobile dependency emerged, which resulted in a declining role of other modes, thereby limiting alternatives to urban mobility through **path dependency**. Future development options are locked in because of past choices, and a city can become locked into planning decisions that reinforce automobile use. In addition to the [factors contributing to the growth of driving](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/factors-driving-growth/ "Factors Contributing to the Growth of Driving"), two major factors contributing to automobile dependency are: - **Underpricing and consumer choices**. Most roads and highways are subsidized as they are considered a public good. Urban facilities cannot be built without providing road infrastructures. Consequently, drivers do not bear the full cost of automobile use, such as parking. Like the “Tragedy of the Commons”, when a resource is free of access (road), it tends to be overused and abused (congestion). This is also reflected in consumer choice, where automobile ownership symbolizes status, freedom, and prestige, especially in developing economies. Single home ownership also reinforces automobile dependency if this ownership is favored through various policies and subsidies such as tax rebates. - **Planning and investment practices**. Planning and the subsequent allocation of public funds aim toward improving road and parking facilities in an ongoing attempt to avoid congestion. Other transportation alternatives tend to be disregarded. In many cases, zoning regulations impose minimum road and parking services standards, such as the number of parking spaces per square meter of built surface, and de facto impose a regulated automobile dependency. There are several [levels of automobile dependency](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5160), ranging from low to acute, with their corresponding land use patterns and alternatives to mobility. Among the most relevant automobile dependency indicators are the level of vehicle ownership, per capita motor vehicle mileage, and the proportion of total commuting trips made using an automobile. A situation of high automobile dependency is reached when more than three-quarters of commuting trips are done using the automobile. This proportion has [remained around 88%](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states-2/ "Home-to-Work Trips Modes, United States, 1985-2016") in the United States over recent decades. Automobile dependency is also served by a cultural and commercial system promoting the automobile as a symbol of status and personal freedom through intense advertising and enticements to purchase new vehicles. Not surprisingly, many developing economies perceive motorization as a condition, even an indicator, of development. Even if the term automobile dependency is often negatively perceived and favored by market distortions such as the provision of roads, its outcome reflects the choice of individuals who see the automobile more as an advantage than an inconvenience. This can lead to a **paradoxical situation** where planners try to counterbalance the preference for automobile ownership supported by the bulk of the population. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/growth_factors_driving_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Factors Contributing to the Growth of Driving in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/factors-driving-growth/growth_driving_usa/)Factors Contributing to the Growth of Driving in the United States[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_dependency_structure.png?resize=900%2C434&ssl=1 "Automobile Dependency and Urban Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/level-automobile-dependency/automobile_dependency_relationships/)Automobile Dependency Space Time Relationships and Modal Choice[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/home_to_work_trips_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Home-to-Work Trips Modes, United States, 1985-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states-2/home_work_usa/)Home to Work Trips Modes United States 1985 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/land_use_footprint.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Land Use Footprint in Selected Central Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-footprint-central-areas/land_use_footprint2/)Land Use Footprint in Selected Central AreasThe perception of automobile dependency changed over time. The second half of the 20th century saw the adaptation of many cities to support automobile circulation. Motorized transportation was seen as a symbol of **modernity** and **development**. Highways and parking lots were constructed, and streets were enlarged, often disrupting the existing urban environment by creating motorized cities. Automobile ownership levels increased rapidly. However, from the 1980s, **motorization started to be seen more negatively,** and cities implemented policies to limit automobile circulation, at least in specific areas, by a set of strategies including: - **Dissuasion**. Although automobile circulation is permitted, it is impeded by regulations and physical planning. For instance, parking space can be severely limited or subject to pricing and speed bumps to force speed reduction. - **Prohibition of downtown circulation**. During most of the day, the downtown area is closed to automobile circulation, but deliveries are permitted during the night. Such strategies are often undertaken to protect the character and the physical infrastructures of a historical city. They do, however, like most policies, have unintended consequences. If mobility is restrained in specific locations or during certain periods, people will go elsewhere where they can drive (longer trips) or defer their mobility for another time (more trips). - **Tolls**. Imposing tolls for parking and entry (congestion pricing) in some parts of the city has been considered seriously as it confers the potential advantage of congestion mitigation and revenue generation. However, most evidence underlines that drivers are willing to bear additional toll costs for the convenience of using a car, especially for commuting, since it is linked with their primary source of income. Thus, tolls are not necessarily a tool for dissuasion but for revenue generation. Tentative solutions have been put forth, such as **transport planning measures** (synchronized traffic lights, regulated parking), limited vehicle traffic in selected areas, the promotion of bicycle paths, and public transit. In Mexico City, vehicle use is allowed on specific weekdays according to license plate numbers, implying that a vehicle will be prevented from circulating at least one weekday. Affluent families have solved this issue by purchasing a second vehicle, thus worsening the existing situation. Singapore is the only country in the world that has successfully controlled the amount and growth rate of its vehicle fleet by imposing a heavy tax burden and purchasing permits on automobile owners. Since Singapore is of small size and has an extensive public transit system, this restriction did not impair mobility. However, such a command-based approach is unlikely in other contexts. There is a growing body of evidence underlining that a **peak level of car mobility** is unfolding, at least in developed economies. Higher energy prices, congestion, fewer economic prospects, high ownership costs, and the general aging of the population are all countervailing forces to car dependency. For instance, in 2006, the number of vehicle miles traveled in the United States peaked and remained stable until growth resumed between 2016 and early 2020. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a sharp drop, and by 2021, car travel resumed to pre-pandemic levels. Many alternatives to automobile dependency exist, such as intermodality (combining the advantages of individual and collective transport), carpooling, ridesharing, or micro-mobility (walking and cycling). These alternatives can only be partially implemented as the automobile remains the prime choice for providing urban mobility. A significant potential change remains the development of mobile car-sharing applications, enabling better utilization of vehicle assets. Although this would not reduce automobile dependency, it can offer enough flexibility for some users not to require automobile ownership. # 3. Congestion > Congestion occurs when **transport demand exceeds transport supply** at a specific point in time and in a specific section of the transport system. Under such circumstances, each vehicle impairs the mobility of others. Congestion can be perceived as an unavoidable consequence of using scarce transport resources, particularly if they are not priced. The last decades have seen the extension of roads in urban areas, most free of access. Those infrastructures were designed for speed and high capacity, but the growth of urban circulation occurred at a rate higher than often expected. Road infrastructures designed to be more than adequate a couple of decades earlier were then found to run out of capacity faster than expected. Investments came from diverse levels of government intending to provide accessibility to cities and regions. There were strong incentives for expanding road transportation by providing high levels of transport supply. This has created a [vicious circle of congestion](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5176), which supports the construction of additional road capacity and automobile dependency. Urban congestion mainly concerns two domains of circulation, often sharing the same infrastructures: - **Passengers**. In many world regions, incomes have significantly increased; one automobile per household or more is becoming common. Access to an automobile conveys flexibility in terms of the choice of origin, destination, and travel time. The automobile is favored for most trips, including commuting. The majority of automobile-related congestion is the outcome of time preferences in the usage of vehicles (during commuting hours) as well as a substantial amount of space required to park vehicles. About 95% of the time, an automobile is idle, and each new automobile requires an additional footprint. - **Freight**. Several industries have shifted their transport needs to trucking, thereby increasing the usage of road infrastructure. Since cities are the leading destinations for freight flows (either for consumption or transfer to other locations), trucking adds to urban congestion. The “last mile” problem remains particularly prevalent for freight distribution in urban areas. Congestion is commonly linked with a drop in the frequency of deliveries tying additional capacity to ensure a similar level of service. The growth of home deliveries due to e-commerce increased congestion, particularly in high-density areas, partly because of more frequent parking. Still, congestion in urban areas is dominantly caused by **commuting patterns** and little by truck movements. On average, infrastructure provision could not keep up with the growth in the number of vehicles, even more with the total number of vehicles-km. During infrastructure improvement and construction, capacity impairment (fewer available lanes, closed sections, etc.) favors congestion. Significant [travel delays](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5180) occur when the capacity limit is reached or exceeded, which is common in almost all metropolitan areas. In the largest cities such as London, road traffic is slower than 100 years ago. Marginal delays are thus increasing, and driving speed becomes problematic as the [level of population density](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5185) increases. Once a [population threshold](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5117) of about 1 million is reached, cities experience recurring congestion problems. This observation must be nuanced by numerous factors related to the urban setting, modal preferences (share of public transit), and the quality of existing urban transport infrastructures. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vicious_circle_congestion.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "Vicious Circle of Congestion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/vicious-circle-congestion/vicious_circule_congestion/)Vicious Circle of Congestion[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/delay_auto_commuter_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Hours of Delay per Motor Commuter, Selected American Cities, 1982-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-delays-united-states/delay_commuter_usa/)Hours of Delay per Motor Commuter Selected American Cities 1982 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gdp_capita_congestion_index.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "GDP Per Capita and Congestion Index, Selected Cities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/urban-density-speed/urban_density_driving_speed-1/)GDP Per Capita and Congestion Index Selected Cities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/time_travel_index_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Travel Time Index, Selected American Cities, 1982-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states-2/tti_travel_time_index_usa/)Travel Time Index Selected American Cities 1982 2020Congestion is a recurrent characteristic in [large cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=21924) and [became more acute](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5190) in the 1990s and 2000s and then leveled off in many cases. For instance, average car travel speeds have substantially declined in China. Many cities experience an average driving speed of less than 20 km/hr with car density exceeding 200 cars per km of road, a figure comparable to many developed economies. Another important consideration concerns parking, which consumes large amounts of space and provides a limited economic benefit if not monetized. This can be very constraining in automobile-dependent cities as each facility has to provide parking space proportional to its activity level. [Parking](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5196) has become a land use that significantly inflates the demand for urban land. Urban mobility also reveals congestion patterns. Daily trips can be **mandatory** (workplace-home) or **voluntary** (shopping, leisure, visits). The former is often performed within fixed schedules, while the latter complies with variable and discretionary schedules. Correspondingly, congestion comes in [two major forms](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5202): - **Recurrent congestion**. The consequence of factors that cause regular demand surges in the transportation system, such as commuting, shopping, or weekend trips. These patterns are **predictable**. However, even recurrent congestion can have unforeseen impacts in terms of duration and severity. Mandatory trips are mainly responsible for the peaks in circulation flows, implying that about half the congestion in urban areas is [recurring](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5207) at specific times of the day and on specific segments of the transport system, such as a [bridge](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/george-washington-bridge-traffic/ "George Washington Bridge"). - **Non-recurrent congestion**. The other half of congestion is caused by **random events** such as accidents and unusual weather conditions (rain, snowstorms, etc.), which can be represented as a risk factor that can be expected to take place. Non-recurrent congestion is linked to the presence and effectiveness of incident response strategies. As far as accidents are concerned, their randomness is influenced by the level of traffic, as the higher the traffic on specific road segments, the higher the probability of accidents. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Urban-Congestion.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Traffic Index, Selected Metropolitan Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-index-metropolitan-areas/map-global-urban-congestion/)Traffic Index Selected Metropolitan Areas[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/parking_accumulation_land_use.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Parking Accumulation by Land Use by Time of the Day | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-land-use/daily_parking_use/)Parking Accumulation by Land Use by Time of the Day[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/recurring_non_recurring_congestion2.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Major Sources of Recurring and Non-Recurring Congestion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/sources-congestion-recurring/recurring_non_recurring_congestion/)Major Sources of Recurring and Non Recurring Congestion[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/recurring_congestion.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Recurring Congestion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/recurring-congestion/recurring_congestion2/)Recurring Congestion[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hourly_traffic_gwd.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Hourly Traffic on George Washington Bridge, 2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/george-washington-bridge-traffic/traffic_gwb/)Average Hourly Traffic on George Washington Bridge 2016Behavioral and response time effects are also important in a system running close to capacity. For instance, braking suddenly while driving may trigger what can be known as a **[backward traveling wave](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5211)**. It implies that as vehicles are forced to stop, the bottleneck moves up the location where it initially took place, often leaving drivers puzzled about its cause. The spatial convergence of traffic causes a surcharge on transport infrastructures up to the point where congestion can lead to the total immobilization of traffic. Not only does the use of the automobile impact traffic circulation and congestion, but it also leads to a **decline in public transit efficiency** when both share the same road infrastructures. # 4. Mitigating Urban Congestion The first assumption in mitigating congestion concerns if some trips are necessary, which is a decision left to the user. Thus, outside demand control, congestion mitigation deals with a mobility level that needs to be accommodated. In some areas, the automobile is the only mode for which adequate transportation infrastructures are provided. This implies less capacity for alternative modes such as transit, walking, and micromobility. In low-density areas, no public infrastructure investment can be justified in terms of economic returns. [Longer commuting trips](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5219) in terms of average travel time, the result of fragmented land uses, and congestion levels are significant trends. A convergence of traffic is taking place at major highways serving low-density areas with high levels of automobile ownership and low levels of automobile occupancy. Energy (fuel) is wasted during congestion (additional time) and supplementary commuting distances. In automobile-dependent cities, a [few measures](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/tools-for-mitigating-urban-road-congestion/ "Common Tools for Mitigating Urban Road Congestion") can help alleviate congestion to some extent: - **Ramp metering**. Controlling access to a congested highway by letting automobiles in one at a time instead of in random groups. The outcome is a lower disruption in highway traffic flows through better merging from the ramp. - **Traffic signal synchronization**. Tuning the traffic signals to the time and direction of traffic flows. This is particularly effective if the signals can be adjusted hourly to reflect changes in circulation patterns. Trucks can pass traffic lights through delayed signals, reducing the risk of accidents through sudden collisions with a car breaking at a yellow light. Therefore, trucks are less likely to be the first vehicle at a red light, which increases capacity because trucks have lower acceleration. - **Incident management**. Making sure that vehicles involved in accidents or mechanical failures are removed as quickly as possible from the road. Since accidents account for 20 to 30% of all the causes of congestion, this strategy is particularly important. - **Vehicle restrictions**. This can take place over access and ownership. Vehicle access to specific parts of a city, such as a central business district, can be restricted permanently, or at certain points in time. This incites users to rely on another mode to reach these destinations. Several cities and countries (e.g. Singapore) have quotas in the number of license plates that can be issued or require high licensing fees. To purchase a vehicle, an individual thus must first secure a license through an auction. Such strategies, however, go against market principles. - **Sharing vehicles**. Concerns two issues. The first is providing ridership to people (often co-workers) having a similar origin, destination, and commuting time. Two or more vehicle trips can thus be combined into one, which is commonly referred to as **carpooling**. The second involves a pool of vehicles (mostly cars, but also [bicycles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5223) and scooters) that can be leased or shared for a short duration when mobility is required. Adequate measures must be taken to effectively match supply and demand with information technologies providing effective support. - **HOV lanes**. High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes ensure that vehicles with two or more passengers (buses, taxis, vans, carpool, etc.) have exclusive access to a less congested lane, particularly during peak hours. - **Congestion pricing**. A variety of measures are aimed at imposing charges on specific segments or regions of the transport system, mainly as a toll. The charges can also vary during the day to reflect congestion levels so that drivers are incited to consider other time periods or other modes. This can involve lanes being restricted to vehicles willing to pay a toll. - **Parking management**. Removing parking or free parking spaces can be an effective dissuasion tool since it reduces cruising and enables those willing to pay to access an area (e.g. for a short shopping stop). Parking spaces should be treated as scarce assets subject to a price structure reflecting the willingness to pay. Further, planning regulations indirectly subsidize parking by enforcing minimum parking space requirements based on the facility type and land use density. - **Public transit**. Offering alternatives to driving can significantly improve efficiency, notably if it circulates on its infrastructure (subway, light rail, buses on reserved lanes, etc.) and is well integrated within urban development plans. Financial incentives can be offered, such as discounted monthly passes for commuters. However, public transit has issues (see the next section about urban transit challenges). - **Micro-mobility (Non-motorized transportation)**. Since most urban trips are over short distances, non-motorized modes, particularly walking, cycling, and e-bikes, have an important role in supporting urban mobility, also known as micro-mobility. Providing adequate infrastructure, such as sidewalks, is often a low priority, as non-motorized transportation is often perceived as outdated, despite its important role in urban areas. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tools_mitigating_urban_congestion.png?resize=900%2C413&ssl=1 "Tools for Mitigating Urban Road Congestion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/tools_mitigating_urban_congestion/)Tools for Mitigating Urban Road Congestion[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/daily_commuting_time_minutes.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Commuting Time (One Way), Selected Metropolitan Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/average-commuting-time/daily_commuting_time_minutes/)Average Commuting Time One Way Selected Metropolitan Areas[![Bicycle Pool Paris](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bicycle_pool_paris.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Bicycle Pool, Paris, France | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/paris-bicycle-pool/img_1641/)Bicycle Pool Paris FranceAll these measures only partially address the congestion, as they alleviate but do not solve the problem. Fundamentally, congestion remains a **sign of economic success** but a failure to reconcile rising mobility demands and acute supply constraints. # 5. The Urban Transit Challenge As cities become more dispersed, the **cost of building and operating public transportation systems increases**. For instance, as of 2021, about 194 urban agglomerations had a [subway system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5076), the vast majority being in developed economies. Furthermore, dispersed residential patterns characteristic of automobile-dependent cities make public transportation systems less convenient for supporting urban mobility. Additional investments in public transit often do not result in significant additional ridership. Unplanned and uncoordinated land development has led to the rapid expansion of the urban periphery. By selecting housing in outlying areas, residents restrict their potential access to public transportation. Over-investment (when investments do not appear to imply significant benefits) and under-investment (when there is a substantial unmet demand) in public transit are both complex challenges. Urban transit is often perceived as the most efficient mode for urban areas, notably large cities. However, surveys reveal stagnation in public transit systems, especially in North America, where ridership levels have barely changed over the last 30 years. The Covid-19 pandemic made matters worse since many transit systems, as of 2022, did not recover to pre-pandemic demand. The economic relevance of public transit is being questioned. Despite mounting costs and heavy subsidies, most urban transit developments had little impact on alleviating congestion. This paradox is partially explained by the spatial structure of contemporary cities, which are oriented towards servicing individual mobility needs. Thus, the automobile remains the preferred mode of urban transportation. Besides, public transit is publicly owned, implying a politically motivated service that provides **limited economic returns**. Even in transit-oriented cities, [transit systems depend massively on government subsidies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5233). Little or no competition within the public transit system is permitted as wages and fares are regulated, undermining any price adjustments to ridership changes. Thus, public transit often serves the purpose of public service as it provides accessibility and social equity but with limited relationships with economic activities. Among the most difficult [challenges facing urban transit](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5238) are: - **Decentralization**. Public transit systems are not designed to service low-density and scattered urban areas dominating the urban landscape. The greater the decentralization of urban activities, the more difficult and expensive it becomes to serve urban areas with public transit. Additionally, decentralization promotes long-distance trips on transit systems, causing higher operating costs and revenue issues for flat-fare transit systems. - **Fixity**. The infrastructures of several public transit systems, notably rail and subway systems, are fixed, while cities are dynamic entities, even if the pace of change can take decades. This implies that travel patterns tend to change with a transit system built for servicing a specific pattern that may eventually face spatial obsolescence; the pattern it was designed to serve may no longer exist. - **Connectivity**. Public transit systems are often independent of other modes and terminals. It is consequently difficult to transfer passengers from one system to the other. This leads to a paradox between the preference of riders to have direct connections and the need to provide a cost-efficient service network that involves transfers. - **Automobile competition**. Given cheap and ubiquitous road transport systems, public transit faced strong competition and lost ridership in relative terms and, in some cases, in absolute terms. The higher the level of automobile dependency, the more inappropriate the public transit level of service. The convenience of the automobile outpaces the public service being offered. - **Construction and maintenance costs**. Public transit systems, particularly heavy rail, are capital-intensive to build, operate, and maintain. Cost varies depending on local conditions such as density and regulations, but average construction costs are around $300 million per km. However, there are exceptions where cost overruns can be substantial because of capture by special interest groups such as labor unions, construction companies, and consulting firms. When there is inadequate regulatory oversight, these actors will converge to extract as much rent as possible from public transit capital improvements. The world’s highest subway construction costs are in New York. For instance, the Second Avenue subway extension in Manhattan, completed in 2015, was done at a cost of $1.7 billion per km, five to seven times the average in comparable cities such as Paris or London. This project employed four times more labor, with construction costs 50% higher. - **Fare structures**. Historically, most public transit systems have abandoned a distance-based fare structure for a simpler flat fare system. This had the unintended consequence of discouraging short trips, for which most transit systems are well suited, and encouraging longer trips that tend to be costlier per user than the fares they generate. Information systems allow transit systems to return to a more equitable distance-based fare structure, particularly with smartcards that enable charging according to the point of entry and exit within the public transit system. - **Legacy costs**. Most public transit systems employ unionized labor that has consistently used strikes (or the threat of labor disruptions) and the acute disruptions they create as leverage to negotiate favorable contracts, including health and retirement benefits. Since public transit is subsidized, the fare systems did not reflect these costs well. In many transit systems, additional subsidies went into compensation or covered past debt, not necessarily performance improvements or additional infrastructure. As most governments face stringent budgetary constraints because of social welfare commitments, public transit agencies are forced to reassess their budgets through an unpopular mix of higher fares, deferred maintenance, and the breaking of labor contracts. - **Self-driving vehicles**. Developments in information technologies underline that self-driving vehicles could be deployed in large numbers. Such a development would entail point-to-point services by on-demand vehicles and a much better utilization level of such assets. This system could compete directly with transit systems due to its convenience, comfort, and affordability. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Subways-1.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World's Main Subway Systems, c2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/global-subway-systems/map-world-largest-subways/)Worlds Main Subway Systems c2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Farebox-Ratio.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Farebox Recovery Ratio, Selected Transit Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/world-farebox-ratio/map-world-farebox-ratio/)Farebox Recovery Ratio Selected Transit Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/challenge_urban_transit.png?resize=900%2C431&ssl=1 "Spatial Structure Challenges of Urban Transit | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/spatial-structure-urban-transit/urban_transit_challenges/)Spatial Structure Challenges of Urban Transit[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transit_fare_new_york.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Transit Fare for the New York City Subway, 1904-2015 (inflation adjusted) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/subway-fare-new-york/ny_subway_fares/)Transit Fare for the New York City Subway 1904 2015Therefore, public transit systems are challenged to **remain relevant to urban mobility** as well as to **increase their market share**. The volatility in energy prices and the push toward decarbonization provide uncertainties in the costs of transit fleet ownership and operations and how effective it is to convert transit fleets to alternative energy sources such as LNG and electricity. A younger generation with a preference for living in higher-density areas perceives the automobile as less attractive than the prior generations. Electronic fare systems are also making the utilization of public transit more convenient. A recent trend concerns the usage of incentives, such as point systems (e.g. air miles with the purchase of a monthly pass), to promote public transit and influence consumer behavior. Yet, evidence underlines that the [inflation-adjusted cost](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5244) of using public transit is increasing, implying that the cost advantage of public transit over the automobile is not changing significantly. If self-driving vehicles become widely available before the end of the 2020s, many highly subsidized transit systems may have a limited competitive advantage. Under such circumstances, the fate of many surface public transit systems will be questioned, particularly in suburban areas. --- ## Related Topics - [8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4609) - [8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4613) - [8.3- Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4617) - [City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792) - [4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5725) ## Bibliography - Cervero, R. and G. B. Arrington (2008) “Vehicle Trip Reduction Impacts of Transit-Oriented Housing”, Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 1-17. - Dimitriou, H. (1993) Urban Transport Planning, New York: Routledge. - Downs, A. (1962) “The Law of Peak-Hour Expressway Congestion”. Traffic Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 393-409. - Downs, A. (2004) Stuck in Traffic: Coping with Peak-Hour Congestion, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. - Kenworthy J., F. Laube, P. Newman, P. Barter, T. Raad, C. Poboon and B. Guia (1999) An International Sourcebook of Automobile Dependence in Cities, 1960‐ 1990, Boulder: University Press of Colorado. - Meyer, M.D. and E.J. Miller (2000) Urban Transportation Planning: A Decision-Oriented Approach, New York: McGraw-Hill. - Newman, P. and J. Kenworthy (1999) Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, Washington, DC: Island Press. - Newman, P. and J. Kenworthy (2011) “Peak Car Use: Understanding the Demise of Automobile Dependence”, World Transport Policy and Practice, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 31-42. - OECD (2018) The Shared-Use City: Managing the Curb, International Transportation Forum, Paris: OECD. - O’Toole, R. (2009) Gridlock: Why we are stuck in traffic and what to do about it. Washington, DC: The Cato Institute. - Shoup, D. (ed) (2018) Parking and the City, New York: Routledge. - Schwartz, E. (2026). No Such Thing as Free Parking: Construction Costs in 17 U.S. Cities. UCLA: Institute of Transportation Studies. http://dx.doi.org/10.17610/T62G75 Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9f88x32n - Texas Transportation Institute (2021) Annual Mobility Report, College Station, Texas. - UN-HABITAT (2009) Planning Sustainable Cities. Global Report on Human Settlements 2009, United Nations Human Settlements Programme, London: Earthscan. - Victoria Transport Policy Institute (2019) Automobile Dependency. Transport Demand Management Encyclopedia, . - World Bank (2002) Cities on the Move: A World Bank Urban Transport Strategy Review. Washington: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/?share=reddit) - --- ### [8.2 - Urban Land Use and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/) **Published:** November 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Urban land use reflects the location and level of spatial accumulation of activities such as retailing, management, manufacturing, or residence. They generate flows supported by transport systems. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Land Use – Transport System](#1_The_Land_Use_%E2%80%93_Transport_System) - [2. Urban Land Use Models](#2_Urban_Land_Use_Models) - [3. Transportation and Urban Dynamics](#3_Transportation_and_Urban_Dynamics) # 1. The Land Use – Transport System Urban areas are characterized by social, cultural, and economic activities taking place at separate locations forming an [activity system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4860). Some are routine activities because they occur regularly and are thus predictable, such as commuting and shopping. Some activities tend to be irregular and shaped by lifestyle (e.g. sports and leisure) or specific needs (e.g. healthcare and education). Such activities are usually related to the **mobility of passengers**. In addition, there are production activities related to manufacturing and distribution, whose linkages may be local, regional, or global. Such activities are usually associated with the **mobility of freight**. Since activities have different locations, their separation generates passenger and freight movements. Therefore, transportation and land use are interrelated because of the locational and interactional nature of urban activities. Most economic, social, or cultural activities imply a multitude of functions, such as production, consumption, and distribution. Urban land use is a **highly heterogeneous space,** and this heterogeneity is in part shaped by the transport system. There is a hierarchy in the distribution of urban activities where central areas have emerged because of economic (management and retail), political (seats of government), institutional (universities), or cultural factors (religious institutions). Central areas have a high level of spatial accumulation and the corresponding land uses, such as retail. In contrast, peripheral areas have lower levels of accumulation attributed to residential and warehousing areas. The preferences of individuals, institutions, and firms have an imprint on land use in terms of their locational choice. The representation of this imprint requires a typology of land use, which can be [formal or functional](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4866): > **Formal land use**. Representations concerned with qualitative attributes of space such as its form, pattern, and aspect and are descriptive in nature. > **Functional land use**. Representations concerned with the economic nature of activities such as production, consumption, residence, and transport, are mainly a socioeconomic description of space. At the global level, cities consume about **3% of the total landmass**. Although land-use composition can vary considerably by city function, residential land use is the most common, occupying between 65 and 75% of a city’s footprint, excluding transportation. Commercial and industrial land uses occupy 5-15% and 15-25% of the footprint, respectively. There are also variations in the built-up areas that are commonly a function of density, automobile use, and planning practices. In automobile-dependent cities, roads and parking lots account for 35 to 50% of the land-use footprint. Within a parking lot, about 40% of the surface is devoted to parking vehicles, while the remaining 60% is for circulation and access to individual parking spaces. These variations are the outcome of a combination of factors that reflect the unique geography, history, economy, and planning of each city. Land use, both informal and functional representations, implies a set of [relationships with other land uses](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4872). For instance, commercial land use involves relationships with its suppliers and customers. While relationships with suppliers will dominantly be related to the mobility of freight, relationships with customers will also include the mobility of people. Thus, a level of accessibility to both systems of circulation must be present for a functional transportation/land use system. Since each land use type has specific mobility requirements, transportation is a factor of [activity location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4877). Within an urban system, each activity occupies a suitable, but not necessarily optimal, location from which it derives rent. [Transportation and land use interactions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4882) mostly consider the retroactive relationships between activities, which are related to land use, and accessibility, which is transportation-related. These relationships have often been described as a classic “chicken-and-egg” problem since it is difficult to identify the cause of change; do transportation changes precede land-use changes or vice-versa? There is a **scale effect** at play in this relationship as large infrastructure projects tend to precede and trigger land-use changes. In contrast, small-scale transportation projects tend to complement the existing land use pattern. Further, the [expansion of urban land use](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/urban-expansion/ "Types of Urban Expansion") takes place over various circumstances, such as infilling (near the city center) or sprawl (far from the city center), and where transportation plays a different role. For infilling, land value becomes high enough to justify developments despite potential congestion, while for sprawl, accessibility has improved enough. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_activity_systems_land_use.png?resize=900%2C547&ssl=1 "Transportation, Activity Systems and Land Use | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Activity Systems and Land Use![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/formal_functional_land_use.png?resize=900%2C404&ssl=1 "Formal and Functional Land Use | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Formal and Functional Land Use![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relationships_land_uses.png?resize=900%2C399&ssl=1 "Relationships between Land Uses | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Relationships between Land Uses![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_activity_location2.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Transport Infrastructure and Activity Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Infrastructure and Activity Location![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/land_use_footprint.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Land Use Footprint in Selected Central Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Land Use Footprint in Selected Central Areas![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_land_use_system.png?resize=900%2C456&ssl=1 "Transportation / Land Use Relationships | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Land Use Relationships![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_land_use_interactions2.png?resize=900%2C445&ssl=1 "Transportation-Land Use Interactions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Land Use Interactions![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_expansion_types.png?resize=900%2C511&ssl=1 "Types of Urban Expansion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Urban Expansion![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_land_use_zoning.png?resize=900%2C501&ssl=1 "Types of Land Use Zoning | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Land Use ZoningUrban transportation aims to support transport demands generated by the **diversity of urban activities** in diverse urban contexts. A key to understanding urban entities thus lies in analyzing patterns and processes of the transport-land use system since the same processes may result in a different outcome. This system is highly complex and involves several relationships among the [transport system, spatial interactions, and land use](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4892): - **Transport system**. The transport infrastructures and modes that support the mobility of passengers and freight. It generally expresses the level of accessibility. - **Spatial interactions**. The nature, extent, origins, and destinations of the urban mobility of passengers and freight. They consider the attributes of the transport system and the land use factors generating and attracting movements. - **Land use**. The level of spatial accumulation of activities and their associated levels of mobility requirements. Land use is commonly linked with demographic and economic attributes. A conundrum concerns the difficulties of **linking a specific transportation mode with specific land use patterns**. While public transit systems tend to be associated with higher densities of residential and commercial activities and highways with lower densities, the diversity of modes available in urban areas, including freight distribution, conveys an unclear and complex relationship. Further, land use is commonly subject to [zoning restrictions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4956) in terms of the type of activities that can be built as well as their density. Therefore, land use dynamics are influenced by planning restrictions and the urban governance structure. # 2. Urban Land Use Models The relationships between transportation and land use are rich in theoretical representations that have significantly contributed to regional sciences. They can be investigated empirically by observing and analyzing real-world changes in the urban spatial structure. However, empirical investigations cannot readily be used for simulation and forecasting. For that purpose, the relationships between transportation and land use can also be investigated through models trying to synthesize the spatial structure through a series of assumptions about urban dynamics. Since cities have diverse sites and political, economic, historical, and cultural contexts, there are no absolute rules concerning their spatial organization. Since transportation is a distance-decay-altering technology, the spatial organization of cities is assumed to be strongly influenced by the concepts of **location and distance**. Several descriptive and analytical urban land use models have been developed over time, with increased levels of complexity. All involve some consideration of the effect of transport in the explanations of urban land use structures. Changes commonly result from locational decisions such as building a facility (residential building, warehouse, store, office tower, etc.) or a transportation infrastructure (road, transit line, port, airport, etc.). ## a. Early models [Von Thunen’s regional land use model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4898) is the oldest representation based on a central place, the market town, and its concentric impacts on surrounding agricultural land use. The model was initially developed in the early 19th century (1826) to analyze agricultural land use patterns observed in Germany. The concept of economic rent is used to explain a spatial organization where different agricultural activities are competing for the usage of the available land. The closer a location is to the market, the lower the transportation cost and availability of land. The underlying principles of this model have been the foundation of many others, where economic considerations, namely **land rent and distance decay**, are incorporated. The core assumption of the model is that agricultural land use is patterned in the form of concentric circles around a market that consumes all the surplus production, which must be transported. It is this transportation cost that bears the most influence on the purpose of the land. The closer the market, the higher the intensity and productivity of agricultural land use, such as dairy products and vegetables, while the further away, less intensive uses, such as grain and livestock, dominate. Many empirical concordances of this model have been found, notably in contemporary [North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4903). Another range of early models, such as [Weber’s industrial location model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1548) developed in 1909, dealt with industrial location to minimize the total transportation costs of accessing raw materials and moving the output to the market, indicating an optimal location for the activity. The main principle explored by early models is that transportation costs primarily influence locational choice and the resulting land uses. This assumption is not surprising since, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, land transportation options were limited and of a relatively high cost. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/von_thunen_regional_land_use.png?resize=900%2C545&ssl=1 "Von Thunen's Regional Land Use Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-regional-land-use/von_thunen_model/)Von Thunens Regional Land Use Model[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/von_thunen_united_states2.png?resize=900%2C352&ssl=1 "Inference of Von Thunen's Model to Continental United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-continental-united-states/von_thunen_united_states/)Inference of Von Thunens Model to Continental United States[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/weber_location_triangle.png?resize=900%2C668&ssl=1 "Weber's Location Triangle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/weber-location-triangle/weber_location_triangle/)Webers Location Triangle## b. Concentric urban land uses The [Burgess concentric model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4908) was among the first attempts to investigate spatial patterns at the urban level in the first quarter of the 20th century. Although the purpose of the model was to analyze social classes, it recognized that transportation and mobility were important factors shaping the spatial organization of urban areas and the distribution of residential choices. This model’s formal land use representation is derived from commuting distance from the central business district, creating concentric circles, and each circle represents a specific socioeconomic urban landscape. This model is conceptually a direct adaptation of the Von Thunen model to the distribution of urban land use since it deals with a concentric representation, which considers a transportation trade-off between commuting and renting housing. Therefore, if the cost of commuting declines due to improvements (e.g. new transit lines), the outcome is that more people can afford to live further away, which results in urban sprawl. Even close to one century after the concentric urban model was developed, spatial changes in cities such as [Chicago](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4914) still reflect this process. ## c. Polycentric and zonal land uses [Sector and multiple nuclei land use models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4920) were developed to consider numerous factors overlooked by concentric models, namely the influence of transport corridors (Hoyt, 1939) and multiple nuclei (Harris and Ullman, 1945) on land use and growth. Both representations consider the emerging **impacts of motorization** on the urban spatial structure, particularly through the beginning of suburbanization and the setting of polycentric cities. Cities could be structured by several subcenters of different importance and function with mixed land uses in between. Such representations also consider that **transportation infrastructures**, particularly terminals such as rail stations or ports, occupy specific locations and are also land uses. In the second half of the 20th century, the construction of airport and container port complexes, including logistics zones, created new nodes around which urban land uses developed. Further, **urban sprawl** became apparent as a force shaping urban land use development, characterized by automobile dependency and low-density suburban locations. ## d. Hybrid land uses Hybrid models attempt to include the concentric, sector, and nuclei behavior of different processes in explaining urban land use. They try to integrate the strengths of each approach since none of these appear to provide a completely satisfactory explanation. Thus, hybrid models, such as those developed by Isard (1956), consider the concentric effect of central locations (CBDs and sub-centers) and the radial effect of transport corridors, all overlaid to form a land use pattern. Hybrid representations are also suitable to explain the [evolution of the urban spatial structure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4925) as they combine different spatial and temporal impacts of transportation on urban land use, such as concentric and radial impacts. It recognizes the evolution of technological influences on urban mobility, from walking and cycling, to the setting of modern urban transit systems along corridors and the network of urban highways. ## e. Land use market [Land rent theory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4930) was also developed to explain land use as an outcome of a market where different urban activities compete to secure a footprint at a location. The theory is strongly based on the market principle of spatial competition, where actors bid to secure and maintain their presence at a specific location. The more desirable a location is, the higher its [rent value](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4934) and the intensity of activities. Transportation, through accessibility and distance decay, is a strong explanatory factor on land rent and its [impacts on land use](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4939). Conventional representations of land rent leaning on the concentric paradigm are challenged by [structural modifications](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4944) of contemporary cities identified by hybrid models. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/burgess_urban_land_use_model.png?resize=900%2C530&ssl=1 "The Burgess Urban Land Use Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/burgess-land-use/burgess_urban_model/)The Burgess Urban Land Use Model[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/chicago_pop_change_2000_2010.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Population Density Changes by Census Block, Chicago 2000-2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/population-changes-chicago/chicago_pop_change_2000_2010/)Population Density Changes by Census Block Chicago 2000 2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sector_nuclei_urban_land_use.png?resize=900%2C608&ssl=1 "Sector and Nuclei Urban Land Use Representations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/sector-nuclei-land-use/sector_nuclei_land_use-1/)Sector and Nuclei Urban Land Use Representations[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hybrid_land_use_model.png?resize=900%2C547&ssl=1 "The Hybrid Land Use Model: Transportation and the Formation of Urban Landscapes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/hybrid-land-use-model/hybrid_land_use/)The Hybrid Land Use Model Transportation and the Formation of Urban Landscapes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_land_economics.png?resize=900%2C550&ssl=1 "Basic Land Economics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-economics/basic_land_economics/)Basic Land Economics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/land_rent_theory_rent_curve.png?resize=900%2C330&ssl=1 "Land Rent Theory and Rent Curve | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-curve/rent_theory_rent_curve/)Land Rent Theory and Rent Curve[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/land_rent_land_use.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Land Rent and Land Use | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-land-use/land_rent_land_use_curve/)Land Rent and Land Use[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modifications_land_rent_theory.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "Contemporary Modifications to the Land Rent Theory | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-modifications/contemporary_land_rent/)Contemporary Modifications to the Land Rent Theory[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transit_urban_land_use.png?resize=900%2C544&ssl=1 "Transit and Urban Land Use Impacts | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-land-use-impacts/transit_land_use-1/)Transit and Urban Land Use Impacts## f. Model applicability The applicability and dynamics of land use models are related to issues such as the history, size, and locational setting of a city. For instance, **concentric cities are generally older** and of smaller size, while **polycentric cities are larger** and relate to urban developments that have taken place more recently. This also includes the [impacts of public transit systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5095 "Transit and Urban Land Use Impacts") that can vary according to the level of automobile dependence. Another issue is the **representativeness and applicability** of a global urban landscape. While most conceptual approaches related to the relationships between transportation and land use have been developed using empirical evidence related to North America and Western Europe, this perspective does not necessarily apply to other parts of the world. The most important distinguishing factors include: - The impact of **colonialism** on cities in the Southern Hemisphere. During the colonial era, from the 18th to the mid-20th centuries, several cities served as gateways and outposts of a trade network mainly centered around Europe. The central business district was either focusing on a market or the port, with its surroundings occupied by transnational enclaves involving administration, residential areas, and warehouses. Although colonialism has not been a force shaping urban development since the 1950s, it still influences the structure of central cities in the developing world. - **Dualism** has been observed in cities in developing economies where economic development and motorization create an urban landscape common in advanced economies. However, an **informal landscape** of shantytowns has emerged with high levels of rural-to-urban migration, representing a land use structure that conventional land use models do not effectively capture. Therefore, a modern and informal city can be part of the same agglomeration. - The effect of **central planning** on cities of formerly communist countries such as Russia and China. One important aspect was that urban migration was strictly controlled, collective forms of housing development privileged, and with a strong focus on urban transit. Specific activities such as industry and warehousing were developed in pre-designed areas. To what extent globalization will favor a **convergence of land use patterns** across the world’s cities remains to be seen. Irrespective of the urban context, standard technologies such as the automobile, construction techniques and materials, information technologies, and managerial practices (e.g. urban planning or supply chain management) are likely to homogenize the land use structure of global cities. # 3. Transportation and Urban Dynamics Both land use and transportation are part of a [dynamic system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4963) subject to **external influences** and **internal changes**. Each component of the system is continuously evolving due to changes in technology, policy, economics, demographics, and even culture or values. Since transportation infrastructure and real estate development require **significant capital investments**, understanding their dynamics is highly relevant for investors, developers, planners, and policymakers. As a result, the interactions between land use and transportation are played out as the outcome of the many **decisions made by residents, businesses, and governments**. The field of urban dynamics has expanded the scope of conventional land use models, which tended to be descriptive, by considering the relationships behind the evolution of the urban spatial structure. This focus has led to a complex modeling framework, including a wide variety of components such as the transportation network, housing locations, and workplaces. Among the concepts supporting urban dynamics are retroactions, whereby changes in one component influence other associated components. As these related components change, there is a **feedback effect** on the initial component, which is either positive or negative. The most significant [components of urban dynamics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4968) are: - **Land use**. The most stable component of urban dynamics, as changes are likely to modify the land use structure over a rather long period of time. This is to be expected since most real estate is built to last at least several decades, and there are vested interests to amortize its usage over that period with minimal changes outside repairs and maintenance. The main impact of land use on urban dynamics is its function as a generator and attractor of movements. - **Transport networks**. Networks are a relatively stable component of urban dynamics, as transport infrastructures are built for the long term. This is particularly true for large transport terminals and subway systems that can operate for decades. For instance, many railway stations and subway systems are over one hundred years old and continue to influence the urban spatial structure. The main contribution of transport networks to urban dynamics is the provision of accessibility, where changes will impact mobility. - **Movements (flows)**. The most dynamic component of the system since the mobility of passengers and freight reflects almost immediately changes in the supply or demand. Mobility thus tends more to be an outcome of urban dynamics than a factor shaping it. - **Employment and workplaces**. They account for significant inducement effects over urban dynamics since many models often consider employment as an exogenous factor from which other aspects of urban dynamics are derived. This is specifically the case for employment, categorized as basic or export-oriented, and linked with specific economic sectors such as manufacturing. Commuting is a direct outcome of the number of jobs and the location of workplaces. - **Population and housing**. They act as the generators of movements because residential areas are generators of commuting flows. Since there is a wide array of incomes, standards of living, and preferences, this socioeconomic diversity is reflected in the urban spatial structure. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_urban_dynamics.png?resize=900%2C269&ssl=1 "Basic Urban Dynamics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/basic-urban-dynamics/urban_dynamics/)Basic Urban Dynamics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dynamics_urban_change2.png?resize=900%2C526&ssl=1 "Dynamics of Urban Change | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/dynamics-urban-change/dynamics_urban_change/)Dynamics of Urban Change[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vicious_circle_congestion.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "Vicious Circle of Congestion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/vicious-circle-congestion/vicious_circule_congestion/)Vicious Circle of Congestion[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-Zones.png?resize=900%2C657&ssl=1 "China's Special Economic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/special-economic-zones-china/map-china-special-economic-zones-png/)Chinas Special Economic Zones[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/life_span_transport_asset.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Lifespan (Life Cycle) of Main Transport Assets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/life_span_transport_asset/)Lifespan Life Cycle of Main Transport Assets[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cellular_automata_land_use_dynamics.png?resize=900%2C397&ssl=1 "Cellular Automata Land Use Dynamics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/cellular-automata-land-use/cellular_automata-1/)Cellular Automata Land Use DynamicsSeveral transportation land use models have been developed to represent complex urban dynamics, with the **Lowry model** among the first (1964). Its core assumption is that regional and urban growth (or decline) is a function of the expansion (or contraction) of the basic sector, which is represented as export-based employment that meets non-local demand. An urban area produces goods and services, which are exported. This employment is, in turn, impacting the employment of two other sectors; retail and residential. Its premises were expanded by several other models, known as “Lowry-type” models, applied to various cities. The core of these models relies on a **regional economic forecast** that predicts and assigns the location of the basic employment sector. They depend on the reliability and accuracy of macroeconomic and micro-economic indicators and forecasting. Such forecasting tends not to be very accurate as it does not capture well the impacts of economic, social, and technological changes, which also change the relevance of indicators. Another line of models emerged in the 1990s with the rise of computing power. **Cellular automata** are dynamic land use models developed to represent space as a grid where each cell is a discrete land use unit. Cell states thus symbolize land uses, and transition rules express the likelihood of a change from one land use state to another. Because cells are symbolically connected and interrelated (e.g. adjacency), models can be used to investigate the dynamics, evolution, and self-organization of [cellar automata land use systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4949). The cellular approach allows for achieving high spatial detail (resolution) and realism, and linking the simulation directly to visible outcomes on the regional spatial structure. They are also readily implementable since Geographic Information Systems are designed to work effectively with grid-based (raster) spatial representations. Cellular automata improve upon most transportation – land use models that are essentially static as they explain land use patterns. Still, they do not explicitly consider the processes of creating or changing them. The issue of articulating transportation and land use interactions remains, particularly in the current context of interdependence between local, regional, and global processes. There is also the risk of unintended consequences (unaccounted feedback) where a change may not result in an expected outcome. For instance, [improving road transportation infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5176) can have the potential to create even more congestion as new users are attracted by the additional capacity. **Globalization** has substantially blurred the relationships between transportation, land use, and its dynamics. The primary paradigm is concerned with some factors once endogenous to a regional setting that has become **exogenous**. Many economic activities that provide employment and multiplying effects, such as manufacturing, are driven by forces that are global in scope and may have **little to do with regional dynamics**. For instance, capital investment in infrastructures and facilities could come from external sources, and the bulk of the output could be bound to international markets. In such a context, it would be challenging to explain urban development processes in [coastal Chinese cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4103), such as the Pearl River Delta, since export-oriented strategies are among the most significant driving forces. Looking at the urban dynamics of such a system from an endogenous perspective would fail to capture dominantly exogenous driving forces. The relationships between transportation and land use have been the focus of a long line of geographical representations, including models, and are mainly driven by economic and technological changes. It is expected that ongoing changes related to **digitalization**, such as e-commerce and automation in manufacturing and distribution, will continue to shape the urban spatial structure in the 21st century. --- ## Related Topics - [8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4609) - [8.3 – Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4617) - [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621) - [4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5721) - [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1006) - [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1498) ## Bibliography - Alonso, W. (1964) Location and Land Use. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. - Anas, A., R. Arnott and K.A. Small (1998) “Urban Spatial Structure”, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 36, pp. 1426-1464. - Batty, M. and Y. Xie (1994) “From Cells to Cities”, Environment and Planning B, 21: pp. 531-548. - Chan, Y. (2005) *Location, Transport, and Land-Use: Modelling Spatial-Temporal Information*. Berlin: Springer. - Esch, T., F. Bachofer, W. Heldens, A. Hirner, M. Marconcini, D. Palacios-Lopez, A. Roth, S. Üreyen, J. Zeidler, S. Dech, and N. Gorelick (2018) “Where We Live-A Summary of the Achievements and Planned Evolution of the Global Urban Footprint” Remote Sensing 10, no. 6: 895. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10060895 - Federal Highway Administration (2012) FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook, Washington: US Department of Transportation. - Wu, W. and P. Gaubatz (2021) The Chinese City, 2nd Edition, New York: Routledge. - Giuliano, G. (1989) “New Directions for Understanding Transportation and Land Use”, Environment and Planning A, Vol. 21, pp. 145-159. - Harris, C. D. and Ullman, E. L. (1945). The nature of cities. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 242, 7-17. - Handy, S. (2005) “Smart growth and the transportation – Land use connection: What does the research tell us?”, International Regional Science Review, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 146-167. - Hansen, W. G. (1959) “How Accessibility Shapes Land Use”, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 25, pp. 73–76. - Harvey, J. and E. Jowsey (2003) Urban Land Economics, 6th Edition, Gordonsville: Palgrave Macmillan. - Hoyt, H. (1939). The Structure and Growth of Residential Neighborhoods in American Cities. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. - Isard, W. (1956) Location and Space-Economy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - Kaplan, D. and S. Holloway (2014) Urban Geography, Third Edition, New York: Wiley. - Kauffman, R.J. (2001) Paving the Planet: Cars and Crops Competing For Land, Alert, Worldwatch Institute. - Lee-Gosselin, M. and Doherty, S. (eds.) (2005). Integrated Land-Use and Transportation Models: Behavioural Foundations. London: Elsevier Ltd. - Levine, J., J. Grengs, and L A. Merlin (2019) From Mobility to Accessibility: Transforming Urban Transportation and Land-Use Planning. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. - Litman, T. (2018) Evaluating Transportation Land Use Impacts: Considering the Impacts, Benefits and Costs of Different Land Use Development Patterns, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, . - Moore, T. and P. Thorsnes (2007) The Transportation / Land Use Connection, Washington, D.C.: American Planning Association. Report # 448/449. - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2022) Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/26737. - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2015) Linking Transit Agencies and Land Use Decision Making: Guidebook for Transit Agencies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. - Newman, P. and J. Kenworthy (1996) “The Land Use – Transport Connection: An Overview”. Land Use Policy, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 1-22. - Putman, S. H. (1983). Integrated Urban Models: Policy Analysis of Transportation and Land Use. London: Pion Limited. - Rodrigue, J-P (2013) “Urban Transportation and Land Use”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Wrigley, N. and M. Lowe (2002) Reading Retail: A Geographical Perspective on Retailing and Consumption Spaces. London: Routledge. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Space / Cost Dichotomy of Forelands and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland-dichotomy/) **Published:** November 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dichotomy_foreland_hinterland.png?resize=900%2C662&ssl=1 "The Space / Cost Dichotomy of Forelands and Hinterlands | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Space Cost Dichotomy of Forelands and HinterlandsDepending on whether space (distance) or cost is considered, the relative importance of the hinterland significantly changes. For instance, in international transport chains (such as trade between Asia and Europe or North America), foreland distance (maritime shipping) typically accounts for 90% of the total distance, while hinterland distance (rail, barge, and truck combination) accounts for the remaining 10%. From this distance perspective, the hinterland appears to be a relatively marginal concern, as a large share of the distance is covered by maritime shipping. However, from a **cost perspective**, the relation is the opposite, thus the dichotomy. Maritime shipping has achieved remarkable economies of scale, underlining its ability to transport cargo over long distances and at a low unit cost. Economies of scale are much more difficult to achieve over the hinterland, and as traffic increases, transport networks near ports are getting increasingly congested. Hinterland transportation accounts for a dominant share (about 80%) of the total transport cost, while maritime shipping accounts for the remaining 20%. Therefore, hinterland transportation remains one of the most salient issues in long-distance freight distribution. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland-dichotomy/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland-dichotomy/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland-dichotomy/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland-dichotomy/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Port Foreland and Hinterland](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland/) **Published:** November 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_foreland_hinterland.png?resize=900%2C506&ssl=1 "Port Foreland and Hinterland | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Port Foreland and HinterlandTwo concepts reconcile ports and the markets they serve; the foreland and the hinterland. Both are binding import and export activities, along with the corresponding maritime segments. The figure above assumes that the hinterland must be fully serviced and that transportation costs are uniform. Neither port A, B, nor C has an accessibility advantage over the others. When competition between ports is possible, there are two types of hinterlands: - The **fundamental (main) hinterland** is the space over which a port has the dominant market share. The majority of activities thus use that port for imports or exports. Ports A, B, and C have a similar fundamental hinterland. - The **competition margins** are areas where two or more ports compete. Users have the option of routing their cargo through a port or another based on factors such as costs, capacity, or convenience. A competition margin could be different for imports or exports. Ports A, B, and C have a similar competition margin. In this case, the reason why port A is larger is that it has two competition margins, while B and C only have one. In the contemporary setting, as inland transportation becomes more efficient, the hinterland is being challenged by intense port competition. This implies that competition margins are expanding, particularly in areas with multiple ports, as is the case in North America and Europe. The **foreland** is the ocean-ward mirror of the hinterland, referring to the ports and overseas markets linked by shipping services from a specific port. It is a maritime space where a port performs commercial relationships, namely with its overseas customers. Port D is part of the foreland of ports A, B, and C, where their originating cargo is bound to its hinterland. With the emergence of feeder services and [hub ports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3457), the concept of foreland has been expanded as a port that can service a hinterland through a maritime link. The foreland is measured by the share of a port, or a group of ports, being taken over their foreland relative to the forelands of other ports. It defines the interactions of a port with elements of the global economy. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Landlocked Countries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/landlocked-countries/) **Published:** November 8, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Map Landlocked Countries](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landlocked-Countries.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Landlocked Countries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Landlocked Countries[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landlocked-Countries.pdf) *Note: Distances are Euclidean and do not consider the effect of the landscape (mountain ranges), and available transport infrastructure.* Since the world is 70% covered by oceans, access to maritime shipping is an important factor behind commercial opportunities and economic development, but it can be a [relative concept](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/coastal-landlocked-markets/ "Coastal, Landlocked and Relatively Landlocked Markets"). Many central continental areas are located more than 1,000 km from any ocean, but with good transport infrastructure, this oceanic isolation can be effectively mitigated. For instance, the central areas of the North American continent are much more accessible to the oceans than comparable central areas of the South American continent. The main difference lies in the extensive highway and railway network connecting inland metropolitan areas. There are also political impediments to maritime access. A landlocked country cannot directly access the ocean since the nearest coast is in another administrative unit. Every continent, except North America and Oceania, has landlocked countries, and the most significant include Bolivia, Switzerland, Austria, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia. Landlocked countries face transport costs that are, on average, 50% higher than those of non-landlocked countries. When containerized imports are considered, landlocked countries incur costs 85% higher than the world average. For landlocked countries in the developing world, the following issues are particularly prevalent: - **Difficulties in accessing international markets** and a dependency on the stability and openness of neighboring countries to ensure reliable access to international markets. - Economies that are reliant on the resource sector, such as agriculture and mining. While agriculture tends to be mostly subsistence-oriented, other resources have a strong export component and high transport costs. Their **exports are thus likely to be less competitive**. The median landlocked country has less than 40% of the trade volume of the median coastal country. - The internal transport system tends to be **deficient** with a high concentration level, mostly around the capital. A landlocked country can mitigate its lack of accessibility to global trade by developing transport corridors toward maritime gateways. While fluvial navigation is possible in specific cases, fluvial systems servicing landlocked countries are mostly present in Europe (e.g., Switzerland and Austria can be serviced by barges). It is through road and rail corridors that the most effective freight services are established. There are no specific connectivity barriers for landlocked countries to access air transportation (e.g., Zurich is a major air transport hub in Europe). Still, landlocked countries tend to be less connected because of their lower levels of development. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/landlocked-countries/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/landlocked-countries/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/landlocked-countries/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/landlocked-countries/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Centrality and Intermediacy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/centrality-intermediacy/) **Published:** November 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/centrality_intermediacy2.png?resize=900%2C542&ssl=1 "Centrality and Intermediacy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Centrality and IntermediacyWhile centrality focuses on the terminal as a **point of origin and traffic destination**, intermediacy focuses on the terminal as a **transit point** between different circulation systems. The concept of centrality is straightforward, as the vicinity (hinterland) of the terminal is either the origin or the destination of the movement, which in turn is linked with the level of economic activity. The extent of this vicinity remains to be fully assessed, but a range of about 100 km appears suitable as it corresponds to a commuting or drayage range. Intermediacy, however, is a multifaceted concept that relates to several issues: - **Range**. A conventional aspect of intermediacy that tends to be less important today. Due to technical limitations of the modes, such as the range of an aircraft or the need to refuel a coal-powered ship, intermediate locations were used as stages to overcome the range gap, as two locations could not be reached in a single trip. Intermediate airports such as Anchorage, Alaska (transpacific flights) or Gander, Newfoundland (transatlantic flights) are good examples of locations that were used to overcome the technical limitations of aircraft before the introduction of long-range wide-body aircraft. Although range plays a more limited role in air passenger transportation, it remains prevalent in air freight transportation, as freight aircraft have a narrower range due to heavier loads. Therefore, transpacific air cargo routes commonly involve a stop at Anchorage, while Asia-Europe routes will stop at a Middle Eastern airport such as Dubai. To a lesser extent, intermediate locations are used for long-distance trucking, since drivers require rest periods, but the required facilities are very basic. - **Gateway**. Connects [two systems of circulation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1411) and thus represents an intermediate location imposed by geographical constraints. Thus, to reach its final destination, a movement must use an intermediate location, often requiring a transfer from one mode to another. Many gateways also have a significant centrality component as they represent industrial zones and large urban agglomerations. - **Hub (Interception)**. A location nearby, or at the convergence of several long-distance routes, can develop an intermediacy by “intercepting” some of the traffic. This is notably the case for [intermediate hub terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3462) along major long-distance maritime corridors, such as Algeciras (Spain) or Singapore. - **Hub (Transcalar)**. A location is specifically used to connect different scales of a transport system. Air transportation is a notable example of the emergence of hub-and-spoke network structures, in which hubs serve as intermediate locations for regional and international flights. Freight distribution, particularly cross-docking distribution centers, relies on intermediate locations to service specific market segments often supplied by distant sources. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/centrality-intermediacy/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/centrality-intermediacy/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/centrality-intermediacy/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/centrality-intermediacy/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Hinterland of a Transport Terminal](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-transport-terminal/) **Published:** November 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hinterland_transport_terminal2.png?resize=900%2C446&ssl=1 "The Hinterland of a Transport Terminal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Hinterland of a Transport TerminalEach transport terminal has its hinterland (or “natural” hinterland), representing a set of customers (distribution, manufacturing, and retailing activities) from which it draws its business. These transactions involve freight flows (or passengers) that the terminal will transship. Movements are either originating or are bound to a space that can mainly be categorized as the main hinterland and the competition margin: - The **main hinterland** (or fundamental hinterland) represents an area where the terminal has a dominant, if not an exclusive, market share. It is traditionally the core market area of the terminal where its accessibility is the highest. Other terminals can compete over the main hinterland, but this is likely to be done at a notable disadvantage or in the case where a terminal offers a poor level of reliability. - The **competition margin** represents an area where a terminal can compete with other terminals. Competitiveness becomes a matter of differential accessibility, costs, and the quality and reliability of service. In the figure above, terminals A and B compete for customers within their respective competition margins. An **island** within the hinterland of another terminal can also exist, mainly due to a privileged relationship between the terminal and a client and/or an efficient inland distribution system serviced by a specific transport corridor. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-transport-terminal/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-transport-terminal/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-transport-terminal/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-transport-terminal/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Coastal, Landlocked and Relatively Landlocked Markets](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/coastal-landlocked-markets/) **Published:** November 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relatively_landlocked.png?resize=900%2C366&ssl=1 "Coastal, Landlocked and Relatively Landlocked Markets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Coastal Landlocked and Relatively Landlocked MarketsThe concept of hinterland is impacted by geopolitical considerations, particularly when it involves national boundaries. In terms of access to maritime trade, this leads to three characteristics: - **Coastal**. A country able to service a significant share of its maritime trade through its own ports has a coastal hinterland. The majority of its hinterland traffic remains within its own national jurisdiction and is directly connected to the global shipping network without having to transit through an intermediary jurisdiction. - **[Landlocked](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2103)**. A country that does not have direct access to ports for its maritime trade, implying that its trade must use a port in a third country through a land connection (road, rail, fluvial). It has indirect connectivity to the global shipping network. - **Relatively landlocked**. A country that sees a share of its maritime trade transits through a third country, even if it has direct maritime access. The landlocked character is thus relative to technical or market conditions. The main reason could be that there is not enough port capacity available or that facilities are unable to handle a specific type of traffic. Traders could also choose to use facilities in a third country due to proximity, capacity, quality, or cost considerations. While the coastal and landlocked characteristics of a country are stable (if not permanent), its relative landlocked status varies with trade partners and the development of transport infrastructure. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/coastal-landlocked-markets/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/coastal-landlocked-markets/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/coastal-landlocked-markets/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/coastal-landlocked-markets/?share=reddit) - --- ### [6.2 - Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/) **Published:** November 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Theo Notteboom > Transport terminals are central and intermediate locations. Their main influence is through their hinterlands, which are the land areas they service. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Relative Location of Terminals](#1_The_Relative_Location_of_Terminals) - [2. Hinterlands and Forelands](#2_Hinterlands_and_Forelands) - [3. Traffic Generation](#3_Traffic_Generation) - [4. Agglomeration, Linkages and Growth](#4_Agglomeration_Linkages_and_Growth) # 1. The Relative Location of Terminals The situation, or relative location, is an essential component of location. This core geographical concept refers to the position of places in relation to other places. **Accessibility is relative** because the situation of places changes over time, namely if there are fluctuations in trade and economic development. For example, ports in the Mediterranean used to be at the core of the Western world during the Greek and Roman eras, and Genoa and Venice prospered during the Middle Ages. The emergence of the Americas, particularly the United States, as an economic power focused on Atlantic ports and the Mediterranean became more marginal. The opening of the Suez Canal in the 19th century refocused the relative location of the Mediterranean again, with increased interactions with Asia. In the second half of the 20th century, the growth of the transpacific trade brought a new impetus to the Panama Canal. More recently, the growth of China has refocused trade flows in Central Asia. Each commercial shift is linked to new transportation networks, connectivity, and terminal investments. Although the term “terminal” implies a **final destination**, terminals are typically **intermediate locations** in the global flows of passengers and freight because they are transfer points. To carry out passenger and freight transfers and bundling, specific equipment and infrastructure are required. Differences in the nature, composition, and timing of transfer activities give rise to significant differentiation in the form and function between terminals. A primary distinction is between passenger and freight transfers because specific equipment and infrastructures are required to carry out the transfer and bundling of each type. Passenger and freight terminals are substantially different entities and often have other locational attributes. Spatial relationships between terminals are a vital competitive element, particularly for ports and rail terminals. [Landlocked countries](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2103) do not have direct access to port terminals, and at least one intermediary country must be transited through a corridor. Still, the landlocked status can be [relative](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3208) and linked with the lack of transport infrastructure or services, inciting national trade to transit through a third country. For instance, a large share of the cargo generated by the northern part of France transits through the port of Antwerp instead of Le Havre. Several concepts exploring the locational features of transport terminals have been developed. One of particular interest concerns the function of [centrality and intermediacy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3130). > **Centrality**. Focus on the terminal as a point of origin and destination. Thus, centrality is linked with the generation and attraction of movements, which are related to the nature and the level of economic activities within the vicinity of the concerned terminal. The function of centrality involves a significant amount of intermodal activities. One of the most enduring concepts in urban geography is the [central places theory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1457), which emphasizes centrality as a feature of the urban hierarchy. Cities more centrally located to markets are larger with a broader range of functions. Transport accessibility is equated with size; thus, many large terminals arise out of centrality. Airport traffic is a direct function of the centrality of cities within the global urban system. Examples include Heathrow Airport, whose preeminence is related to London’s location as one of the world’s most important cities and financial centers. The port of New York partly owes its preeminence to the fact that it is at the heart of the largest market area in the United States; the Boston – Washington corridor. A similar observation applies to the port of Shanghai, serving a large market, industrial, and manufacturing base in Central China. > **Intermediacy**. Focus on the terminal as an intermediate point in the flows of passengers or freight. This term is applied to the frequent occurrence of locations gaining an advantage because they are between other locations. The ability to handle transshipments has been an important feature of many terminals. [![Map Landlocked Countries](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landlocked-Countries.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Landlocked Countries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/landlocked-countries/map-landlocked-countries/)Landlocked Countries[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relatively_landlocked.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Coastal, Landlocked and Relatively Landlocked Markets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/coastal-landlocked-markets/coastal_landlocked/)Coastal Landlocked and Relatively Landlocked Markets[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/centrality_intermediacy2.png?resize=900%2C542&ssl=1 "Centrality and Intermediacy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/centrality-intermediacy/centrality_intermediacy2/)Centrality and Intermediacy[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/central_places_theory2.png?resize=900%2C504&ssl=1 "Central Places Theory (Market Principle) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-market-principle/central_places_theory2/)Central Places Theory Market PrincipleIntermediacy takes form differently within the geography of passengers or freight flows. Anchorage, for example, is a convenient airport located on the [great circle air routes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2386) between Asia and Europe and the Continental United States and Asia. For many years, passengers alighted while the planes refueled. The growth of long-haul jets has made this activity diminish considerably, and Anchorage now joins the list of once-important airports, such as Gander, Newfoundland, that have seen their relative locations change because of technological improvements. It should be noted, however, that Anchorage continues to fulfill its intermediacy role for air freight traffic. Other examples include Chicago, the dominant US rail hub, a major market area in its own right (centrality), and it lies at the junction of the major eastern and western railroad networks. Ports, too, can exploit the advantages of intermediate locations. One of the largest container ports in the Mediterranean, Tanger Med, is located at the edge of the Strait of Gibraltar. Because of its location close to the main East-West shipping lanes through the Mediterranean, it has been selected as a hub where the large deep-sea ships can transfer containers to smaller vessels for distribution to northern Mediterranean and West African markets, a standard hub and spoke network. Because of changing markets and technologies, **many existing terminal sites are no longer suitable**. This applies particularly to rail and port terminals. In most cases, the sites are too small, poorly located, or otherwise inadequate for modern transport operations. Modernization is usually impractical, and thus relocation and redevelopment are usually the only alternatives. # 2. Hinterlands and Forelands One of the most enduring concepts in transport geography is the hinterland: > The **hinterland** is a land area over which a transport terminal, such as a port, sells its services and interacts with its users. It accounts for the regional market share that a terminal has relative to a set of other terminals servicing a region. It regroups all the customers directly bounded to the terminal and the land areas from which it draws and distributes traffic. Depending on its nature, the terminal serves as a place of convergence for the traffic coming by roads, railways, or sea/fluvial feeders. The hinterland, or the **natural hinterland**, refers to the entire area from which it is possible to service through the terminal. Two [types of additional hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3136) are noted: - First, the **fundamental hinterland** (or **captive**) refers to the market area where a terminal is the closest or the easiest to access. It is assumed that most of the traffic will pass through the terminal because of its proximity and the lack of competitive alternatives. - Second, the **competitive hinterland** (or **contestable**) describes the market areas over which the terminal has to compete more intensively with others for business. It is also called the competitive margin since this hinterland is commonly at the edge of the fundamental hinterland. Transport terminals are elements of transport chains that include the notions of [foreland and hinterland](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3141) binding import and export activities. Thus, terminals have simultaneously and hinterland and a foreland, with the latter a mirror image of the hinterland: > The **foreland** of a terminal refers to the other terminals it is connected to. For a port, this would represent the other ports it is linked to through maritime shipping services. The foreland of an airport would represent all the connected airports accessible through regular air services. The main nature of a hinterland is commercial, and its importance is linked to the **level of economic activity** as well as the **level of competition** from other modes not linked to the terminal. [Geopolitical considerations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3224) can expand or restrict the hinterland of a transport terminal. For instance, a terminal such as a port may have a protected hinterland less accessible to competing terminals due to border and trade restrictions. Inversely, border and trade restrictions may impair the hinterland of a terminal into a nearby but foreign market area. For instance, the setting of the European Common Market area in 1993 enabled ports such as Antwerp, Rotterdam, and Hamburg to substantially expand their hinterlands in areas previously less accessible because of border crossings. Hinterlands vary significantly for the same location if they concern passengers or freight. For airports, like most passenger terminals, the **hinterland is well delimited** and corresponds to a commuting range where customers can access the terminal within a couple of hours. The activity level is proportional to the population density, the level of income, and the prominence of tertiary activities. For ports, as with most freight terminals, activity levels correspond to the **hinterland dynamics** they are connected to. It is subject to changes in the nature of its activities and the level of accessibility, including inland corridors. Any change implies either new opportunities to generate additional port traffic, a decline, or a change in the nature and composition of the traffic. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hinterland_transport_terminal2.png?resize=900%2C446&ssl=1 "The Hinterland of a Transport Terminal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-transport-terminal/hinterland_transport_terminal2/)The Hinterland of a Transport Terminal[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_foreland_hinterland.png?resize=900%2C506&ssl=1 "Port Foreland and Hinterland | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland/port_foreland_hinterland2/)Port Foreland and Hinterland[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dichotomy_foreland_hinterland.png?resize=900%2C662&ssl=1 "The Space / Cost Dichotomy of Forelands and Hinterlands | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/foreland-hinterland-dichotomy/space_time_dichotomy_foreland_hinterland/)The Space Cost Dichotomy of Forelands and Hinterlands[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/boxed_in_hinterland2.png?resize=900%2C601&ssl=1 "The “Boxed In” Hinterland | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/boxed-in-hinterland/boxed_in_hinterland/)The Boxed In Hinterland[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hinterland_connectivity2.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "Types of Hinterland Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-connectivity/hinterland_connectivity2/)Types of Hinterland ConnectivityThe type of commodity can further discriminate hinterlands, as each is part of a specific supply chain with its spatial relationships: - **Bulk products** (minerals, chemicals, raw materials, wood, grain, etc.). In this case, distance is one of the most important factors shaping the hinterlands. Due to the nature of the products and the high transport costs, hinterlands tend to be small and serviced by high-capacity corridors to the direct location of extraction or production. - **Parts and manufactured goods**. Mostly concerns containerized traffic. Improvements in intermodal transportation and globalization have considerably expanded the hinterland for this type of traffic. The hinterland can often [encompass large economic regions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3146), particularly if transport corridors are involved. With the emergence of feeder services and hub ports, the concept of foreland has been expanded as a port that can service a foreign hinterland through a maritime link. The validity of the hinterland concept has been questioned, especially in the context of contemporary containerization. The mobility provided by the container has greatly facilitated market penetration, leading many ports to compete for the same market areas. Therefore, hinterlands may **overlap**. The notion of discrete hinterlands with well-defined boundaries is questionable since many hinterlands have become discontinuous, a process facilitated by developing [**corridors** and **inland terminals**](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/inland-terminals-function/ "Functions of Inland Terminals"). The extension and strengthening of hinterlands follow a vertical or horizontal integration process, depending on whether the port establishes more effective functional linkages with inland intermodal terminals (vertical) or other maritime terminals (horizontal). Nevertheless, the concept of the hinterland is still widely employed, and port authorities continue to emphasize their port’s centrality to hinterland areas in their promotional literature. Providing services to a wide range of terminals worldwide is considered an advantage. With the growth in maritime traffic and congestion in the proximity of port terminal facilities, several port authorities have become more involved in the development of strategies aiming to better serve their hinterland. Such strategies and the stakeholders involved are dependent on the direction of the flows since import and export-based flows usually involve different supply chains. For instance, in North America and Europe, imports are dominated by retail goods bound to major urban markets, while exports have a stronger resource orientation coming from resource-extracting regions. The foreland and hinterland should be considered a **continuum** rather than separate and distinct elements. The emergence of door-to-door services and networks, where the port is seen as one link through transport chains, underlines this continuum. In such a context, the port becomes one element of the maritime / land interface, which ensures the continuity of global freight circulation, including expanding connectivity within the hinterland. A form of hinterland connectivity is based on the **extended gate concept**, where a series of terminals and the related logistics activities are integrated into a single functional and coordinated entity. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hinterland_setting_regions.png?resize=900%2C412&ssl=1 "Hinterland Setting and Major Economic Regions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Hinterland Setting and Major Economic Regions![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/functions_inland_terminals.png?resize=900%2C519&ssl=1 "Functions of Inland Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Functions of Inland Terminals# 3. Traffic Generation Transportation terminals are **focal points of economic activity**. Cargo handling and passenger transfers represent an economic function, like manufacturing or agriculture. The inputs and outputs are traffic flows. The extent of the activity can be measured easily, such as the number of passengers handled or trains departing. In many others, measurement is complicated. In the case of an airport, measuring the size by counting the number of aircraft movements can produce distortions because of differences in plane sizes. This problem is even more acute in shipping, where small coastal ships of 500 tons capacity are considered equal to bulk carriers of 250,000 tons. Similarly, there are major discrepancies between different types of cargo, where 1,000 tons of ore cannot be equated with 1,000 tons of electronics. Containerization has further complicated traffic counts, which are measured in volume (TEU, or Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit), regardless of whether the container is full or empty or what is carried. The problems of measuring traffic volumes thus need to be carefully assessed. Significant variations exist in the volumes of traffic handled by different terminals. Size variations tend to increase because of the trend across the modes for traffic concentration in major **load centers**. A Pareto distribution of the traffic is apparent in the passenger and freight sectors. For instance, the [25 largest container ports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/ "World’s Major Container Ports, 2016") in the world handle about 50% of the traffic, while the [25 largest passenger airports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-passengers-airports/ "Passenger Traffic at the World’s Largest Airports, 2018") account for 20%. Specific terminals are selected as traffic hubs, where passengers and freight are assembled for onward distribution in intermediate locations. This is most apparent in passenger air traffic, where many airlines have adopted hub-and-spoke network structures. Each hub is served by smaller regional carriers/planes for local service, with the hubs linked by wide-body jets for long-haul services. Similar systems have been established in the North American intermodal rail networks, where trucks provide local pickup and delivery of containers, and double-stack trains haul them between the major hubs. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-2020.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "World's Major Container Ports, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Major Container Ports 2020![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Passengers-Airports-2018.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "Passenger Traffic at the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Passenger Traffic at the Worlds Largest Airports 2018The **origins and destinations of traffic** are a vital concern for terminals since serving the hinterland is their prime function. Competition between terminals may be seen as attempts to retain or capture particular market areas. Successful terminals are those that have extended their hinterlands to capture market areas that were formerly served by a competitor. For much of the 19th Century, the ports of New York, Baltimore, Boston, and Philadelphia sought to control the trade of the developing Midwest, with New York prevailing because of its superior rail and canal links. Maintaining dominance over a hinterland remains important as modal options such as rail increase competition. This strategy is moving towards a new phase as areas nearby major terminals, particularly ports, tend to be congested. Still, it pans out differently depending on the geographical setting, such as Europe, North America, and East Asia. # 4. Agglomeration, Linkages and Growth The traffic flowing through terminals and the need to transfer freight between the modes give opportunities for other activities to exploit locational advantages. There have been long-standing advantages for certain types of manufacturing to locate near terminals, resulting in **location economies**. Raw materials imported through a port provide opportunities for processing industries. Oil refineries, flour mills, sugar refineries, and steel mills are examples of industries that frequently benefit from port locations. In a similar fashion, firms requiring good access to distant markets to sell their products have sought sites near rail facilities and airports. The link between manufacturing and terminals, especially ports, gave rise to the concept of **Maritime Industrial Development Areas**. In Japan and Europe, in particular, post-war reconstruction involved the planning and establishing of new industrial complexeson sites adjacent to new port and rail terminals. The planning recognized the need to establish new terminal infrastructures as well as locating new manufacturing developments to serve as local clients of the facility. With globalization, this went further as production and consumption became increasingly separated, leading to a greater array of freight distribution activities. This was particularly the case for Chinese development following the Open Door Policy in the 1980s, which strongly focused on port terminals as export platforms for nearby manufacturing and distribution activities. Thus, the link between distribution and terminals has taken shape with the emergence of **logistics zones**. While the relationships between terminals and the manufacturing sector are evident, even closer links exist with the service sector, although the relationships may not be quite as visible. Terminal activity creates demands for an extensive range of **transport services**. These include activities as diverse as aircraft maintenance, locomotive repair, catering, warehousing, duty-free stores, hotels, freight forwarders, and customs brokers. Together, they comprise an important business sector that contributes to the overall effectiveness of the terminal while being dependent upon it for business. This symbiotic relationship is reflected in the locational patterns of these firms. In most cities, these services are highly clustered in two concentrations. Many are located in close proximity to the terminal itself. For instance, ship chandlers, catering, and hotels are usually situated close to the port or airport. A further cluster is usually found in the central business district with freight forwarders, brokers, and insurance, typically located in central urban locations. Terminals are frequently considered as growth poles. According to the **growth poles theory**, development is not uniform and takes place at [terminal locations around which activities agglomerate](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/terminal-growth-pole/ "Terminals as Clusters and Growth Poles"). Activities can improve their accessibility to suppliers and customers through the infrastructure terminals provide. In addition to the linkages with manufacturing and the service sector, terminals are major employers in their own right. In order to operate a major terminal requires a wide range of labor and skills, from baggage handling and aircraft refueling, to air traffic controllers and pilots. Terminals, therefore, are economic forces in their own right, and because they generate links to other sectors of the economy, they become the focus of economic activity. For instance, a [growth strategy for inland terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/freight-clusters-integration/ "Functional Integration of Freight Distribution Clusters") revolves around the formation of logistics zones where distribution centers share common facilities, including better access to a transport terminal. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/terminals_clusters_growth_poles.png?resize=900%2C471&ssl=1 "Terminals as Clusters and Growth Poles | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/terminal-growth-pole/terminals_clusters_growth_poles/)Terminals as Clusters and Growth Poles[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/functional_integration_clusters.png?resize=900%2C564&ssl=1 "Functional Integration of Freight Distribution Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/freight-clusters-integration/functional_integration_clusters/)Functional Integration of Freight Distribution ClustersTerminals represent an important category of land use. Frequently, they are the **largest single land users** in a city and are important in understanding transport terminal land use and its relationships. Terminals exert a significant influence over neighboring land uses. This is due in part because of the **intense linkages they generate with other urban functions**, but it is also owing to externalities that are frequently negative. Thus, industrial land is commonly associated with terminal sites, which are among the most important industrial zones in a city. However, because of noise, pollution, and visual blight, both the terminals and adjacent industries can also be areas of social, economic, and environmental degradation. In particular, older port sites and rail terminals are seen as disadvantaged. --- ## Related Topics - [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3009) - [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1498) - [6.3 – Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3235) - [6.4 – Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3601) - [6.5 – Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3717) - [Terminals and Terminal Operators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/terminals-and-terminal-operators/) (PEMP) - [Inland Ports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139) (PEMP) ## Bibliography - De Langen, P.W. and A. Chouly (2004) “Hinterland access regimes in seaports”, European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 4(4), pp.361-380. - Ducruet, C. and S.W. Lee (2006) “Frontline soldiers of globalization: port-city evolution and regional competition”, GeoJournal, 67(2), pp. 107-22. - Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2005) “Port Regionalization: Towards a New Phase in Port Development”, Maritime Policy and Management, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 297-313. - Robinson R, (2002) “Ports as elements in value-driven chain systems: the new paradigm”, Maritime Policy and Management, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 241-255. - Rodrigue, J-P, J. Debrie, A. Fremont and E. Gouvernal (2010) “Functions and Actors of Inland Ports: European and North American Dynamics”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 519-529. - Roso, V., and K. Lumsden (2010) “A Review of Dry Ports”, Maritime Economics & Logistics, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 196-213. - Sargent, A.J. (1938) Seaports and Hinterlands, London: Adam and Charles Black. - Slack, B. (1999) “Satellite terminals: a local solution to hub congestion?”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 7, pp. 241-246. - Weigend, G.G. (1956) “The problem of hinterland and foreland as illustrated by the port of Hamburg”, Economic Geography, Vol. 32, pp. 1-16. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.4 - High Speed Rail Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/) **Published:** December 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > High speed rail refers to passenger rail systems running at operational speed between 200 and 300 km/h, and above in some cases. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. High Speed Rail Networks](#1_High_Speed_Rail_Networks) - [2. Benefits and Challenges](#2_Benefits_and_Challenges) - [3. New Technologies](#3_New_Technologies) # 1. High Speed Rail Networks Although trains could reach 200 km/hr by the beginning of the 20th century, operational speeds rarely surpassed 130 km/hr. The high-speed rail (HSR) era originated in Japan with the [Tokaido line, bridging Tokyo and Osaka](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7465), which entered into service in 1964 for the Tokyo Olympics. Japan presented several suitable conditions for setting up an HSR system, particularly a high population density and closely interconnected large cities. It simply became a matter of overlapping the HSR network over this spatial structure. HSR is perceived as an efficient alternative to highway and airport congestion. Evidence underlines that rail travel time is [cut in about half](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3644) when a high-speed service is established between two city pairs. The setting of [high-speed rail systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1921) has accelerated worldwide since the 1980s with [substantial growth in traffic](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1975). The first European high-speed line was inaugurated in 1981 between Paris and Lyon with a speed of 260 km/hr. It was followed by Germany and Italy (1988), Spain (1992), Belgium (1997), the UK (2003), and the Netherlands (2009). It is, however, China that has seen the most spectacular developments. From 2008, when the first high-speed line between Beijing and Tianjin was inaugurated, several high-speed rail corridors have been rapidly set, reaching 19,000 km in 2016 and 37,900 km in 2020, making it the longest in the world. Several countries, including the United States, are also planning for high-speed rail corridors. Still, these projects tend to take decades to implement due to funding issues, the limited importance of existing passenger rail services, and the dominance of air and road transportation. Dedicated high-speed postal trains are used in Europe (e.g. France and Sweden) on a daily basis. Still, the relative decline of postal use leaves such endeavors with questionable growth potential. High-speed rail currently functions under two discrete technologies: - **Improvement of conventional rail**. The first type **uses existing conventional rail systems** and its great velocity is primarily due to considerable improvements in locomotive performance and train design. They may not be considered pure high-speed trains per se. England (London – Edinburgh), Sweden (Stockholm – Gothenburg), Italy (Rome – Florence and Rome – Milan), and the United States (Boston – Washington) are examples of this type of technology. Trains can reach peak speeds of approximately 200 km/h in most cases and up to 250 km/h in Italy. The principal drawback of using this system, however, is that it must share existing lines with regular passengers and freight services, which limits the slots available to HSR. - **Exclusive high-speed networks**. In contrast, the second category of high-speed trains runs on its own **exclusive and independent tracks**. In Japan, trains can attain speeds of 240 km/h, but ongoing projects to raise peak speeds to 300 km/h aim at maintaining the competitiveness of rail passenger transport versus air travel. In France, the TGV Sud-Est (Trains à Grande Vitesse) reaches speeds of 270 km/h, while the TGV Atlantique can cruise at speeds of 300 km/h. One of the key advantages of such a system is that since passenger trains have their exclusive tracks, the **efficiency of rail freight transport increases** as it inherits the almost exclusive use of the conventional rail system. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Japan_Shinkansen.png?resize=700%2C640&ssl=1 "The Shinkansen High Speed Rail Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/shinkansen-high-speed-rail-network/japan_shinkansen/)The Shinkansen High Speed Rail Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-HSR.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World High Speed Rail Systems, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/map-world-hsr/)World High Speed Rail Systems 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/travel_times_high_speed_rail.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Travel Times before and after the Introduction of a High-Speed Rail Service | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-travel-time/travel_times_high_speed_rail/)Travel Times before and after the Introduction of a High Speed Rail Service hours[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/high_speed_rail_markets.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Development of High Speed Train Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-development/high_speed_rail_markets/)Development of High Speed Train Traffic 1964 2019The first high-speed rail networks were built to service national systems, mostly linearly along **main corridors**. In the case of Europe, this development has reached a phase where integration between different national high-speed systems is taking place. This notably involves Eurostar (Paris-Lille-London) and Thalys (Paris-Brussels-Antwerp-Rotterdam-Amsterdam). The setting of high-speed rail networks consequently, must take into consideration the following constraints: - **Commercial potential**. High-speed rail is particularly suitable in a system of large metropolitan areas in close proximity, where it can offer a travel time advantage, a key factor of its competitiveness. Thriving short-haul air services indicate an existing market of passengers valuing fast services. - **Distance between stations**. A distance of 50 km is often considered a minimum, leaving enough for trains to accelerate and reach a cruising speed that makes the advantages of high-speed rail relevant. Servicing too many stations undermines the rationale of high-speed systems, which is to serve large urban agglomerations in a fast and continuous manner. - **Right of way separation from other rail systems**. This is mainly the case in and out of metropolitan areas, where high-speed trains are forced to use the standard rail network so that they may connect to central rail stations. - **Availability of land**, both for terminals and high-speed lines. This problem can be mitigated by using existing central rail stations. The development of new HSR stations has often required the use of suburban greenfield sites. China has addressed this challenge by constructing large segments of its HSR system using bridges. While a km of rail takes about 28 hectares of land per km, using bridges reduces this footprint to around 11 hectares. Further, the bridge sections can be mass-produced and quickly assembled, reducing construction costs and time. # 2. Benefits and Challenges HSR provides a number of **economic, social and environmental benefits** for the corridors they service. The most salient are: - **Capacity and reliability**. HSR corridors have the capacity to move a large number of passengers in a safe and reliable manner. Depending on the design, a high-speed rail corridor can carry up to 400,000 passengers per day. They can mitigate congested roads and air infrastructure, particularly for short to medium distance trips. They are also much less impacted by adverse weather conditions (e.g., storms) than road and air transport and can thus continue to offer services in conditions that would cripple road and, particularly, air operations. - **Energy and environment**. HSR systems consume less energy per passenger-km than road and air transport. They are perceived to provide more sustainable mobility with electric power and denser land use structures associated with rail-oriented developments. High-speed rail systems can substantially affect other transport modes, including freight. One of the most apparent impacts is on air transportation services between cities along the high-speed rail corridor, particularly the most distant ones. High-speed rail is able to compete successfully with short to medium-distance air transport services as it conveys the advantage of servicing downtown areas and has much lower terminal time, mainly because of fewer security constraints. High-speed rail has a service window, usually between 150 and 800 km, as above 1,000 km air transportation is considered to be more effective. For city pairs closer than 500 km, introducing high-speed rail services will most likely remove commercial air services as they cease to be competitive from a time and cost perspective. Flights on routes that are over 1,500 km are usually little impacted. This can have a very important impact on air transportation since the world’s most active air routes are all short hauls of less than 1,000 km. Nevertheless, low-cost air services can compete with HSR in specific segments. Another emerging trend concerns a **complementarity** between HSR and air transportation, which involves cooperation between a national air and rail carrier. For instance, Lufthansa and Deutsche Bahn, and Air France and SNCF, offer single fares and tickets for selected routes where a high-speed rail segment is offered instead of a flight. There is thus a balance between competition and complementarity for HSR and air transportation services, particularly when there is congestion in the air transport system. In this situation, the complementarity may help release airport gate slots that can support more revenue-generating (longer distance) flights or reduce congestion. Further, introducing HSR usually increases the demand for travel between city pairs, a trend that can benefit air transportation. Rail stations with high-speed rail services are also increasingly becoming **transport hubs** with the associated demands on urban transport systems, particularly public transit. Regarding high-speed rail stations, two dynamics have emerged: - The **reconversion** and usage of central railway stations. Such facilities benefit from high accessibility levels due to their central locations and can thus grant a significant customer base for HSR services. This is particularly the case for the European system that is using existing tracks to access the central train station (e.g. Paris, Frankfurt, Munich), which avoided expensive development projects such as new stations or the building of tunnels. - The setting of **new facilities** in suburbia. In this case, the HSR station represents an opportunity to create a new node of activity (growth pole) within a metropolitan area. For freight transportation, there are several potential impacts, mostly indirect. The most straightforward is that since high-speed rail uses its own right of way, the separation between passenger and freight systems **promotes the efficiency and reliability of both networks**. The main reason is that passengers and freight have different operational characteristics, namely in terms of speed and frequency of service. For each passenger car that is removed from regular rail lines, an additional three freight rail cars can be accommodated by the new slot. The setting of high-speed networks may also incite additional investments in rail freight infrastructure, particularly in metropolitan areas, better signaling technologies, and cost-sharing initiatives. Although there have been discussions about the potential of using high-speed rail to move freight, these have not yet led to limited implementations. There are plans to have a high-speed rail cargo network in Europe, which would link major air cargo hubs such as Paris, Liege, Amsterdam, London, and Frankfurt. The goal is to provide an alternative to short-haul air cargo routes, as well as the possibility to move cargo between the hubs and improve their long-distance air cargo connectivity. In China, express package delivery services using the existing high-speed rail equipment have been implemented and cover most of the network. It is particularly used to carry cold chain goods such as pharmaceuticals and food. However, such services remain challenging to implement because of the limited capacity to carry cargo and the requirement to quickly load and unload parcels during a stop at a station. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Busiest-Air-Travel-Routes-1.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The World's Busiest Air Transport Routes, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/busiest-air-routes/map-busiest-air-travel-routes-1/)The Worlds Busiest Air Transport Routes 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/breakeven_hsr_air.png?resize=900%2C542&ssl=1 "Breakeven Distances between Conventional Rail, High Speed Rail and Air Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/breakeven-distances-rail-air-transport/hsr_breakeven/)Breakeven Distances between Conventional Rail High Speed Rail and Air Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rail_market_share_versus_air.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Passenger Rail Market Share Against Air for Inter-City Travel | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/passenger-rail-market-share-against-air-inter-city/rail_market_share_versus_air/)Passenger Rail Market Share Against Air for Inter City Travel[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_share_high_speed_rail.png?resize=900%2C373&ssl=1 "Modal Share before and after the Introduction of a High-Speed Train | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-modal-share/modal_share_high_speed_rail/)Modal Share before and after the Introduction of a High Speed Train[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/maglev_shanghai.jpg?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Maglev Train, Shanghai | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/maglev-shanghai/maglev_shanghai/)Maglev Train ShanghaiYet, HSR [does not have the far-reaching impacts](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7471) on passenger mobility that its proponents suggest, at least in the medium term. Although HSR in Europe is considered to be successful, its implementation requires massive subsidies, and its profitability remains difficult to achieve. For Spain, the world’s second most extensive system in terms of length, the process has particularly been a political one with the purpose of linking regional capitals with the national capital (Madrid). For developing countries, low fares are the dominant factor in mode selection, implying that HSR is not affordable for the great majority of the population. The location of stations remains a salient issue as suburban locations are advantageous from the perspective of land availability. However, suburban locations tend not to be well-connected to the local transport system and are remote from central areas, which is commonly the destination for most passenger traffic. The impacts of new HSR stations as poles for urban growth and development remain elusive so far. # 3. New Technologies In addition to present technologies, an entirely new technological paradigm has been under development since the late 1970s, initially in Japan and Germany. The new technology is known as **Maglev** (Magnetic Levitation); it utilizes magnetic forces to uplift trains, guide them laterally, and propel them, relying upon highly efficient electromagnetic systems. The first commercial maglev rail system was inaugurated in [Shanghai in 2003](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1661). However, Maglev systems have experienced some constraints on widespread commercialization, such as difficulties with integration in established rail corridors and perceptions of high construction costs. A further expansion of the technology took shape in 2012 by introducing the hyperloop concept, which involves a maglev vehicle (e.g. a pod) circulating in a vacuum tube. Less air friction enables much higher operational speeds in the range of 1,000 km/hr. Although such systems have not yet been constructed, some short-distance corridors could be developed by 2025-30. --- ## Related Topics - [Rail Transportation and Pipelines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1759) - [Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3601) - [Future Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1579) ### Bibliography - Albalate, D. and G. Bel (2012) The Economics and Politics of High Speed Rail: Lessons from Experiences Abroad, Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. - Feigenbaum, B. (2013) High-Speed Rail in Europe and Asia: Lessons for the United States, Reason Foundation, Policy Study 418. - Givoni, M. (2006) “Development and Impact of the Modern High-speed Train: A Review”, Transport Reviews, Vol. 26, No. 5, pp. 593–611. - LEK Consulting (2019) New Routes to Profitability in High-Speed Rail. - Ryder, A. (2012) “High Speed Rail”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 22, pp. 303-305. - Smith, R.A. (2003) “The Japanese Shinkansen”, *Journal of Transport History*, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 222-237. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/?share=reddit) - --- ### [US-China Tariffs, 2018-2025](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/us-china-tariffs/) **Published:** July 30, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/US_China_tariffs.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "US-China Tariffs, 2018-2025 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")US China Tariffs 2018 2025*Source: Peterson Institute for International Economics.* In 2000, the United States granted China most-favored-nation status, implying that tariffs imposed by the United States on Chinese goods would be comparable to those it imposes on the nation with the most favorable tariffs (excluding those accorded to nations part of free trade agreements such as NAFTA/USMCA). This resulted in average tariffs on Chinese goods in the range of 3%, giving a strong impetus for trade and the outsourcing of many manufacturing activities in China. Over time, trade between the United States and China became increasingly contentious, as the United States was perceived as providing a massive subsidy to Chinese firms that were dumping low-cost goods into the American market. The United States accused China of unfair trade practices, including forcing the formation of joint ventures with Chinese firms, cyber hacking, and technological espionage. In 2018, the United States undertook a massive revision of its trade policy with China, which led to a ‘trade war’. The initial increases in tariffs were reciprocated by China in a series of phases that, by 2020, stabilized at around 19.3% for Chinese exports and 21.2% for American exports. During the same period, as the United States slightly increased the average tariffs imposed on its trade partners, China reduced theirs, changing the competitiveness of industrial sectors. For instance, in 2018, China increased tariffs on U.S. cars to 25% and reduced tariffs on third-country cars, such as those from Japan, Germany, and South Korea, to 15%. This underscores a new phase reminiscent of the period prior to the 1980s economic reforms, when tariffs were high. In 2025, a new wave of tarrifs were applied under the rationale of reciprocity and correcting trade imbalances. Although higher tariffs were applied to most countries, including closely aligned partners such as the European Union, the tariffs were most substantial and impactful for China. Between 2018, when the trade war began, and late 2025, tariffs were 15 times higher. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/us-china-tariffs/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/us-china-tariffs/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/us-china-tariffs/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/us-china-tariffs/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Yuan Exchange Rate, 1981-2026](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/yuan-usd-exchange-rate/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Yuan Exchange Rate (per USD), 1981-2026 (Monthly) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Yuan Exchange Rate per USD 1981 2022 Monthly*Source: St. Louis Federal Reserve Branch.* The exchange rate between the Yuan and the US dollar remains one of the most controversial monetary and trade issues in the global economy. China has actively used monetary policy as a tool to promote its export-oriented growth strategy through the debasement of its currency, the Yuan. In the 1990s, the Yuan was systematically debased from roughly 3.7 Yuan per USD to 8.3 and left at that level for more than a decade. These made Chinese goods cheap in American dollars, and exports increased significantly. The price paid for this export subsidy is substantial inflation within the Chinese economy, as it confers higher prices for imported commodities such as food, minerals, and energy. In 2005, facing pressure from the American government and rising commodity prices, including petroleum, the Chinese government gradually revalued its currency and introduced a managed floating exchange rate. By 2008, the exchange rate had stabilized at approximately 6.8 Yuan per USD. Because of intense competition in global markets and among Chinese manufacturers, profit margins for several export goods are very low (less than 5%), implying that an additional revaluation of the Yuan would have significant negative effects on the competitiveness of the Chinese export-oriented economy. By 2013, the exchange rate had reached 6.0 Yuan per USD, but the exchange rate reversed as the Chinese economy lost competitiveness and global demand slowed. It can thus be expected that the Chinese authorities would be highly reluctant to further revalue the Yuan to levels seen before the 1990s. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/yuan-usd-exchange-rate/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/yuan-usd-exchange-rate/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/yuan-usd-exchange-rate/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/yuan-usd-exchange-rate/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Merchandise Trade, 1960-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/world-merchandise-trade/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_merchandise_trade.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Merchandise Trade, 1960-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Merchandise Trade 1960 2022*Source: WTO and World Bank. Current USD.* Global trade has grown in absolute and relative terms, particularly since 1990, when global exports surged amid rapid industrialization in developing economies and massive offshoring of manufacturing, particularly in China. The value of global exports first exceeded US$ 1 trillion in 1977, and by 2008, more than US$ 16 trillion in merchandise was exported. During the same time period, the share of the world GDP accounted for by merchandise trade, imports, and exports combined, surged from 18% to 52%. This trend is correlated with a growth in volumes handled by international transportation, particularly container shipping. Yet, this rapid growth is skewed by the international division of production, in which parts can be traded several times before an assembled good is ready for final consumption. This is particularly the case for countries having a high level of economic integration, such as NAFTA/USMCA (Canada, the United States, and Mexico) or the European Union. The growth of exports is indicative of a cycle in which trade expanded (up to the 1980s), accelerated (1980-2000), and reached peak growth (2000-2008). Growth in trade was also accompanied by a surge in trade imbalances. The entry of China into the WTO in late 2001 significantly impacted global trade, which accelerated due to an expansion of Chinese exports. Eventually, a phase of maturity in global trade will be reached. The financial crisis of 2008-2009 was accompanied by a significant decline in global merchandise trade, amounting to nearly 25% in one year. The primary factor behind this decline was a decline in durable-goods consumption (e.g., furniture, appliances, cars), as consumers can postpone such purchases when uncertain about the future. Trade rebounded afterward, primarily driven by emerging economies. However, since 2012, a peaking in global trade has been observed, with the value of exports leveling off and its share of the global GDP declining. In 2015 and 2016, global trade experienced a significant decline, largely attributable to slower growth in East Asia, particularly China, and falling commodity prices, including petroleum. Although the COVID-19 pandemic negatively affected global trade in 2020, trade surged in 2021, in part due to deferred demand and massive stimulus policies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/world-merchandise-trade/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/world-merchandise-trade/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/world-merchandise-trade/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/world-merchandise-trade/?share=reddit) - --- ### [7.2 - Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/) **Published:** November 24, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > International trade is an exchange of goods or services across national jurisdictions subject to regulatory oversight and taxation. Inbound trade is defined as imports and outbound trade is defined as exports. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Flows of Globalization](#1_The_Flows_of_Globalization) - [2. The Setting of the Contemporary Global Trade System](#2_The_Setting_of_the_Contemporary_Global_Trade_System) - [3. Trade Costs and Facilitation](#3_Trade_Costs_and_Facilitation) - [4. Global Trade Flows](#4_Global_Trade_Flows) - [5. Global Trade at a Threshold?](#5_Global_Trade_at_a_Threshold) # 1. The Flows of Globalization In a global economy, **no nation is self-sufficient**, which is associated with [specific exchanges of goods, people, and information](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4038). Each nation is involved at different levels in trade to sell what it produces, acquire what it lacks, and produce more efficiently in some economic sectors than its trade partners. International trade, or long-distance trade, has taken place for centuries, with some ancient trade routes predating history. Trade is an integral part of economic and cultural history, as ancient trade routes such as the [Silk Road](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1048) can testify. Historically, trade was limited both by the demand and the capacity to transport cost-effectively goods having a market value at the destination. Commercial and technological developments have allowed trade to occur at an ever-increasing scale over [the last 600 years](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4023). By the mid-19th century, trade was taking an increasingly active role in the economic life of nations and regions, and after the mid-20th century, trade became an active tool of economic globalization. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/flows_globalization2.png?resize=900%2C447&ssl=1 "The Flows of Globalization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Flows of Globalization![Map Silk Road](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C540&ssl=1 "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Trade-Routes-1400-1800-1.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Major Global Trade Routes, 1400-1800 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Global Trade Routes 1400 1800International trade is an expansion of the market (or exchange) principle at a scale beyond the region or the nation. It should take place only if there is a benefit for the partners involved, underlining that the [rationale for trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=23735 "The Rationale for Trade") can be a **convenience** but also a **necessity**. It is for convenience, as supported by [conventional economic theory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4012), when trade promotes economic efficiency by providing a wider variety of goods, often at lower costs. This is because of specialization, economies of scale, and the related comparative advantages. Trade is a necessity when it enables a nation to acquire goods that would otherwise not be available in a national economy, such as energy, raw minerals, or even agricultural goods. However, the benefits of trade can be subject to contention with several theoretical foundations of international trade have been articulated to explain its rationale: - **Mercantilism**. A trading system where a nation tries to impose a positive trade balance (more exports than imports, particularly value-wise) on other nations to favor wealth accumulation. This system was prevalent during the colonial era and was often undertaken by [charter companies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1089) receiving a monopoly on trade. Mercantilism represents the antithesis of free trade since trade relations are controlled and aligned to benefit one partner at the expense of others, implying that what can be traded, the conditions, and the partners involved are regulated. Still, mercantilism established the foundations of a global trading system, albeit an unequal one. - **Neomercantilism**. A more recent trade system that leans on setting up a positive trade balance to meet economic development goals through control of the cost structure. [Export-oriented strategies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/export-oriented-paradigm/ "Phases of the Export-Oriented Paradigm") can be considered a form of neomercantilism, particularly if a government puts forward an incentive and subsidy system (e.g. free trade zones), which confers additional advantages to the factors of production. Neomercantilism can also be a response by some governments to the competitive and disruptive consequences of free trade, particularly if the trade partners are engaged in neo-mercantilist strategies. The outcomes are tariff and non-tariff measures regulating trade and protecting national commercial sectors, which are forms of protectionism. Therefore, neo-mercantilist strategies can be controversial and subject to contention. - **Absolute advantages**. A free trade mechanism relying on a nation (or a firm) being able to [produce more effectively](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4017) in an economic sector while using fewer resources (e.g. capital, labor) than any other potential competitors. Therefore, It has an absolute advantage. Global efficiency can thus be improved with trade as a nation can focus on its absolute advantages, trade its surplus, and import what it lacks. The drawback of this perspective is that, in theory, nations having no absolute advantages should not be involved in trading since they may have little to gain from it. Absolute advantages tend to be an **enduring characteristic**, particularly for resources such as energy. Large producers keep an advantage as long as a resource is available or has a market. - **Comparative advantages**. Even if a nation (or a firm) has absolute advantages over a wide array of economic sectors, it can [focus on the sectors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4017) it has the highest comparative advantages (the difference between its production costs and those of its competitors) and import goods in sectors it has less comparative advantages. Comparative productivity increases the total production level since even if a nation (or a firm) has no absolute advantages, it can focus on sectors where the total productivity gains are the most significant. Comparative advantage can also be the outcome of economies of scale applied to a product or sector where the resulting lower costs provide competitiveness. Comparative advantages tend to be a **temporary characteristic** that can change with the evolution of labor costs and technology. - **Factor endowments**. Expands the perspective of the comparative advantages by underlining that trade is related to the factor endowments of a nation, the most basic being **capital**, **land**, and **labor**. A nation will export goods to which it has notable factor endowments and import goods to which it has scarce factor endowments. As such, nations with low-cost labor available will focus on labor-intensive activities, while nations with high capital endowments will focus on capital-intensive activities. Factor endowments can be improved through capital and human resources investments. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rationale_for_trade.png?resize=900%2C609&ssl=1 "The Rationale for Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Rationale for Trade![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/VOC_Trade_Network2.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "Dutch East India Company, Trade Network, 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Dutch East India Company Trade Network 18th Century![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/phases_export_oriented.png?resize=900%2C359&ssl=1 "Phases of the Export-Oriented Paradigm | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Phases of the Export Oriented Paradigm![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economic_rationale_trade2.png?resize=900%2C549&ssl=1 "Economic Rationale of Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Economic Rationale of Trade![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/absolute_comparative_advantages2.png?resize=900%2C517&ssl=1 "Absolute and Comparative Advantages | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Absolute and Comparative AdvantagesThe **globalization of production** is concurrent with the **globalization of trade**, as one cannot function without the other. This process has been facilitated by significant technical changes in the transport sector. The **scale**, **volume,** and **efficiency** of international trade have all continued to increase since the 1970s. As such, [global space/time convergence](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=462) was an ongoing process that implied a more extensive market coverage that could be accessed in less time. It has become increasingly possible to trade between parts of the world that previously had limited access to international transportation systems. Further, the division and the fragmentation of production that went along with these processes also expanded trade. Trade thus contributes to **lower manufacturing costs**. Without international trade, few nations could maintain an adequate standard of living, particularly those of smaller size. With only domestic resources being available, each country could only produce a **limited number of products,** and scarcity would be prevalent. Global trade allows for an [enormous variety of resources](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4028) – from Persian Gulf oil, Brazilian coffee to Chinese labor – to be more widely accessible. Each item being traded is subject to an internationally recognized classification ([Standard International Trade Classification](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/standard-international-trade-classification/ "Standard International Trade Classification (SITC)"); SITC), allowing nations to identify goods and the extent they are subject to tariffs and duties. Clear categorization also facilitates the distribution of a wide range of manufactured goods produced in different parts of the world to global markets. Wealth becomes increasingly derived through the regional specialization of economic activities. This way, production costs are lowered, productivity rises, and surpluses are generated, which can be transferred or traded for commodities that would be too expensive to produce domestically (convenience) or would not be available (necessity). As a result, international trade decreases the overall costs of production. Consumers can buy more goods from the wages they earn, and living standards should, in theory, increase. International trade demonstrates the extent of globalization with increased [spatial interdependencies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4033) between elements of the global economy and their level of integration. These interdependencies imply numerous relationships where [flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4038) of capital, goods, raw materials, people, and services are established between world regions. International trade is also subject to much [contention](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4044) since it can, at times, be a disruptive economic and social force. It changes the conditions in which wealth is distributed within a national economy, particularly due to changes in prices, wages, and employment sectors. One challenge concerns the **substitution of labor and capital**. While in a simple economy, labor and capital (infrastructures) can be reconverted to other uses, in complex economies, labor and capital cannot be easily reallocated. Therefore, trade can, at the same time, lead to more goods being available at a lower price but with enduring unemployment and decaying infrastructures (unused factories and real estate). In turn, this can incite economies to adopt protectionist policies since this transition is considered too disruptive. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/global_space_time_convergence2-scaled.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Global Space / Time Convergence: Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sitc_classification.png?resize=900%2C451&ssl=1 "Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Standard International Trade Classification SITC![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economic_integration_interdependency.png?resize=900%2C399&ssl=1 "Economic Integration and Interdependencies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Economic Integration and Interdependencies![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trade_favorable_contentions.png?resize=900%2C453&ssl=1 "Favorable and Contentious Factors in International Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Favorable and Contentious Factors in International Trade# 2. The Setting of the Contemporary Global Trade System International trade, in terms of value and tonnage, has been a growing trend in the global economy. When looking at the structure of global trade, it is important to underline that it is not nations that are trading, but mainly **corporations** with the end products consumed in majority by **individuals**. A nation is a regulatory and jurisdictional unit where data is collected since freight crossing boundaries is subject to customs oversight and tabulated as trade flows. Inter and Intra corporate trade that takes place across national jurisdictions is accounted for as international trade. The emergence of the current structure of global trade can mainly be articulated within [three major phases](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4049): - **First phase (immobile factors of production)**. Concerns a conventional perspective on international trade that prevailed until the 1970s, when factors of production were much less mobile. Prior to the end of World War I, global trade was mainly structured by colonial relations but was fairly unregulated. There was limited mobility of raw materials, parts, and finished products. Developments in transport technology in the shipping and rail sectors allowed for greater volumes and distances to be covered. After World War I, international trade became fairly regulated, with impediments such as tariffs, quotas, and limitations to foreign ownership. Trade mainly concerned a range of specific products, namely commodities (and very few services) that were not readily available in regional economies. Due to regulations, protectionism, and relatively high transportation costs, trade remained limited and delayed by inefficient freight distribution. It was challenging to coordinate production and distribution. In this context, trade was more an exercise to **cope with scarcity** than to promote economic efficiency. - **Second phase (mobility of factors of production)**. From the 1970s to the 1990s, the mobility of factors of production, particularly capital, became possible. The legal and physical environment in which international trade was taking place led to a better realization of the comparative advantages of specific locations. Concomitantly, regional trade agreements emerged, and the global trade framework was strengthened from a legal and transactional standpoint (GATT/WTO). In addition, **containerization** provided the capabilities to support more complex long-distance trade flows, as did the growing air traffic. Due to high production (legacy) costs in old industrial regions, labor-intensive activities were gradually relocated to lower-cost locations, which came to be known as **offshoring**. The process began nationally, went to nearby countries when possible, and became a global phenomenon afterward. Thus, foreign direct investments surged, particularly towards new manufacturing regions, as multinational corporations became increasingly flexible in the global positioning of their assets. The trade of finished and intermediate goods surged. - **Third phase (global value chains**). There is a growth in international trade, now including a wide variety of services that were previously fixed to regional markets, and a surge in the mobility of the factors of production. Since these trends are well established, the priority is shifting to the geographical and functional integration of production, distribution, and consumption with the emergence of global value chains. Complex networks involving flows of information, commodities, parts, and finished goods have been set, which in turn demands a high level of command of logistics and freight distribution. In such an environment, powerful actors have emerged who are not directly involved in production and retailing but primarily assume responsibility for managing the web of flows. International trade is becoming increasingly supported by digital technologies, allowing for more efficient transactions, compliance with regulations, and the management of transportation and logistics assets supporting trade. The global economic system is thus characterized by a growing level of integrated services, finance, retail, manufacturing, and distribution. This is mainly the outcome of **improved transport and logistics**, more efficient exploitation of regional **comparative advantages**, and a **transactional environment** supportive of the legal and financial complexities of global trade. International trade requires a full array of services related to distribution and transactions. The volume of exchanged goods and services between nations is taking a growing share of wealth generation, mainly by offering economic growth opportunities in new regions and reducing the costs of a wide array of manufacturing goods. By 2007, international trade surpassed [50% of global GDP](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4055) for the first time, a twofold increase in its share since 1950. This share has fluctuated but remains in the 45-50% range. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/change_global_trade_environment.png?resize=900%2C885&ssl=1 "Changes in the Global Trade Environment | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Changes in the Global Trade Environment![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trade_connectivity_inequalities2.png?resize=900%2C618&ssl=1 "Trade, Connectivity and Spatial Inequalities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Trade Connectivity and Spatial Inequalities![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_merchandise_trade.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Merchandise Trade, 1960-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Merchandise Trade 1960 2022# 3. Trade Costs and Facilitation > **Trade facilitation** involves how the procedures regulating the international movements of goods can be improved so that actors involved in international trade have more efficient formalities. For regulatory authorities, trade facilitation improves their effectiveness as well as reduces the risk of customs duty evasion. It relies on reducing the general costs of trade, which considers transaction, tariff, transport, and time costs, also known as the [“Four Ts” in international trade](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/four-ts-trade/ "The “Four Ts” in International Trade"). These trade costs are derived from two primary sources: - **Separation factors**. These are usually exogenous factors separating two trade partners, such as distance, transportation costs, travel time, as well as common attributes shared by trade partners. These usually involve being part of an economic agreement (e.g. a free trade zone), which is facilitated when partners have a common border. - **Country-specific factors**. Endogenous to factors related to the origin or the destination of trade. This usually involves customs procedures (tariff and non-tariff factors), the overall performance of the national transport and logistics sector, and how well an economy is connected to the international transport system through its gateways (mostly ports and airports). United Nations estimates have underlined that for developing countries, a 10% reduction in transportation costs could be accompanied by a growth of about 20% in international and domestic trade. Thus, the ability to compete in a global economy is dependent on the transport system as well as a [trade facilitation framework](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=23792 "The Main Dimensions of Trade Facilitation") that includes measures related to economic integration, the capabilities of international transportation systems, and the ease of negotiating and settling transactions. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/four_t_trade.png?resize=900%2C341&ssl=1 "The "Four Ts" in International Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Four Ts in International Trade![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dimensions_trade_facilitation.png?resize=900%2C327&ssl=1 "The Main Dimensions of Trade Facilitation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Main Dimensions of Trade Facilitation![Customs Frand Misclassification](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/customs_frand_misclassification.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Customs Fraud by Misclassification of Goods | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Customs Fraud by Misclassification of Goods![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trading_borders.png?resize=900%2C402&ssl=1 "Regional Averages in Trading Across Borders | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Regional Averages in Trading Across Borders 2012![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/levels_economic_integration.png?resize=900%2C509&ssl=1 "Levels of Economic Integration | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Levels of Economic IntegrationThe quality, cost, and efficiency of trade services influence the trading environment as well as the overall costs linked with the international trade of goods. Many factors have been conducive to trade facilitation in recent decades: - **Integration processes**, such as the emergence of economic blocks and the decrease of tariffs at a global scale through [agreements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3968), promoted trade as **regulatory regimes** were harmonized. Still, [customs fraud](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/customs-misclassification/ "Customs Fraud by Misclassification of Goods") remains an issue, particularly in the least developed economies. One straightforward measure of integration relates to [custom delays](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4077), which can be a significant trade impediment since it adds uncertainty to supply chain management. The higher the level of economic integration, the more likely the concerned elements are to trade. International trade has consequently been facilitated by factors linked to growing [levels of economic integration](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4082), the outcome of processes such as the European Union or the North American Free Trade Agreement. The transactional capacity is consequently facilitated by the [development of transportation networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/economic-integration-networks/ "Impacts of Economic Integration Processes on Networks and Flows") and the adjustment of trade flows that follow increased integration. Integration processes have also taken place at the local scale with the creation of free zones where an area is given a different governance structure in order to promote trade, particularly export-oriented activities. In this case, the integration process is not uniform, as only a portion of an area is involved. China is a salient example of the far-reaching impacts of the setting of [special economic zones](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/special-economic-zones-china/ "China’s Special Economic Zones") operating under a different regulatory regime. - **Standardization** concerns setting a common and ubiquitous frame of reference over information and physical flows. Standards facilitate trade since those abiding by them benefit from reliable, interoperable, and compatible goods and services, often resulting in lower production, distribution, and maintenance costs. Measurement units were among the first globally accepted standards (metric system), and the development of information technologies eventually led to common operating and telecommunication systems. However, it is the **container** that is considered to be the most significant international standard for trade facilitation. By offering a load unit that can be handled by any mode and terminal with the proper equipment, access to international trade is improved. - **Production systems** are more flexible and embedded. Maintaining a network of geographically diversified inputs is effectively productive, which favors exchanges of commodities, parts, and services. Information technologies have played a role in facilitating transactions and managing complex business operations. Foreign direct investments are commonly linked with the globalization of production as corporations invest abroad in search of lower production costs and new markets. China is a leading example of such a process, which went on par with the growing availability of goods and services that can be traded on the global market. - **Transport efficiency** has increased significantly because of innovations and improvements in the modes and infrastructures in capacity and throughput. Ports are particularly important in such a context since they are gateways to international trade through maritime shipping networks. As a result, the transferability of commodities, parts, and finished goods has improved. Decreasing transport costs does more than increase trade; it can also help change the location of economic activities. Yet, transborder transportation issues regarding capacity, efficiency, and security remain to be better addressed. - **Transactional efficiency**. An international trade transaction can generate up to 27 documents, of which nine are related to the transfer of possession from the seller to the carrier and the beneficial cargo owner. The financial sector also played a significant role in integrating global trade, namely by providing investment capital and credit for international commercial transactions. For instance, a [letter of credit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/letters-credit-bill-lading/ "Letters of Credit and Bills of Lading in Commercial Transactions") may be issued based on an export contract. An exporter can thus receive a payment guarantee from a bank until its customer finalizes the transaction upon delivery. This is particularly important since the delivery of international trade transactions can take several weeks due to the long distances involved. Recent efforts towards **digitalization** are further pushing towards higher levels of transactional efficiency since documentation is in digital format. During a transfer, it is also common that the cargo is insured in the event of damage, theft, or delays, a function supported by insurance companies. Also, global financial systems allow for currency exchanges according to exchange rates that are commonly set by market forces. In contrast, some currencies, such as the [Chinese Yuan](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/yuan-usd-exchange-rate/ "Yuan Exchange Rate, 1981-2022"), are influenced by policy. Monetary policy can thus be a tool, albeit contentious, used to influence trade. All these measures are expected to promote the level of economic and social development of the concerned nations since trade facilitation relies on the expansion of human, infrastructure, and institutional capabilities. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/integration_networks_flows.png?resize=900%2C615&ssl=1 "Impacts of Economic Integration Processes on Networks and Flows | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of Economic Integration Processes on Networks and Flows![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-Zones.png?resize=900%2C657&ssl=1 "China's Special Economic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Chinas Special Economic Zones![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/china_fdi.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Value of Chinese Exports and FDI | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Value of Chinese Exports and FDI 1983 2022![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Yuan Exchange Rate (per USD), 1981-2026 (Monthly) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Yuan Exchange Rate per USD 1981 2022# 4. Global Trade Flows The nature of what can be considered international trade has changed, particularly with the emergence of **global value chains** and the trade of intermediary goods they involve. This trend reflects the strategies of multinational corporations positioning their manufacturing assets in order to lower costs and maximize new market opportunities. About 80% of global trade takes place within value chains managed by multinational corporations. International trade has thus grown at a [faster rate than global merchandise production](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4120), with the growing complexity of distribution systems supported by supply chain management practices. The structure of [global trade flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4125) has shifted, with many developing economies having growing participation in international trade with an increasing share of manufacturing. Globalization has been accompanied by **growing flows of manufactured goods** and their [growing share of international trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4130). The trend since the 1950s involved a relative decline in bulk liquids (such as oil) and more dry bulk and general cargo being traded. The share of fuels in international trade tends to fluctuate in accordance with changes in energy demand and prices. Another emerging trade flow concerns the increase in the imports of resources from developing economies, namely energy, commodities, and agricultural products, which is a divergence from their conventional role as exporters of resources. This is indicative of economic diversification as well as increasing standards of living. However, significant **fluctuations in the growth rates of international trade** are linked with economic cycles of growth and recession, fluctuations in the price of raw materials, as well as disruptive geopolitical and financial events. The Covid-19 pandemic represented the most significant disruptive event since the financial crisis of 2008-09. While trade receded because of lockdowns and lower levels of economic activity, changes in consumption patterns and stimulus packages were associated with a surge in trade in 2021 and 2022. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Changes in the Value World's Merchandise Trade, Production and GDP, 1950-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Changes in the Value Worlds Merchandise Trade Production and GDP 1950 2021![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_goods_exports_lead.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of World Goods Exports, Leading Exporters, 1950-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of World Goods Exports Leading Exporters 1950 2022![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Trade.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global Trade, 2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Trade 2017![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/products_world_merchandise_trade.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Product Groups in World Merchandise Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of Product Groups in World Merchandise Trade 1900 2020![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/merchandise_exports_trade_agreement.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Merchandise Exports by Trade Agreement | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Merchandise Exports by Trade Agreement 2015![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/share_merchandise_exports_region.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Merchandise Exports by Region | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of Merchandise Exports by Region 1948 2021The [geography of international trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7881) remains **dominated by a few large [economic blocs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4205)**, mainly in [North America, Europe, and East Asia](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4137), commonly called the [triad](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4211). Alone, the [United States, Germany, and Japan](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4143) account for about a quarter of all global trade, with this supremacy being seriously challenged by emerging economies. Further, G7 countries account for half of the global trade, a dominance that has endured for over 100 years. A growing share is being accounted for by the developing economies of Asia, with China accounting for the most significant growth in absolute and relative terms. Those geographical and economic changes are also reflected in trans-oceanic trade, with the [Trans-Pacific trade growing faster than the Trans-Atlantic trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4148). **Neo-mercantilism** is reflective of global trade flows as several countries have been actively pursuing **export-oriented economic development policies** using infrastructure development, subsidies, and exchange rates as tools. This strategy has been followed by developing economies and is associated with growing physical and capital flow [imbalances](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4155) in international trade. This is particularly reflected in the American container trade structure, which is highly imbalanced and has acute differences in the composition of imports and exports. A large share of these imbalances resulted from the fiscal policies of exporting countries purchasing American financial instruments, such as bonds. This enabled the US dollar to uphold its value and purchasing power. **Imbalances can also be misleading** as products are composed of parts manufactured in several locations, with assembly often taking place in low-cost locations and then exported to major consumption markets. In international trade statistics, a location assumes the full value of finished goods imported elsewhere while it may have only contributed to a small share of the total added value. [Electronic devices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4167) are illustrative of this issue. Trade imbalances also do not reflect the utility an economy derives from it, such as cheaper consumer goods. Further, the growth of e-commerce has resulted in new actors being involved in international trade, at times indirectly. For instance, ordering a product online may result in an international trade transaction controlled by a single corporation. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_20_largest_traders.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "World’s 20 Largest Exporters and Importers of Goods and Services | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds 20 Largest Exporters and Importers of Goods and Services 2015 2020![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/iphone_supply_chain.png?resize=900%2C300&ssl=1 "Value Creation and Capture, iPhone 4 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Value Creation and Capture iPhone 4**Regionalization** has been one of the dominant features of global trade as the bulk of trade has a regional connotation, promoted by proximity and the setting of economic blocs such as USMCA and the European Union. The closer economic entities are, the more likely they are to trade due to lower transport costs, fewer potential delays in shipments, common customs procedures, and linguistic and cultural affinities. The most intense trade relations are within Western Europe and North America, with a more recent trend involving trade within Asia, particularly between Japan, China, Korea, and Taiwan, as these economies are getting more integrated. # 5. Global Trade at a Threshold? Since the second half of the 20th century, the growth of international trade has been [ongoing](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4055) and shaped by five salient trends: - Significant **multiplying effects between economic activity and trade**. From [1980 to 2020](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4173), exports have grown 8.9 times in current dollars, while GDP increased 7.4 times and the population increased 1.7 times. Since the 2010s, international trade appears to be leveling and subject to more volatility, such as a decline during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and a bounce back in 2021. - A substantial level of **[containerization of commercial flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4181)**, with container throughput growing in [proportion](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4187) with global trade. Containerization tends to grow at a rate faster than that of trade and GDP. This has been associated with the setting of intermodal transport chains connecting exporters and importers. - A **[concentration of finished goods exports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/most-traded-goods-lead-exporter-concentration/ "World’s Most Traded Goods, Lead Exporter and Concentration, 2016")** in a limited number of producing countries. For instance, five countries account for 79% of the provision of computer equipment and 75% of the phones. The concentration level is lower for intermediate goods, underlining an active trade of parts within supply chains. For imports, the destinations tend to be much more diversified, reflecting an existing demand irrespective of the origin of the products. - A higher relative growth of **trade in emerging economies**, particularly in Pacific Asia, focuses on [export-oriented](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4109) development strategies that have been associated with [imbalances](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4155) in commercial relations. - The growing role of [**multinational corporations**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4192) **as vectors for international trade**, particularly in terms of the share of international trade taking place [within corporations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4198) and the [high level of concentration](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1432) of their head offices. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/corporations_largest.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "The World's 20 Largest Corporations by Revenue | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Worlds 20 Largest Corporations by Revenue 2019![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_trade_container_throughput.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Trade and Container Throughput (1970=100) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Trade and Container Throughput 1970=100![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trade_within_between_corporations.png?resize=900%2C547&ssl=1 "trade_within_between_corporations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Trade Within and Between Corporations![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/traded_good_lead_concentration.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World’s Most Traded Goods, Lead Exporter and Concentration, 2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Most Traded Goods Lead Exporter and Concentration 2016![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/US_China_tariffs.png?w=900&ssl=1 "US-China Tariffs, 2018-2025 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")US China Tariffs 2018 2022![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fourth_industrial_revolution.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "The Four Industrial Revolutions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Four Industrial RevolutionsStill, many challenges are impacting future developments in international trade and transportation, mostly in terms of demographics, politics, supply chain, energy, and environmental issues. While the global population and its derived demand will continue to grow and reach around 9 billion by 2050, demographic changes such as the aging of the population, particularly in developed economies, will **transform consumption patterns** as a growing share of the population shifts from wealth-producing (working and saving) to wealth consuming (selling saved assets). Demographic trends in North America, Europe, and East Asia (e.g. Japan, South Korea, Taiwan) may not place them as drivers of global trade, a function they have assumed in recent decades. The demographic dividend in terms of the peak share of the working-age population that many countries benefited from, particularly China, is receding. This has ramifications on both the demand (consumption structure) and the production side (workforce). The regulatory environment and the involvement of governments, either directly or indirectly, are subject to **increasing contention**. Reforms in agricultural trade have not been effectively carried on, implying that many governments (e.g. in the EU) provide high subsidy levels to their agricultural sectors, undermining the competitiveness of foreign agricultural goods. This is undertaken to protect their agriculture, considering the risks associated with dependency on foreign providers and possible price fluctuations. Intellectual property rights remain a contentious issue as well since many goods are duplicated, undermining the brands of major manufacturers and retailers. A whole array of subsidies influence the competitiveness of exports, such as low energy and land costs and tax reductions. The rise of protectionist policies, as exemplified by [higher tariffs imposed by the American government on several Chinese goods in 2018](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/us-china-tariffs/ "US-China Tariffs, 2018-2022"), is underlining a contentious trade environment this is likely to endure. As maritime and air freight transportation relies on petroleum, international trade remains influenced by fluctuations in energy prices. The paradox has become that periods of high energy prices usually impose a rationalization of international trade and its underlying supply chains. However, periods of low or sharply declining energy prices, which should benefit international transportation, are linked with economic recessions. Environmental issues have also become more salient with the growing tendency of the public sector to regulate components of international transportation that are judged to have negative externalities. International trade enables several countries to **mask their energy consumption and pollutant emissions** by importing goods produced elsewhere and where environmental externalities are generated. Thus, international trade has permitted a shift in the international division of production, but also a division between the generation of environmental externalities and the consumption of the goods related to these externalities. Technological changes are impacting the nature of manufacturing systems through **robotization and automation**. The ongoing [fourth industrial revolution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1363) is changing input costs, particularly labor. Since a good share of international trade results from the convenience of comparative advantages, **automation and robotization** can undermine the standard advantages of lower labor costs and make manufacturing more productive at other locations, such as those closer to major markets. Further, since many developing economies remain complex places to undertake business as state and national firms are privileged, losing labor cost advantages could undermine future development prospects. This is likely to strongly influence the nature and volume of international trade, which could level and even regress. If this is the case, absolute advantages, such as resources, would have a greater influence on trade than before the 1970s. --- ## Related Topics - [7.1 – Transborder and Crossborder Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3913) - [5.4 – Maritime Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1762) - [7.3 – Freight Transportation and Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3924) - [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481) - [5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1768) - [B.8 – Petroleum: A Transportation Resource](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6757) - [9.3 – Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6289) - [B.19 – Transportation and Pandemics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8869) ## Bibliography - Arvis, J-F, M.A. Mustra, L. Ojala, B. Shepherd and D. Saslavsky (2012) Connecting to Compete 2012 Trade Logistics in the Global Economy, Washington, DC: The World Bank. - Arvis, J-F, B. Shepherd, Y. Duval, and C. Utoktham (2013) Trade Costs and Development: A New Data Set, Economic Premise, The World Bank, No. 104. - Barke, M. (1986) Transport and Trade, Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd. - Bernhofen, D., Z. El-Sahli, Z., and R. Kneller (2016) “Estimating the effect of the container revolution on world trade”, Journal of International Economics, 98(1): 36-50. - Bernstein, W.J. (2008) A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World, New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. - Braudel, F. (1982) The Wheels of Commerce. Civilization and Capitalism 15th-18th Century, Vol. II. New York: Harper & Row. - Daniels, J.D., L.H. Radebaugh, D. Sullivan and R.W. Click (2021) International Business: Environments and Operations, 17th Edition, New York: Prentice Hall. - Dicken, P. (2015) Global Shift: Mapping the Changing Contours of the World Economy, 7th Edition, New York: The Guilford Press. - Fugazza, M. and J. Hoffmann (2017) “Liner shipping connectivity as determinant of trade”, Journal of Shipping and Trade, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 2-18. - Fujita, M., P. Krugman and A.J. Venables (1999) The Spatial Economy: Cities, Regions and International Trade, Cambridge: MIT Press. - Ge, W. (1999) “Special Economic Zones and the Opening of the Chinese Economy: Some Lessons for Economic Liberalization”, World Development, Vol. 27, No. 7, pp. 1267-1285. - Hummels, D. (2001) Time as a Trade Barrier, GTAP Working Paper No. 18. - Krugman, P. R. (1991) Geography and Trade, Cambridge: MIT Press. - Lakshmanan, T.J. et al. (2001) Integration of Transport and Trade Facilitation: Selected Regional Case Studies, Washington: World Bank. - OECD (2021) Global value chains: Efficiency and risks in the context of COVID-19, OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19), Paris: OECD Publishing. - OECD (2022) International Trade During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Big Shifts and Uncertainty, Paris: OECD Publishing. - Spulber, D.F. (2007) Global Competitive Strategy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - World Trade Organization (2018) The future of world trade: How digital technologies are transforming global commerce. World Trade Report. 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CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Nature of Logistics](#1_The_Nature_of_Logistics) - [2. Driving Forces in Supply Chain Management](#2_Driving_Forces_in_Supply_Chain_Management) - [3. Distribution Systems](#3_Distribution_Systems) - [4. Geography of Freight Distribution](#4_Geography_of_Freight_Distribution) # 1. The Nature of Logistics Derived from the Greek *logistikos* (to calculate), the word logistics is polysemic. In the 19th century, the military referred to it as the art of combining all means of transport, revictualling, and sheltering troops. In a contemporary setting, it refers to the operations required for goods to be available on markets or in specific locations. The growth of freight flows has been a fundamental component of contemporary economic systems changes at the global, regional, and local scales, making [logistics increasingly relevant](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=599). These changes are not merely quantitative, with more freight in circulation, but also structural and operational. **Structural changes** mainly involve manufacturing systems with their expanded geography of production, while **operational changes** mainly concern freight transportation with its geography of distribution, namely intermodal transport systems. As such, the fundamental question does not necessarily reside in the nature, origins, and destinations of freight flows, but in **how this freight is moving**. New modes of production are concomitant with new modes of distribution, which brings forward the realm of logistics; the **science of physical distribution**. Logistics enables greater efficiency of freight mobility with an appropriate choice of modes, terminals, routes, and scheduling. The implied [purpose of logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-goals-operations/ "Logistics Goals and Operations") is to make available goods, raw materials, and commodities, fulfilling four major requirements related to order, delivery, quality, and cost fulfillment. Logistics is thus a **multidimensional value-added activity**, including production, location, time, and control of elements of the supply chain. It thus enables a better managerial level of space-time relations and, as such, an essential aspect of transport geography. Logistics acts as the material and organizational support of globalization, requiring a complex [set of decisions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/taxonomy-logistics-decisions/ "Taxonomy of Logistics Decisions") concerning an array of issues, such as the location of suppliers, the transport modes to be used, where the freight will be stored, and the timing and sequencing of deliveries. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/relevance_logistics-scaled.png?resize=900%2C349&ssl=1 "The Relevance of Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/relevance-logistics/relevance_logistics_list/)The Relevance of Logistics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_goals_operations.png?resize=900%2C355&ssl=1 "Logistics Goals and Operations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-goals-operations/logistics_goals_operations/)Logistics Goals and Operations![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/taxonomy_logistics_decisions.png?resize=900%2C403&ssl=1 "Taxonomy of Logistics Decisions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Taxonomy of Logistics Decisions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_packaging.png?resize=900%2C302&ssl=1 "Types of Packaging | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/types_packaging/)Types of PackagingThe **distinction between logistics and supply chain management** can be subject to contention since the terms are often used interchangeably. Previously, logistics tended to focus on transportation and warehousing aspects, while supply chain management would consider sourcing as well as final distribution. In recent years, the meaning of both has converged. Thus, logistics and supply chain management can be considered similar and interchangeable terms. Still, it can be argued that the term supply chain management is usually considered more comprehensive since it also considers the competitive aspects of distribution. [Activities comprising logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4393) include **physical distribution**; the derived transport segment, and **materials management**; the induced transport segment. > **Physical distribution** is the range of activities involved in the movement of goods from points of production to final points of sale and consumption. It must ensure that the mobility requirements of supply chains are entirely met. Physical distribution includes all the functions of movement and handling of goods, particularly transportation services, transshipment and warehousing services, trade, wholesale, and, in principle, retail. Conventionally, all these activities were assumed to be derived from materials management demands. > **Materials management** considers all the activities involved in the manufacturing of commodities in all their stages of production along a supply chain. It includes production and marketing activities such as production planning, demand forecasting, purchasing, and inventory management. Materials management must ensure that the requirements of supply chains are met by dealing with a wide array of parts for assembly and raw materials, including [packaging for transport and retailing](https://transportgeography.org/types-packaging/ "Types of Packaging") and, ultimately, recycling and reusing discarded goods and commodities. All these activities are assumed to be inducing physical distribution demands. Indicators, such as the [Purchasing Managers Index (PMI)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/purchasing-managers-index/ "Purchasing Managers Index, 1990-2022") have been developed to assess and monitor changes in material demand across supply chains. > **Logistics** is commonly represented as a **[sequence of activities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/distribution-and-related-logistics-activities/ "Distribution and Related Logistics Activities")** (also referred to as a supply chain) from suppliers, manufacturers, distributors to retailers, each [synchronized by cycles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10612) such as customer order, replenishment, manufacturing, and procurement. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/concept_logistics.png?resize=900%2C380&ssl=1 "The Concept of Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/concept-logistics/concept_logistics/)The Concept of Logistics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pmi.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Purchasing Managers Index, 1990-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/purchasing-managers-index/purchasing_managers_index/)Purchasing Managers Index 1990 2024[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distribution_logistics_activities.png?resize=900%2C486&ssl=1 "Distribution and Related Logistics Activities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/distribution-and-related-logistics-activities/distribution_logistics_activities/)Distribution and Related Logistics Activities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_chain_cycles.png?resize=900%2C261&ssl=1 "The Supply Chain and its Cycles | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/supply-chain-cycles/supply_chain_cycles/)The Supply Chain and its Cycles[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bullwhip_effect.png?resize=900%2C464&ssl=1 "The Bullwhip Effect on Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/bullwhip_effect/)The Bullwhip Effect in Supply Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_added_functions_differentiation.png?resize=900%2C272&ssl=1 "Value-Added Functions and Differentiation of Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-added-value-differentiation/value_added_functions_differentiation/)Value Added Functions and Differentiation of Supply ChainsThe close integration of physical distribution and materials management through logistics is also blurring the relationship between the **derived transport demand** function of physical distribution and the **induced transport demand** function of materials management. This implies that distribution, as always, is derived from materials management activities (namely production), with these activities coordinated within distribution capabilities. The functions of production, distribution, and consumption are difficult to consider separately, thus recognizing the **integrated transport demand** role of logistics. Dislocations in the integrated transport demand mechanism can form a [bullwhip effect](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/bullwhip-effect-supply-chains/ "The “Bullwhip Effect” in Supply Chains") where the consumer demand across a supply chain is amplified, leading to overcapacity. The growing importance of logistics requires a footprint to store goods. [Warehouses and distribution centers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=24416 "Warehouses and Distribution Centers"), which have a distinct geography, are the main facilities coordinating logistics. > **Warehouse**. Facility designed to store goods for longer periods of time (weeks or months). Goods stored in a warehouse have usually not yet been sold and are held in inventory until a buyer is found. A warehouse is driven by the supply of manufacturers and wholesalers. > **Distribution center**. Facility or a group of facilities that perform [consolidation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ups-cach-chicago/ "UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub (CACH)"), warehousing, packaging, decomposition, and other functions linked with handling freight. Their main purpose is to provide value-added services to freight, which is stored for relatively short periods of time (days or weeks). Goods stored in a distribution center have usually been sold and are in transit to their destination. They can also perform light manufacturing activities such as assembly and labeling. A distribution center tends to focus on the demand of customers. Since shipping goods directly from producers to retailers would be impractical, [distribution centers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4397) act as a buffer where products are assembled, sometimes from other distribution centers, and then shipped in batches. Distribution centers are established in part to deal with different forms of [asynchronism in freight distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4403), such as different paces and levels of production and consumption. They commonly have a market area where they offer a service window defined by delivery frequency and response time to order. This structure resembles a hub-and-spoke network, where a distribution center services a regional customer base. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/warehouse_distribution_centers.png?resize=900%2C389&ssl=1 "Warehouses and Distribution Centers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/warehouses-distribution-centers/warehouse_distribution_centers/)Warehouses and Distribution Centers![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/location_criteria_distribution_centers.png?resize=900%2C373&ssl=1 "Location and Design Criteria for Distribution Centers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Location and Design Criteria for Distribution Centers[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/role_distribution_centers_warehouses2.png?resize=900%2C434&ssl=1 "The Role of Distribution Centers and Warehouses | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/distribution-center-warehouse-role/role_distribution_centers_warehouses/)The Role of Distribution Centers and Warehouses![Ups Chicago Cach](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ups_chicago_cach.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub (CACH) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub CACH[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/asynchronism_distribution_denters.png?resize=900%2C402&ssl=1 "Asynchrony and Distribution Centers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/asynchronism-distribution/asynchronism_distribution_denters/)Asynchrony and Distribution CentersThe wide array of activities involved in logistics, from transportation to warehousing and management, have respective costs. Once compiled, they express the **burden that logistics impose on distribution systems and the economies** they support, known as the **[total logistics costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/total-logistics-costs-tradeoff/ "Total Logistics Costs Tradeoff")**, which can be [broken down](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4418 "Global Logistics Costs by Function and Mode, 2018") in terms of transport and inventory costs. However, costs are not the only consideration in supply chain management since supply chains can also be [differentiated](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4383) by time, reliability, and risk level. The nature and efficiency of distribution systems are strongly related to [the nature of the economy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4413) in which they operate. [Worldwide logistics expenditures](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4418) represent about 10-15% of world GDP. In economies dependent on the extraction of raw materials, logistical costs are comparatively higher than for service economies since transport costs account for a larger share of the total added value of goods. Logistics costs are commonly in the range of 20 to 50% of the total costs of transporting commodities. The recent [evolution of logistics costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10982) reveals that the share of transportation costs is increasing relative to inventory carrying costs, which is indicative of more inventory in circulation as opposed to being held in distribution centers. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/total_logistics_costs_tradeoff.png?resize=900%2C642&ssl=1 "Total Logistics Costs Tradeoff | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/total-logistics-costs-tradeoff/total_logistics_costs/)Total Logistics Costs Tradeoff[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_logistics_costs_function_mode.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "Global Logistics Costs by Function and Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-logistics-costs-function/global_logistics_costs/)Global Logistics Costs by Function and Mode 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_costs_usa_cscm.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Logistics Costs, United States, 1980-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-costs-united-states/logistics_costs_usa_cscm/)Logistics Costs United States 1980 2024[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logisitcs_costs_development.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Logistics Costs and Economic Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-costs-economic-development/logisitcs_costs_development/)Logistics Costs and Economic Development[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistical_improvements-e1604428587128-1024x480.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Logistical Improvements, Manufacturing Sector | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistical-improvements-manufacturing/logistical_improvements/)Logistical Improvements Manufacturing SectorThe emergence of logistics in contemporary supply chains is based upon [continuous improvements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4423) in transport and inventory management costs, leading to lower cycle and lead times. > **Cycle time**. The amount of time required from the receipt of an order to when this order is completed (assembled) and ready for delivery. Often labeled as the completion rate and is mostly linked with the function of production in the manufacturing sector. > **Lead time**. The time it takes for an order to be fulfilled, which includes preparation, packing, and delivery to a designed location. Often labeled as the arrival rate and is mostly linked with the function of distribution, such as its efficiency and reliability. Before the emergence of e-commerce, customers were rarely directly exposed to cycle time and lead time constraints since goods were directly purchased at a store. The customer saw the outcome of cycle and lead times, but not the process, as goods were readily available. Even out-of-stock items were barely noticed since they were unavailable on store shelves. An online transaction, particularly if it concerns a complex and customizable good (e.g. a computer), commonly includes the time it takes for the order to be ready for shipment and the delivery time from the distribution center. # 2. Driving Forces in Supply Chain Management Logistics is a fundamental component of efficiency improvements in a market economy, improving interactions between supply and demand. It is an [evolution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4438) integrating technical, technological, and managerial improvements. During the 1980s, **flow control** permitted the reduction of inventories for time-sensitive manufacturing activities from several days’ worth to several hours. These efforts initially took place within the factory, while supply and output flowed as batches from suppliers and distributors. In the 1990s, with the **convergence of logistics and information and communication technologies**, this principle was increasingly applied to the whole supply chain, particularly to the function of distribution. Since the 2010s, there have been renewed efforts toward the **automation of logistics**, which includes automated warehouses and the digitalization of supply chains. ## a. Inventory management Maintaining inventory is a cost factor for logistics since it has to be held until sold to customers. As a managerial concept, **lean supply chains** are often labeled seminal in modern supply chains, where inventory levels are kept at a minimum, and a share of the inventory is kept in constant circulation (inventory in transit). Typically, the manufacturing sector has 6 to 8 inventory turnovers per year, implying that it takes, on average, about 50 to 60 days to sell what is being produced. This can be more frequent in the electronics sector, with 10 to 20 inventory turnovers per year. Better inventory management enables the reduction of the inventory and its related costs and increases the number of inventory turns. Still, this pressure for the velocity of inventory has been challenged by the setting of global supply chains that have increased the distance over which freight is carried. Freight distribution went through a [paradigm shift](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4443) from **inventory-based logistics (push) to replenishment-based logistics (pull)**. Demand, particularly in the retailing sector, is challenging to anticipate accurately and is prone to cycles and consumer confidence. Closer integration between supply and demand enables a more efficient production system with less unsold inventory and time spent managing processes. Standardization is also an important aspect with parts that can be used, when possible, for several lines of products, thus reducing the overall inventory footprint. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_logisitcs2.png?resize=900%2C487&ssl=1 "The Evolution of Supply Chain Management | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/evolution-supply-chain-management/evolution_logisitcs2/)The Evolution of Supply Chain Management[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/push_pull_logistics2.png?resize=900%2C455&ssl=1 "From Push to Pull Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/push-pull-logistics/push_pull_logistics2/)From Push to Pull Logistics## b. Modes and terminals Since logistics involves improving the efficiency of flows, load units have become particularly important. They are the basic physical management units in freight distribution and take the form of pallets, swap bodies, semi-trailers, and containers. The latter, **containerization**, conferred substantial flexibility to production systems in addition to the container being a storage unit. Containers are the privileged load unit for long-distance trade, but the growing complexity of logistics requires a more specific level of load management. A whole array of [logistics activities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8168 "Logistical Activities Related to Containerization") has emerged to support the organization and management of containerized flows. Therefore, logistics and integrated transport systems are related, particularly because the container has become a [load (transport), production, and distribution unit](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2686). Expanding standard transport infrastructures, such as highways, terminals, and airports, was also essential for developing modern logistics. Transport modes have been the object of limited technological changes in recent decades. In some cases, modes have adapted to handle containerized operations such as road and rail (e.g. doublestacking). Maritime shipping has experienced the most significant technological change, which required the construction of an entirely new class of ships and the application of economies of scale to maritime container shipping. This massification of container flows has also brought unique logistical challenges, namely repositioning empty containers because of imbalanced trade flows. The technological changes have been very significant with the construction of new terminal facilities operating on a high turnover basis. Better handling equipment, particularly through automation, leads to improvements in the velocity of freight at the terminals, which are among the most significant technological changes brought by logistics in materials mobility. In such a context, the port has become one of the most significant terminals supporting global logistics. Port facilities are increasingly being supported by an array of inland terminals connected by high-capacity corridors. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistical_activities_containerization.png?resize=900%2C331&ssl=1 "Logistical Activities Related to Containerization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/containerization-logistics-activities/logistical_activities_containerization/)Logistical Activities Related to Containerization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/container_transport_production_distribution.png?resize=900%2C538&ssl=1 "The Container as a Transport, Production and Distribution Unit | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-transport-production-distribution/container_transport_production_distribution/)The Container as a Transport Production and Distribution Unit## c. Distribution centers and distribution clusters Technological changes impacted the location, design, and operation of distribution centers; the [facilities handling the requirements of modern distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/types-freight-facilities/ "Types of Freight Facilities"). They serve different purposes depending on the combination of fabrication, storage, and distribution functions they perform within their supply chains. Modern distribution centers tend to have a **higher footprint**. From a [locational standpoint](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/location-design-distribution-centers/ "Location and Design Criteria for Distribution Centers"), distribution centers mainly rely on trucking, implying a preference for suburban locations with good road accessibility and space for parking. They try to service regional markets with a 48-hour service window (lead time) on average, implying that replenishment orders from their customers are met within that time period. They have become single-floor facilities designed more for throughput than warehousing, with specialized loading and unloading bays and sorting equipment. [Cross-docking](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4453) distribution centers represent one of the foremost expressions of a facility that handles freight in a time-sensitive manner, with the emergence of large consolidation and deconsolidation facilities. Automation is also pushing forward the productivity level of distribution centers. For instance, it is possible to fully automate sorting, storing, and palletizing in a distribution center to improve efficiencies, customization levels, and throughputs, such as for groceries or retail goods. Another trend has been setting [freight distribution clusters](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4464) where distribution activities agglomerate to take advantage of shared infrastructures and accessibility. This tends to [expand the added value](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4468) performed by logistics. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/type_freight_facility.png?resize=900%2C464&ssl=1 "Types of Freight Facilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/types-freight-facilities/type_freight_facility/)Types of Freight Facilities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cross_docking_distribution_center.png?resize=900%2C556&ssl=1 "Cross-Docking Distribution Center | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/cross-docking-distribution-center/cross_docking_dc/)Cross Docking Distribution Center[![Kroger Automated Dc Paramount](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/kroger_automated_dc_paramount.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Kroger Automated Distribution Center, Paramount, California | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/kroger-distribution-center-paramount/2013-10-10-14-40-41/)Kroger Automated Distribution Center Paramount California[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/skechers_dc_moreno.jpg?resize=850%2C637&ssl=1 "High Rack Storage at Skechers Automated Distribution Center, Moreno, California | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/high-rack-storage-skechers-distribution-center/skechers_dc_moreno/)High Rack Storage at Skechers Automated Distribution Center Moreno California[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/advantages_logistics_zones2.png?resize=900%2C490&ssl=1 "Advantages of Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-zones-advantages/advantages_logistics_zones/)Advantages of Logistic Zones[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_added_logistics_zones.png?resize=900%2C456&ssl=1 "Value-added Activities Performed at Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/value-added-logisitcs-zones/value_added_logistics_clusters/)Value added Activities Performed at Logistic Zones## d. Information technologies The vast array of information processing changes brought by logistics requires the extensive use of information technologies. Value chains are linked with physical flows, as well as **information flows**. Producers, distributors, and consumers are embedded in a complex web of reciprocal transactions. While these transactions mostly take place virtually, their outcomes are physical flows. The commercial diffusion of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is allowing for the identification and routing of vehicles and, therefore, better utilization of these assets. The outcome is often more efficient production and distribution planning with the added convenience of tracking modes, shipments, and inventories, thus giving customers greater visibility. This is apparent in maritime shipping. From the 1990s, Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) became standard on all ships, allowing the monitoring of their location, direction, and velocity. The **standardization** provided by the Internet in terms of communication protocols enabled corporations to establish interfaces with a large customer base, which permitted [new forms of retailing](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4524). E-commerce offers advantages for the whole supply chain, from consumers being exposed to a broader range of products to manufacturers and distributors being able to adapt quickly to changes in demand. It is, therefore, a key [driver of change for freight distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4473). E-commerce generates parcel movements for home deliveries that are carried by conventional postal services as well as specialized parcel carriers. In the United States, about 30% of all parcel deliveries are made by the US Postal Services, while private parcel companies carry the remaining. Fulfillment (warehousing, packaging) costs account for 10 to 12% of the revenue of e-commerce, while shipping and delivery costs add up to another 10%. E-commerce is also inciting **shifts in freight distribution** by setting up new fulfillment and sortation centers. Because of its more effective cost structure, e-commerce can offer goods 10 to 15% cheaper than retail. As retail sales are partially replaced by online sales, the need for conventional retail space declines while the footprint occupied by distribution centers increases. There are also revised expectations in terms of the performance of e-commerce. The more efficient and reliable freight distribution is, the higher the customers’ expectations, which creates a feedback loop to improve efficiency. While in the earlier stages of e-commerce, expectations for home deliveries were within two weeks, this has shifted to less than five days, with some online retailers able to deliver within 24-48 hours for a selected range of products. Further evolution of information technologies in the freight sector concerns the emergence of **distributed electronic ledgers**, called blockchains. Their application is transforming logistics management with increased reliability, tracking, and record-keeping. This is crucial since logistics generates numerous transactions, and organizing these transactions provides [benefits](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10651). The term **[Physical Internet](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/fundamentals-physical-internet/ "Fundamentals of the Physical Internet")** is being used as a metaphor for integrating digital and physical transportation and logistics assets aiming at higher interconnectivity between logistics networks. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_ecommerce_logistics.png?resize=900%2C463&ssl=1 "Retail Logistics and E-commerce | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-ecommerce/retail_ecommerce_logistics/)Retail Logistics and E commerce[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Amazon-Distribution-Centers.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "E-Commerce Facilities Operated by Amazon in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/e-commerce-facilities-amazon-united-states/amazon_dc_usa1/)E Commerce Facilities Operated by Amazon in the United States 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_ecommerce_cost_structures.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "Comparison Between Retail and E-commerce Cost Structures | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ecommerce-cost-structure/retail_ecommerce_cost_structure/)Comparison Between Retail and E commerce Cost Structures[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_chain_blockchains.png?resize=900%2C495&ssl=1 "Supply Chains and Blockchains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/supply-chains-and-blockchains/supply_chain_blockchains/)Supply Chains and Blockchains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/benefits_blockchains_supply_chains.png?resize=900%2C657&ssl=1 "Expected Benefits of Blockchains on Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/expected-benefits-of-blockchains-on-supply-chains/blockchain_sc_benefits/)Expected Benefits of Blockchains on Supply Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fundamentals_physical_internet.png?resize=900%2C642&ssl=1 "Fundamentals of the Physical Internet | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/fundamentals-physical-internet/fundamentals_physical_internet/)Fundamentals of the Physical Internet# 3. Distribution Systems A distribution system involves all the processes, equipment, and facilities **supporting the mobility of freight along value chains**. They are embedded in a framework that can be roughly characterized by their flexibility and globalization: - **Flexibility** implies a highly differentiated, market-driven, customer-driven mode of value creation. Contemporary production and distribution are no longer subject to single-firm activity, but increasingly take the form of networks of suppliers and subcontractors. The supply chain bundles all this together through information, communication, cooperation, and physical distribution. - **Globalization** means that the spatial frame for the entire economy has been expanded, implying the spatial expansion of the economy, more complex global economic integration, and an intricate network of global flows and hubs. The flow-oriented mode affects almost every single activity within the entire value chain. The core component of materials management is the supply chain, the time and space-related arrangement of freight mobility between supply, manufacturing, distribution, and consumption. Its major components are the supplier, the producer, the distributor (e.g. a wholesaler, a freight forwarder, a carrier), the retailer, and the end consumer, all representing particular interests. Compared with conventional freight transport systems, the evolution of supply chain management and the emergence of the logistics industry are mainly characterized by three features: - **Integration**. A fundamental restructuring of goods merchandising by establishing integrated supply chains with integrated freight transport demand. Demand-side oriented activities are becoming predominant. While traditional deliveries were primarily driven by supply, current [supply chains are increasingly driven by demand](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4498). - **Time mitigation**. Whereas transport was traditionally regarded as a tool for overcoming space, logistics is concerned with mitigating time. Due to the requirements of modern distribution, the issue of time is becoming increasingly important in managing commodity chains. Time is a major issue for freight distribution as it imposes inventory holding and depreciation costs, which becomes sensitive for tightly integrated supply chains. - **Specialization**. This was achieved by shifts towards vertical integration, namely subcontracting and outsourcing, including the logistical function. There are [layers of logistics services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/layers-logistics-services/ "Layers to Logistics Services") that are becoming complex and time-sensitive to the point that many firms are now [sub-contracting](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4505) parts of their supply chain management to **third-party logistics providers** (3PL; asset-based). More recently, fourth-party logistics providers (4PL; non-asset-based), have emerged. They offer a wide range of services, such as production planning and real-time monitoring. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/change_importance_logistics_functions.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Changes in the Logistical Orientation of Distribution Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistical-orientation-distribution/logistical_functions/)Changes in the Logistical Orientation of Distribution Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/drivers_thid_fourth_party_logistics.png?resize=900%2C304&ssl=1 "Key Drivers for Third and Fourth Party Logistics Providers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/3pl-4pl-logistics/drivers_thid_fourth_party_logistics/)Key Drivers for Third and Fourth Party Logistics Providers[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/layers_logistics_services-1.png?resize=900%2C520&ssl=1 "Layers to Logistics Services | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/layers-logistics-services/layers_logistics_services-1/)Layers to Logistics Services[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/core_competencies_third_party_logistics2.png?resize=900%2C471&ssl=1 "Main Core Competencies of Third Party Logistics Providers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/3pl-core-competencies/core_competencies_third_party_logistics2/)Main Core Competencies of Third Party Logistics Providers[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/elements_supply_chain_integration.png?resize=900%2C398&ssl=1 "Elements of Supply Chain Connectivity and Integration | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/supply-chain-connectivity-integration-coordination/elements_supply_chain_integration/)Elements of Supply Chain Connectivity and Integration[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/collaborative_distribution_strategy.png?resize=900%2C693&ssl=1 "Collaborative Distribution Strategies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/collaborative-distribution/collaborative_distribution_strategy/)Collaborative Distribution StrategiesLogistics is thus concomitantly concerned with **distribution costs and time**, concepts to which additional dimensions are considered. While in the past, it was a simple matter of delivering an intact good at a specific destination within a reasonable time frame, several components have expanded the concept of distribution: - **Distribution time**. The possibility of setting a very specific estimated arrival time for deliveries and a low tolerance for delays. - **Reliability of distribution**. Measured in terms of the availability of the ordered goods and the frequency at which orders are correctly serviced in terms of quantity and time. - **Flexibility of distribution**. Possible adjustments due to changes in the quantity, location, or delivery time. [Collaborative strategies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/collaborative-distribution/ "Collaborative Distribution Strategies") can be established to mitigate issues such as empty backhauls or less-than-truckload moves. - **Quality of distribution**. The condition of delivered goods and if the specified quantity was delivered. While many manufacturers may have their **own account transportation**, increasingly, the complex needs of the supply chain are being contracted out to **third parties**. Depending on the strategy and costs, corporations can outsource their transport and supply chain operations. **Third-party logistics providers** have emerged from traditional intermediaries such as the forwarders or established transport providers such as FEDEX or Maersk. Both groups have been at the forefront of the intermodal revolution, assuming more complex organizational forms and [core competencies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4518). In offering door-to-door services, the customer is no longer aware or necessarily concerned with how the shipment gets to its destination, such as the modes used and the routing selected. The preoccupation is with cost, reliability, and level of service. This produces a **paradox** where geographic space becomes meaningless for the customer of intermodal services. However, routing, costs, and service frequencies have significant geographical constraints for carriers. The effectiveness of intermodal transport systems is thus masking the importance of transportation to its users. The growth in the geographical and functional complexity of supply chains relies on effective management and information processing. **Information technologies** have helped improve the efficiency of supply chains as the vast majority of the tasks are digitally recorded and transferred. This has incited a growing emphasis on issues related to supply chain integration so that despite acute geographical separation, physical and managerial processes have minimal friction. The emerging trend concerns the complete digitization of supply chains using electronic ledgers ([blockchain technology](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8112)). # 4. Geography of Freight Distribution Logistics has a distinct geographical dimension, expressed in terms of **flows**, **nodes,** and **networks** within the supply chain. Space/time convergence, a well-known concept in transport geography where time was considered the amount of space that could be traded within a specific amount of time, including travel and transshipment, is being transformed by logistics. Activities not previously considered fully in space/time relationships, such as distribution, are being integrated. This implies an organization and synchronization of flows through nodes and network strategies. The conventional arrangement of [freight flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4530) included processing raw materials to manufacturers, with a storage function usually acting as a buffer. The flow continued via a wholesaler and shipper to a retailer, ending at the final customer. Delays were common in all segments of this chain and accumulated as inventory in warehouses. There was a limited flow of information from the consumer to the supply chain, implying the producers were not well informed (often involving a time lag) about the extent of consumption of their outputs. This procedure has evolved by eliminating one or more costly operations in the supply chain organization. [Reverse flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6502) are also part of the supply chain for recycling and product returns. An important physical outcome of supply chain management is the concentration of storage or warehousing in one facility instead of several. This facility is increasingly being designed as a flow- and throughput-oriented distribution center instead of a warehouse holding cost-intensive inventories. Due to new corporate strategies, a concentration of logistics functions in certain facilities at strategic locations is prevalent. Many improvements in freight flows are achieved at terminals. Facilities are much larger than before, with locations characterized by particular regional and long-distance relations. Traditionally, freight distribution was located at major production centers, for instance, in the manufacturing belt on the North American East Coast and the Midwest or the old industrialized regions of England and continental Europe. Large-scale goods flows are directed through major **gateways and hubs**, mainly large ports and major airports, also highway intersections with access to a regional market. The changing geography of manufacturing and industrial production has been accompanied by the changing geography of freight distribution, taking advantage of [intermediary locations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4535) where connectivity is an important location factor. This has become apparent in the setting of major gateways and hubs in East and Southeast Asia and the accumulation of logistical activities at these nodes. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_chain2.png?resize=900%2C448&ssl=1 "The Value Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/sequences-value-chain/value_chain/)The Value Chain[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/conventional_contemporary_goods_flows.png?resize=900%2C474&ssl=1 "Conventional and Contemporary Arrangement of Freight Flows | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/flow-goods-contemporary/conventional_contemporary_goods_flows/)Conventional and Contemporary Arrangement of Freight Flows[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_activities_green.png?resize=900%2C592&ssl=1 "Logistic Activities and their Green Dimensions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/logistics-green-dimensions/logistics_activities_green/)Logistic Activities and their Green Dimensions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/proximity_intermediacy_distribution_clusters.png?resize=900%2C534&ssl=1 "Proximity and Intermediacy for Distribution Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/proximity-intermediacy-distribution-clusters/proximity_intermediacy_distribution_clusters/)Proximity and Intermediacy for Distribution Clusters[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_distribution_network_strategies.png?resize=900%2C568&ssl=1 "Freight Distribution and Network Strategies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/freight-distribution-network-strategies/freight_distribution_network_strategies/)Freight Distribution and Network Strategies[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map_top10_log_networks.png?resize=900%2C678&ssl=1 "Optimal Location and Throughput by Number of Freight Distribution Centers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/optimal-distribution-center-location/map_top10_log_networks/)Optimal Location and Throughput by Number of Freight Distribution CentersThe spatial structure of contemporary [transportation networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4540) is the expression of the spatial structure of distribution. Since logistics [lead and response times are important to service factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4545), locations near main highways are important for distribution centers. Logistics is particularly **sensitive to connectivity and accessibility**. The setting of networks leads to a shift toward larger distribution centers, often serving significant transnational catchments. Online retailers such as [Amazon](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11857) have developed an extensive network of distribution centers to support their activities. However, this does not mean the demise of national or regional distribution centers, with some goods still requiring a three-tier distribution system involving regional, national, and international distribution centers. The network structure has also adapted to fulfill the requirements of an integrated freight transport demand, which can take many forms and operate at different scales. Most freight distribution networks, particularly in retailing, are facing the [Last Mile](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4551) challenge, which is the [final leg of a distribution sequence](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4572), commonly linking a distribution center and a customer (store or home delivery). Another important geographical trend concerns the location and **clustering of warehousing activity** to suburban locations, also known as ‘logistics sprawl’. Technological changes in inventory management, lower transportation costs, and global supply chain management have converged to incite the demand for large-scale facilities in proximity to terminal facilities such as ports and airports and having access to a regional market. However, urban cores became increasingly expensive, congested, and regulated areas. Under such circumstances, peripheral areas became increasingly attractive for distribution centers with their capacity to offer low-cost real estate and access to major highways. The [impacts of e-commerce on the geography of logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ecommerce-freight-distribution-impacts/ "The Impacts of E-commerce on Freight Distribution") are changing the spatial characteristics of physical distribution systems: - Conventional retailing supply chains based on economies of scale (larger stores; shopping malls) are being challenged by a new paradigm. It relies on **large distribution centers** (e-fulfillment centers) located outside metropolitan areas from where parcels are shipped by vans and trucks to separate online buyers. This spatially disaggregates retailing distribution and reverses the trend toward consolidation that had characterized retailing (larger stores and larger distribution centers). Still, when online shopping reaches a large volume, parcel delivery companies can create economies by consolidating loads, which unfolded as e-commerce became mainstream. - In the conventional retailing system, the shopper was bearing the costs of moving the goods from the store. Still, with e-commerce, this supply chain segment must be **integrated into the freight distribution process**. The result potentially involves more packaging and more tons-km of freight transported. Traditional distribution systems are thus ill-fitted to answer the logistical needs of e-commerce, especially in urban areas. Since cities are concomitantly zones of production, distribution, and consumption, the realm of [city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792) is of growing importance. This issue is made even more complex by a growing dislocation between production, distribution, and consumption brought by globalization, global production networks, and efficient freight transport systems and logistics. How challenging individual countries are perceived to be in the setting and management of supply chains can be assessed, as done by the [Logistic Performance Index](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4562). It underlines that logistical costs in developing economies tend to be higher, which undermines economic development for the following reasons: - The **regulatory complexity** of distributing goods in developing economies involves higher logistic costs and incites distributors to maintain higher inventory levels to cope with uncertainty. Custom regulations are complex and prone to delays, and road transportation can be subject to arbitrary tolls and inspections. This is reflected in higher final goods or component prices assumed directly or indirectly by consumers. - **Labor and infrastructure productivity** in developing economies tend to be lower, which often doubles logistics costs. Lower levels of productivity can often counterbalance the advantages of cheap labor. This also impacts the reliability of freight distribution with fluctuations in lead times and deliveries. - **Modal and intermodal capacity is inconsistent**. While several terminal facilities, particularly ports, are modern with capacity on par with global standards, hinterland transportation can be problematic, with road segments unable to effectively handle trucks of standard capacity. In such a context, policy reforms have been advocated to promote the effectiveness of logistics services and therefore [break a vicious cycle](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4567) in which several developing economies are entangled. This involves a series of reforms, pending the capacity to overcome political constraints and the inertia (and commonly the rent-seeking behavior) of established stakeholders, concerning service providers, infrastructure investment, and the administrative and regulatory environment. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/impacts_ecommerce_distribution.png?resize=900%2C292&ssl=1 "The Impacts of E-commerce on Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ecommerce-freight-distribution-impacts/impacts_ecommerce_distribution/)The Impacts of E commerce on Freight Distribution[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/elements_last_mile_logsitics.png?resize=900%2C249&ssl=1 "Elements of Last Mile Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/elements-last-mile-logisitcs/last_mile_logistics/)Elements of Last Mile Logistics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/last_mile_inland_freight_distribution.png?resize=900%2C568&ssl=1 "The Last Mile in Inland Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/last-mile-inland-freight-distribution/last_mile_inland_freight/)The Last Mile in Inland Freight Distribution[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-LPI-2023.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Logistics Performance Index, 2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-performance-index/map-lpi-2010-2016/)Logistics Performance Index 2023[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_virtuous_vicious_cycles2.png?resize=900%2C658&ssl=1 "The Logistics Virtuous and Vicious Cycles | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-virtuous-vicious-cycles/logistics_virtuous_vicious_cycles/)The Logistics Virtuous and Vicious Cycle s[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gscpi_federal_reserve.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Supply Chain Pressure Index and Major Supply Chain Disruptions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-supply-chain-pressure-index/global_supply_chain_pressure_index/)Global Supply Chain Pressure Index and Major Supply Chain DisruptionsSupply chains can be subject to [recurring disruptions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-supply-chain-pressure-index/ "Global Supply Chain Pressure Index and Major Supply Chain Disruptions"), from **natural or anthropogenic causes**, which vary in scale and scope. How effectively supply chains are able to handle, recover from, and adapt to disruptions underlines their **resilience**. As global supply chains became more complex, their resilience was tested on numerous occasions. Each disruption represents an opportunity for the logistics and freight distribution system to adapt to a new reality and associated constraints. For instance, the resilience of supply chains was tested after the events of September 11, 2001. Afterward, security measures became a core focus as terminals such as ports and airports were considered potentially vulnerable. Consequently, security measures and standards are integral to shipping practices and have substantially reduced security concerns. The COVID-19 pandemic underlined the **crucial importance of supply chains** as a divergence took place between passenger and freight transport systems. While the mobility of passengers was on the decline, the mobility of freight became crucial to maintaining key supply chains. The event was global in scope, lasted more than two years, and comprised a series of waves and associated disruptions across multiple components, such as demand patterns, manufacturing, maritime and terminal operations, and inland freight distribution. The consequences of the pandemic on supply chains remain to be fully assessed as managers are reassessing their sourcing and transport strategies as well as appropriate inventory levels. --- ## Related Topics - [7.2 – Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3919) - [7.3 – Freight Transportation and Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3924) - [City Logistics](https://globalcitylogistics.org/) (External link) - [B.15 -Green Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6497) - [B.9 – The Cold Chain and its Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6585) - [5.9 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1768) - [Inland Ports / Dry Ports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139) (PEMP, external link) - [B.11 – Freight Distribution Clusters](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8133) - [B.13 – The Containerization of Commodities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8394) ## Bibliography - Bookbinder, J.H. (ed) (2012) Handbook of Global Logistics: Transportation in International Supply Chains, New York: Springer. - Bowersox, D.J., E. Smykay and B. LaLonde (1968) Physical Distribution Management. Logistics Problems of the Firm, New York/London: MacMillan. - Freidberg, S. (2009) Fresh: a perishable history. Harvard University Press. - Hesse, M. (2008) The City as a Terminal: The Urban Context of Logistics and Freight Transport, Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate. - Hesse, M. and J-P Rodrigue (2004) “The Transport Geography of Logistics and Freight Distribution”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 171-184. - Lecavalier, J. (2016) The Rule of Logistics: Walmart and Architecture of Fulfillment, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. - Mangan, J., C. Lalwani, and A. Calatayud (2020) Global Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Fourth Edition, New York: Wiley. - Montreuil, B. (2011) “Towards a Physical Internet: Meeting the Global Logistics Sustainability Grand Challenge”, Logistics Research, 3(2-3), 71-87. - Notteboom, T., F. Parola, G. Satta and M. Risitano (2016) “A Taxonomy of Logistics Centres: Overcoming Conceptual Ambiguity”, Transport Reviews, 37(3), pp. 1-24. - O’Connor, K. (2010) “Global City Regions and the Location of Logistics Activity”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 354-362. - Stroh, M. (2022) A Practical Guide to Transportation and Logistics, Fourth Edition, Dumont, NJ: Logistics Networks. - Sheffi, Y. (2012) Logistics Clusters: Delivering Value and Driving Growth, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. - Takahashi, K. (2016) “Blockchain technology and electronic bills of lading”, The Journal of International Maritime Law, Vol. 22, pp. 202-211. - Waters, D. and S. Rinsler (2014) Global Logistics: New Directions in Supply Chain Management. London: Kogan Page. - World Bank (2014) Connecting to Compete: Trade Logistics in the Global Economy, Washington, DC: The World Bank. - World Economic Forum (2017) Impact of the Fourth Industrial Revolution on Supply Chains, Geneva. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Logistics Costs, United States, 1980-2024](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-costs-united-states/) **Published:** June 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_costs_usa_cscm.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Logistics Costs, United States, 1980-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistics Costs United States 1980 2024*Note: In billions of USD. Source: Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals, State of Logistics Report, (after 2012). Logistics Management & Distribution Report (before 2012).* The [composition of logistics costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-logistics-costs-function/ "composition of logistics costs") is mainly attributed to inventory carrying costs, transportation costs, and administrative costs. The main reason why transportation costs are increasing in relation to inventory costs is that a growing share of the inventory is in circulation. Thus, the ratio of inventory carrying costs/transport costs is a proxy for the **velocity of freight**. Transportation costs tend to fluctuate with fuel prices and with economic conditions (cyclic behavior of transport capacity). For instance, there was a rapid growth in transportation costs between 2005 and 2008 as trade was growing and fuel prices were rising. Thus, a temporary rise in the inventory carrying costs/transport costs ratio usually indicates a recessionary cycle as demand drops and inventories accumulate. The long-term trend indicates that more cargo units are in transportation modes (mostly trucks and rail for the United States) in relation to units of cargo held in warehouses and distribution centers. Further, the shift to flow-based logistics implies less time for orders spent in distribution centers and higher inventory turnover. The question remains about the lower limits of the inventory carrying costs/transport costs ratio, which has been steadily declining since the 1980s. A shift may be in the making toward a plateau. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in an initial drop in the ratio as transportation costs declined substantially in 2020 and 2021, which was in line with the demand. By 2021, there was a surge in demand and a sharp increase in transportation costs, reversing the trend as the velocity of freight declined, which was observable in 2022 and 2023. The stabilization of the trend in 2024 could indicate a convergence where inventory carrying costs are at 45% of the associated transportation costs, while they used to be at 60% in the 1990s. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-costs-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-costs-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-costs-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-costs-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Inland Flows, Port of New York c2010](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-new-york-hinterland/) **Published:** February 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hinterland_NYNJ.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Inland Flows, Port of New York c2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Inland Flows Port of New York c2010*Source: Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.* The hinterland of the port of New York is well defined, with 80% of the inbound traffic bound to the New York metropolitan area and adjacent states, which are dense consumer markets. From an export perspective, the hinterland is slightly less defined as exporters across the Midwest may export cargo from New York due to its connectivity to the global shipping network. With its on-dock rail facility, the port of New York has the potential to service a much wider hinterland. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-new-york-hinterland/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-new-york-hinterland/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-new-york-hinterland/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-new-york-hinterland/?share=reddit) - --- ### [4.4 - Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/) **Published:** December 7, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Sustainable transportation is the capacity to support the mobility needs of a society in a manner that is the least damageable to the environment and does not impair the mobility needs of future generations. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Sustainable Development](#1_Sustainable_Development) - [2. Sustainable Transportation](#2_Sustainable_Transportation) - [3. Managing Transport Demand](#3_Managing_Transport_Demand) - [4. Improving Transport Supply](#4_Improving_Transport_Supply) - [5. The Push for Decarbonization](#5_The_Push_for_Decarbonization) # 1. Sustainable Development ## a. The concept of sustainability The capacity of the global economy to accommodate enduring demographic, economic, and [resource consumption](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6246) growth remains an enduring issue that regularly raises concerns. Population growth and increased living standards allow individuals access to an extensive array of goods and services. Since the 1970s, many statements and declarations have been made asserting that the world would be unable to sustain such growth without a possible socioeconomic and environmental breakdown. This perspective takes its roots in **Malthusianism**, which considers the relationships between population and resources as finite. While this perspective has been demonstrated to be inaccurate, since resource availability and the quality of life steadily increased, there are recurring concerns that a threshold could be reached at some point, leading to a breakdown. However, there is limited evidence about what this threshold is and which environmental and economic conditions would be conducive. A narrative of urgency and impending doom has also emerged (e.g. “the climate crisis”), mainly used as a psychological tool to influence public opinion, justify authority, and divert resources. Some aspects of environmentalism have taken a religious overtone. Initial environmental actions were aligned with national regulations on air quality, water protection, waste management, and hazardous materials. These national concerns, particularly in developed economies, were extrapolated as transnational issues encompassing the world. The process began with the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, which identified key environmental principles such as conservation of natural resources, wildlife protection, and pollution control. It culminated in 1987 with the publication of the **Brundtland Report**, where the term [sustainable development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/global-sustainable-development/ "Global Sustainability") was first formally defined and became mainstream. The concept was further expanded with the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992, particularly with the setting of **Agenda 21**, a non-binding action plan for sustainability principles. After a series of iterations, in 2015, the United Nations General Assembly issued a resolution labeled **Agenda 2030**, which defined [17 sustainable development goals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/three-e-development/ "Sustainable Development Goals"). As these numerous goals underline, sustainable development is a **complex and multidimensional concept** subject to interpretation since it involves several scientific disciplines and possible interconnections. Unsurprisingly, the subject is prone to confusion and ideological capture regarding its nature, consequences, and appropriate response. However, it is generally agreed that sustainability favors conditions that benefit the environment, the economy, and society without compromising the welfare of future generations. Still, as history demonstrates, the conditions of future societies largely depended upon the legacy of past societies. All forms of assets (capital, real estate, infrastructures, natural resources, knowledge) passed on to the next generation should be of at least equal value (utility) per capita. What is new is the inclusion of environmental capital, particularly ecosystems, into this perspective. The expansion of this temporal framework into the concept of sustainability includes **three major pillars**: - **Social equity**. Relates to conditions favoring a distribution of resources among the current generation based upon comparative productivity levels and the promotion of equality of opportunities. This implies that individuals, institutions, or corporations are free to pursue their choices and reap the rewards for their risks and efforts. Defining social equity is usually the most challenging element of the concept of sustainability. It should not be confused with equality of outcome (or socialism), where discriminatory practices are implemented in favor of one socioeconomic group and against another, with the stated objective of correcting perceived inequalities. - **Economic efficiency**. Concern conditions enable higher levels of economic efficiency in terms of resource and labor usage. It focuses on capabilities, competitiveness, flexibility in production, and providing goods and services that supply market demand. Under such circumstances, factors of production should be freely allocated, and markets open to trade. - **Environmental responsibility**. Involves developing a footprint for human activities, that is lesser than the capacity of the environment to accommodate. This includes supplying resources (food, water, energy, etc.) and safe waste disposal. Its core tenets include the conservation and reuse of products and resources. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/main_commodity_price_indexes.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Main Commodity Price Indexes, 1992-2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/commodity-prices-index/imf_commodity_prices/)Main Commodity Price Indexes 1992 2023[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_sustainability2.png?resize=900%2C773&ssl=1 "Global Sustainability | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/global-sustainable-development/global_sustainability2/)Global Sustainability[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sustainable_development_goals.png?resize=900%2C436&ssl=1 "Sustainable Development Goals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/three-e-development/sustainable_development/)Sustainable Development Goals[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/esg_criteria.png?resize=900%2C308&ssl=1 "Environmental, Social and Governance Criteria | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/environmental-social-governance-criteria/esg_criteria/)Environmental Social and Governance Criteria[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/issues_esg.png?resize=900%2C558&ssl=1 "Issues with Environmental Social Governance | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/issues-environmental-social-governance/issues_esg/)Issues with Environmental Social Governance## b. The governance of sustainability Another important debate relates to the **governance of sustainability**, such as to what extent public and non-governmental institutions (both at the national and supra-national levels) have a role to play. There are competing approaches, one advocating that sustainability be promoted through **regulations** and the other that the main driver should be **market forces and individual behavior**. Environmental advocacy groups are dominantly leaning towards regulations and authoritarianism, perspectives highly influenced by Marxism. They would argue that sustainability is a much too long-term concept to be addressed by corporations or individuals focused on the short term. A counter-argument could be made that the time horizon of governments, especially democratic regimes, is also very short. In rare instances, governments have shown to be proactive regarding environmental matters. Further, special interest groups have captured the decision-making and regulatory apparatus of many governments, implying that environmental policy is influenced by groups representing **contradictory ideological perspectives,** often based on misleading assumptions. An emerging perspective concerns influencing investment decisions in infrastructure-dependent sectors such as transportation by promoting a set of standards labeled [Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Criteria](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/environmental-social-governance-criteria/ "Environmental, Social and Governance Criteria"). A core argument is if the flow of capital investment could be incited to comply, particularly through large financial institutions and pension funds, recipients would become more compliant with sustainability principles. The question remains about what expectations can be placed on rating agencies (and regulators) that seek to enforce compliance or on entities that seek to optimize efficiency and profit (corporations and individuals). Paradoxically, while governments tend to be inflexible and unable to adapt, corporations have demonstrated a resounding ability to shift their strategies and provide products that reflect societal expectations, such as environmentally responsible products. Further, **consumer behavior** is a key factor in achieving sustainability as it influences the provision and delivery of goods. This complex relationship underlines the respective roles of regulations and innovations in achieving a higher level of sustainability. ESG remains an iterative process of [conflicting views and interests](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/issues-environmental-social-governance/ "Issues with Environmental Social Governance") based on assumptions that can be presented as certainties. ## c. The geography of sustainability Societies do not contribute to environmental impacts at the same level. Sustainability can be thus expressed at two spatial levels: - **Global**. Concerned with the long-term stability of the earth’s environment and the availability of resources to support human activities. - **Local**. Concerned with localized forms of sustainable systems, which are often related to urban areas in terms of jobs, housing, and environmental pollution. Since a growing share of the global population is urbanized, sustainability has increasingly focused on **[urban areas](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6232)**, which is not surprising as global impacts are the outcome of local processes and patterns. Major cities require a vast array of supporting infrastructures, including energy, water, sewers, and transport, and a key to urban sustainability issues is linked to their provision and maintenance. Still, cities are context-specific with a unique range of challenges related to their location, pattern, trade system, and level of development. For instance, many cities in developing economies lack basic infrastructure, while their environmental conditions deteriorate due to congestion and motorization. In advanced economies, the quantity and quality of infrastructure are commonly adequate, and their environmental footprint has been decreasing per capita. Thus, there is a **geographical divergence** in urban sustainability. Another divergence concerns the ownership and operation of transport infrastructures can be **publicly or privately owned**, creating a complex governance landscape. Public infrastructures tend to focus on collective passenger mobility and have the advantage of being available to a larger share of the population at a low cost (commonly free of access). Still, they are expensive for the government to maintain (subsidies), which has to rely on alternative models such as public ownership and private operations. Private infrastructures are usually financially profitable and related to individual mobility and freight distribution. As income levels increase, some infrastructure problems are solved, while some environmental problems are created. For instance, an increase in income is linked to better sanitation and water provision, but at the expense of more significant waste generation and carbon emissions. Global sustainability remains influenced by the **paradox** of a declining environmental impact per capita of several factors, such as energy consumption, carbon emissions, and materials, but also reflects a [divergence in the carbon footprint](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/carbon-emissions-country/ "Carbon Emissions by Country, 1965-2020") between developed and developing economies. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-City-Sustainability.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Sustainable Urban Passenger Travel, Selected Cities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/sustainable-urban-passenger-travel/map-global-city-sustainability/)Sustainable Urban Passenger Travel Selected Cities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/carbon_emissions_country.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Carbon Emissions by Country | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/carbon-emissions-country/carbon_emissions_country/)Carbon Emissions by Country 1965 2020# 2. Sustainable Transportation Transportation, as a core component supporting the interactions and development of socioeconomic systems, has also been the object of much consideration as to what extent it is sustainable. > [Sustainable transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6263) is the capacity to support the mobility needs of a society in a manner that is the least damageable to the environment and does not impair the mobility needs of future generations. Sustainable development applied to transport systems requires the promotion of linkages between environmental protection, economic efficiency, and social progress. [Expected outcomes of sustainable transport](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/economic-social-outcomes-sustainable-transportation/ "Economic and Social Outcomes of Sustainable Transportation") include improvements in efficiency, safety, and the environment. Under the environmental dimension, the objective consists of understanding the reciprocal influences of the physical environment and the practices of the industry and that all aspects of the transport industry address environmental issues. Under the economic dimension, the objective consists of promoting economic efficiency by inciting the provision of needed infrastructures and mobility systems. Transport must be cost-effective and capable of adapting to changing demands. Under the social dimension, the objective consists of upgrading living standards and quality of life. **Automobile dependence** is a situation that is commonly associated with an unsustainable urban environment. However, such an observation is at odds with the mobility choices and preferences of the global population, where the [automobile is rapidly adopted](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5469) when income levels reach a certain threshold. Other transport alternatives do not measure up to the convenience of the automobile. Automobile dependency is thus the outcome of **market forces** expressed as consumer preferences, the provision of road infrastructures, and national manufacturing policies. Private and flexible forms of transportation, such as the automobile, are thus fundamental to urban mobility and should not be discarded as options for the sake of ideological perspectives about what sustainability implies. Recent advances in **car-sharing technologies** and the potential for **self-driving vehicles** underline a much more sustainable usage of car assets that could remove up to 90% of vehicles from the streets. This adds to the ongoing engine and drive technology improvement, reducing vehicle emissions. This contradicts the bias observed in the transport community toward emphasizing public transit and non-motorized transportation as the dominant strategy for sustainable transportation. Yet, almost all public transit systems are financially unsustainable, imposing burdens on society that are accepted because they provide access to all socioeconomic groups. Freight transportation must also be considered in this process, considering the [substantial growth of raw materials and goods](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4055) traded in a global economy. Freight transportation relies more on environmentally sound modes such as rail and [maritime transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6268). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sustainable_transportation2.png?resize=900%2C323&ssl=1 "Sustainable Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/sustainable-transportation/sustainable_transportation/)Sustainable Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economic_social_outcomes_sustainable_transportation.png?resize=900%2C333&ssl=1 "Economic and Social Outcomes of Sustainable Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/economic-social-outcomes-sustainable-transportation/economic_social_outcomes_sustainable_transportation/)Economic and Social Outcomes of Sustainable Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Farebox-Ratio.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Farebox Recovery Ratio, Selected Transit Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/world-farebox-ratio/map-world-farebox-ratio/)Farebox Recovery Ratio Selected Transit Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_merchandise_trade.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Merchandise Trade, 1960-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/world-merchandise-trade/world_merchandise_trade/)World Merchandise Trade 1960 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sustainability_dimensions_transport.png?resize=900%2C356&ssl=1 "Sustainability Dimensions in the Transport Industry | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/sustainability-dimensions-transport-industry/sustainability_dimensions_transport/)Sustainability Dimensions in the Transport Industry[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/life_span_transport_asset.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Lifespan (Life Cycle) of Main Transport Assets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/life_span_transport_asset/)Lifespan Life Cycle of Main Transport AssetsMeasures to promote transport sustainability **have their limits**. Indeed, the built environment, transport infrastructures, and even modes cannot change quickly enough to solve the bulk of the problems related to unsustainable transport. Most investments will remain so for 50 years or more. New investments (in additional or improved infrastructure) will not represent much more than a few percentage points in reducing traffic congestion and its negative externalities. The different [life spans of transport modes and infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5423) underline that sustainability cannot be applied in a synchronized fashion. For instance, replacing most of the automobile fleet with more efficient vehicles within a decade could be possible. At the same time, replacing road infrastructure (e.g. pavement) would take about a quarter of a century, and assets such as planes and containerships have a lifespan of a couple of decades. While policies, rules, and regulations expect compliance, users instinctively react to price signals and discard modes that are becoming costly (unsustainable) and find loopholes. Transportation and sustainability for both passengers and freight must also contend with **mitigation versus adaptation** issues: - **Mitigation** concerns the improvement of productivity and efficiency of existing modes, terminals, and managerial approaches so that environmental externalities are reduced. They tend to be short to medium-term strategies. - **Adaptation** is a change in the level of use and the market share of respective modes to reflect better long-term trends, such as higher energy prices, improved information technologies, and stricter environmental regulations. There is a wide range of environmental sustainability responses, with different local, national, and international regulations. This involves a **variety of costs in transport operations** that must be built into the price of providing transport facilities and services. Environmental sustainability represents a growing area of responsibility for transport service providers, inciting them to acquire expertise in environmental management. The most important challenge is implementing environmentally sustainable transport **within competitive market structures**, leaning on coping with changes in transport demand while improving transport supply. # 3. Managing Transport Demand To effectively mitigate the adverse impacts of current transportation systems, strategies can be devised to manage (reduce) transport demand for passengers and freight as well as to redistribute this demand in space or in time (outside peak hours) when possible. Profitable, affordable, and unsubsidized transportation is a good indicator of its sustainability. Increasing transport costs and the pressure to subsidize them can be interpreted as signals that they may be unsustainable. There are several interrelated ways in which transportation systems can adapt to cope with transport demand and reach a better level of sustainability: - **Full-cost pricing.** The full (or partial) recovery of costs related to public investments is incurred in constructing, maintaining, and operating transport networks. They remove artificial signals such as subsidies and let users assume the real transportation cost, including **road pricing** and **pollution (carbon) taxes and fees**. Motorists are charged a floating fee (depending on demand variability in peak and off-peak hours) for using targeted roads. This can be implemented through various techniques, such as tolls or licensing fees. Tax and pollution fees would involve the implementation of increased taxes on vehicle and fuel purchases as well as imposing fees on vehicle owners who operate at low levels of energy efficiency. Such an approach aims to incentivize users toward more sustainable mobility choices. - **Parking controls.** By raising [parking prices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5123) or reducing the amount of parking space, such a strategy can deter the use of privately-owned vehicles in areas of highest demand by raising the price of commuting by car to high-density areas. The expected result is to encourage (or force) commuters to seek alternatives in mass transit, ridesharing, or carpooling. They tend to be ineffective for freight distribution since delivery trucks will infringe regulations for short-duration deliveries (e.g. double parking for a few minutes). - **Trip avoidance**. A more direct method of reducing traffic demand, but avoiding trips is a complex endeavor. It involves strategies where an activity still occurs while its related mobility is mitigated. This is mostly related to the use of information technologies, which paradoxically can, at the same time, substitute for and [support mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1713). For instance, e-commerce can reduce the number of shopping trips, but this involves substituting for [parcel deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4524). For freight transportation, trip avoidance is mostly the outcome of changes in sourcing strategies such as nearshoring, where fewer ton-km are generated. - **Traffic bans**. Through traffic bans, the regulatory institution would exert direct control over the allowable limit of vehicles in a given urban area or along specific corridors depending on measures of transport supply-demand functions or arbitrary estimates of carrying capacity. Many high-density central areas have closed streets to pedestrians to create public spaces more conducive to commercial and social activities. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cbd_parking.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Central Business District Monthly Parking Rate | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-rate-cbd/monthly_parking_index/)Central Business District Monthly Parking Rate 2011[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/digitalization_mobility2.png?resize=900%2C479&ssl=1 "The Digitalization of Mobility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-mobility/digitalization_mobility2/)The Digitalization of Mobility[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_ecommerce_logistics.png?resize=900%2C463&ssl=1 "Retail Logistics and E-commerce | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-ecommerce/retail_ecommerce_logistics/)Retail Logistics and E commerceImplementing such strategies relies heavily on the existing spatial structure, passengers and material flows, and transport networks. An expectation is that the demand will **shift towards more carbon neutral modes** with better energy performance. In situations where a fee structure is not effective (e.g. low-income population), constraint-based strategies can be more suitable than fee-based strategies. Such coercive strategies would thereby limit the number of vehicles in circulation and, correspondingly, reduce congestion and air pollution while promoting alternative transport means. Their fundamental shortfall is they assume that government (planning) entities know solutions to urban transport problems (such as the appropriate number of parking spaces), which is not necessarily the case. # 4. Improving Transport Supply While implementing demand-oriented policies and mechanisms is important in promoting sustainable transport, these measures can be more effective with **transport supply improvements**. Transportation infrastructure should be expanded to accommodate rapidly growing transport demands. As long as the global urban population continues to grow, particularly in developing economies, there are pressures to expand urban transport infrastructures and the infrastructure supporting global trade. In urban areas, the challenge is to expand and improve transportation supply to provide alternatives to the automobile and trucking. This can be achieved for **passengers** by expanding public transit infrastructure, improving existing public transit services, and making cities friendly to pedestrians and non-motorized vehicles. However, it appears that vehicle automation could be an even more effective tool by allowing better utilization of existing vehicle and road assets as well as reducing the number of vehicles in circulation. The realms of [green logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6497) and [city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792) have received renewed attention as tools to improve the sustainability of **freight distribution** since the material needs of economic activities, including end consumers, must be provided for as well. Sustainability is giving public transit a new impetus since the bulk of its prior rationale was to mitigate automobile dependency and provide mobility to a large share of the population. However, this is an extremely difficult challenge considering the prominence the automobile is achieving worldwide. It must be acknowledged that this prominence is the outcome of many positive factors favoring the automobile, such as flexibility, convenience, and relatively low ownership and operating costs. As the average income of the global population is increasing, the pressure for automobile ownership continues. Thus, alternatives can be provided if they are cost-effective while fulfilling a niche demand. They may include: - **Energy intensity of vehicles and carbon intensity of fuels**. Vehicles are the first element of the transport supply, where more sustainable improvements can be implemented. This is the dimension for which the decarbonization of transportation can lead to the most tangible outcomes. There are many strategies, such as using lighter materials (e.g. composites) for manufacturing vehicles or more efficient or new engine technologies. The [material intensity of an average vehicle of 1.5 tons](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10040) remains significant since steel and plastics can account for 75% of their mass. Because of its complexity and related supply chains, the automobile is subject to [circular economy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8913) considerations where vehicles, parts, and materials could be reused and recycled. Fuels can also be improved using alternatives such as natural gas, biofuels, electricity, or hydrogen. - **Densification and agglomeration**. A higher concentration of activities usually leads to more efficient transportation because of the lesser distances involved. Spatial structures such as [logistics zones](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8133) or transit-oriented developments can thus result in reduced vehicle trips. They may also incite using modes more prone to economies of scale (more passengers or units of cargo per load or surface unit) as cost-effective alternatives. With market signals related to land cost, densification, and agglomeration often dictate more efficient and higher-density uses. - **Context-appropriate transport**. Transportation modes and infrastructure must be developed and used in the context in which they are the most appropriate. However, the relevance of specific transportation systems to service-specific contexts is subject to debate since it is reflective of societal values and priorities. Both public and private forms of transportation have roles to fulfill. The last decades have seen substantial growth in individual mobility despite all the efforts to promote public transportation. In the North American context, promoting public transit has [seen limited success](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5022). Therefore, public transportation, being less flexible, should assert a complementary role. The expansion and development of mass transit systems must make effective use of urban space by conforming to a number of factors, including urban form, density, and modal preferences. In doing so, the fleets and networks must ensure a level of flexibility while ensuring low ridership costs. Comparatively, improving and upgrading existing public transit services should include improving service coverage and quality and increasing frequency where and when it is most needed (during peak hours). A similar observation applies to freight distribution, as a range of modes is available to accommodate a variety of supply chains. There is not necessarily an ideal setting in which a mode should be used. - **Micromobility**. Integrating individual modes of non-motorized transport, such as walking, electric scooters, and cycling, can provide access to shopping, schools, and work. The main constraint concerns range and capacity as micromobility is not designed to accommodate trips of more than 5 km, with most of the trips less than 1 km. Also, for cities struggling with serious traffic congestion and air pollution, micromobility should be considered an alternative, or at least complementing, private vehicles while serving as a crucial link in an integrated public transportation system; its last mile. While cycling and scooters can be challenging to promote and integrate into urban transportation (e.g. taxing weather conditions such as winter or excessive heat), there is a clear and unmet need to better integrate pedestrian movements into sound urban design and architecture. For freight, non-motorized transport modes are much more limited in capacity and range. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/material_components_car.png?resize=900%2C547&ssl=1 "Main Material Components of a Car | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/material-components-car/car_material_components/)Main Material Components of a Car[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/co2_passenger_freight.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average CO2 Emissions by Passenger and Freight Transport Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/co2-emissions-passenger-freight-transport-mode/co2_passenger_freight/)Average CO2 Emissions by Passenger and Freight Transport Mode[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/circular_economy2.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "The Circular Economy and Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/circular-economy-supply-chains/circular_economy/)The Circular Economy and Supply Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trips_public_transport_united_states2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Trips by Public Transport in the United States, 1903-2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-ridership-united-states/trips_public_transit_untited_states/)Trips by Public Transport in the United States 1903 2017However, such alternatives contrast with the reality of modal choice towards the automobile and trucks, particularly in economies experiencing rapid growth. Thus, sustainable transportation remains **elusive** since any economic activity, including transportation, has negative environmental impacts. The matter remains if these activities are taking place at a level exceeding the environmental and social carrying capacity. Technological innovation has historically played a paradoxical role in both exacerbating environmental and sustainability issues and, at the same time, offering forms of mitigation. The expectation is that in the future, technological innovation in the transport sector will be more of a sustainability driver than it was in the past. This is why a share of the attention has shifted toward decarbonizing transportation. # 5. The Push for Decarbonization > Decarbonizing transportation aims to reduce, mitigate, and even eliminate carbon emissions by adapting transportation infrastructures, conveyances, and operations. The concept of sustainable transportation has become widely accepted as a goal and appears in the environmental plans of many governments and corporations. For instance, the European Union has set the ambitious goal that by 2030, net greenhouse gas emissions will be reduced by 55% of their 1990 levels. Still, sustainable transportation remains **elusive** as it does not offer clear guidelines but mostly a narrative allowing stakeholders to remain vague in their commitments and endeavors (also known as “greenwashing”). In the 17 sustainable development goals identified by the United Nations, **transportation was not identified as a distinct sustainability goal**, even if it accounts for about a [quarter of global CO2 emissions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=15778 "Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by the Transportation Sector"). Further, these goals have no stated priority and are subject to interpretation and ideological capture by advocacy groups. Elite individuals and institutions use the environmental and sustainability narrative for virtue signaling and the derived social status. There is also a substantive lack of clarity concerning basic aspects of the role of carbon in environmental and weather systems. This includes: - There is **no ideal global mean surface temperature**, and it cannot be stated which temperature would be considered optimal. Using a specific reference timeframe, such as the 1850-1950 average, is arbitrary and not associated with any specific optimal. The last 10,000 years have seen the lowest global temperatures in geological time since these figures were much higher millions of years ago. - There is **no ideal atmospheric CO2 level**, with evidence underlining that higher levels are associated with increased photosynthesis activity. - **Carbon dioxide is often labeled a pollutant**, mainly on the ground that it contributes to the greenhouse effect. However, CO2 has no notable toxic effect on life and is fundamental to photosynthesis. Since the early 2000s, sustainability goals in the transportation sector have been reframing towards a more **tangible strategy focusing on carbon consumption and emissions**. This mainly took shape around the decarbonization of transportation, which helps articulate the narrative around the role of fossil fuels. The concept does not undermine the purpose of transportation, which is providing mobility to passengers and freight, but that the carbon footprint of transportation activities should be reduced. Even if it focuses on carbon, decarbonization directly impacts other externalities as most air pollutants are an outcome of the combustion of fossil fuels. To articulate decarbonization strategies, three scopes of emissions have been proposed: - **Scope 1 (Direct emissions)**. Carbon emissions (and other greenhouse gases such as nitrogen oxide) are the result of the activities of an organization. This particularly concerns emissions from vehicles and facilities supporting operations. - **Scope 2 (Indirect emissions)**. Emissions resulting from the generation of fuels and electricity for operations. Even electricity, which may not generate Scope 1 emissions, could generate Scope 2 emissions if generated by fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. - **Scope 3 (Indirect/induced emissions)**. Emissions resulting from activities upstream and downstream of the organization. They are the most complex to assess as they are not under the direct control of an organization generating Scope 1 and 2 emissions. This includes emissions resulting from business travel by management, the commuting of employees, waste generation and disposal, the goods and services that an organization purchases, and the transportation and distribution services used for procurement and access to markets. [Decarbonizing transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=22805 "The Decarbonization of Transportation") focuses on three main realms of application: - **Infrastructure**. The fixed asset components of decarbonization include transport corridors and terminals. Their construction, maintenance, and upgrade can be subject to procurement strategies that are less carbon-intensive, including the use of materials. Transportation modes, particularly in terms of their economies of scale, can be ranked by carbon intensity. This implies that infrastructure-supporting modes with low carbon intensity and connectivity (intermodalism) between transportation modes should be favored. - **Conveyances and equipment**. For mobile transportation assets, the focus is mainly on their fuel and energy sources, including shifting to fuels emitting less CO2. This could also involve a shift to less carbon-intensive modes, but modal shift strategies usually have limited impacts. The electrification of roads and rail is a key strategy as it focuses on modes with the highest contribution to CO2 emissions. Autonomous vehicles have potential since they can provide mobility with fewer vehicles, and their routing can be optimized in real time to reduce energy consumption. Ideally, pedestrians and bicycles should have a larger share of urban mobility. - **Management and operations**. A focus is on pricing strategies that change the competitiveness of transportation modes according to their carbon emission. It also considers an array of regulations concerning issues such as emissions and types of fuels. The expectation is that the increasing competitiveness of decarbonized transportation will displace transportation technologies based on fossil fuels. Better utilization of existing transportation assets, such as freight platforms and ride-sharing services, is also recognized. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/greenhouse_transport_sector.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by the Transportation Sector | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by the Transportation Sector![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/decarbonization_transportation.png?resize=900%2C409&ssl=1 "The Decarbonization of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Decarbonization of Transportation![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/final_energy_consumption_transport_sector.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Final Energy Consumption by Fuel Type by Transport Sector | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Final Energy Consumption by Fuel Type by Transport Sector![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_ev_sales.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Electric Vehicles Sales, 2010-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Electric Vehicles Sales 2010 2022The push towards the decarbonization of transportation is **mostly concerned with electrification**, but modes like air and maritime transportation will switch to alternative fuels such as LNG and ammonia. [Electric vehicle sales are rising rapidly](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/global-electric-vehicles-sales/ "Global Electric Vehicles Sales, 2010-2021"), accounting for 14% of global sales as of 2022. They accounted for about 5% of all vehicle sales in the United States, 7% in China, and around 15% for most European countries (above 70% in Norway). Electrification represents a temporary devolution of mobility as fundamental attributes such as range (battery charge) decline. It thus represents a decline in flexibility and operational performance. This transition will likely continue until electric vehicles perform similarly to their internal combustion engine equivalent. Sustainability and decarbonization are part of the same agenda, with the main difference being that decarbonization offers a clearer framework and plan of action with practical solutions. --- ## Related Topics - [4.1 – Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/ "4.1 – Transportation and Energy") - [4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/ "4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation") - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260) - [B.18 – Climate Change and the Adaptation of Transport Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/ "B.18 – Climate Change and the Adaptation of Transport Infrastructure") - [B.15 – Green Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6497) - [City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792) - [A.20 – Transport and Environmental Management](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) ## Bibliography - Banister, D. (2008) “The Sustainable Mobility Paradigm”, Transport Policy, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 73-80. - Banister, D. and K. Button (eds) (1993) Transport, the Environment, and Sustainable Development. London: Spon Press. - Black, W.R. (2010) Sustainable Transportation: Problems and Solutions, New York: The Guilford Press. - Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2012) Towards the Circular Economy Vol. 1: an economic and business rationale for an accelerated transition. - Gilbert, R. and A. Perl (2008) Transport revolutions. Moving people and freight without oil, London: Earthscan. - Haas, T. (ed) (2012) Sustainable Urbanism and Beyond: Rethinking Cities for the Future. New York: Rizzoli. - Hickman, R., P. Hall and D. Banister (2013) “Planning more for sustainable mobility”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 33, pp. 210-219. - Humphreys, R. M. and A. Dumitrescu (2021) Decarbonizing the Freight and Logistics Sector. Transport Decarbonization Investment Series. World Bank, Washington. - IEA/OECD (2009) Transport, Energy and CO2: Moving toward sustainability. Paris: International Energy Agency. - International Transport Forum (2020) Transport Climate Action Directory, Paris: OECD. - Lacy P., J. Long, and W. Spindler (2020) The Circular Economy Handbook: Realizing the Circular Advantage, London: Palgrave Macmillan. - McKinnon, A. (2018) “Balancing Efficiency and Resilience in Multimodal Supply Chains”, International Transport Forum Discussion Papers, Paris: OECD Publishing. - McKinnon, A. (2018) Decarbonizing Logistics: Distributing Goods in a Low Carbon World, London: Kogan Page. - McKinnon, A., M. Browne and A. Whiteing (eds) (2013) Green Logistics: Improving the Environmental Sustainability of Logistics, Second Edition, London: Kogan Page. - Newman, P. and J.R. Kenworthy (1999) Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, New York: Island Press. - Noussan, M., M. Hafner and S. Tagliapietra (2020) The Future of Transport Between Digitalization and Decarbonization: Trends, Strategies and Effects on Energy Consumption. SpringerBriefs in Energy. - Schiller, P.L., and J.R. Kenworthy (2018) An Introduction to Sustainable Transportation: Policy, Planning and Implementation, New York: Routledge. - Tolley, R. (ed) (2003) Sustainable Transport: Planning for Walking and Cycling in Urban Environments, New York: CRC Press. - UN-HABITAT (2009) Planning Sustainable Cities, Global Report on Human Settlements 2009, United Nations Human Settlements Programme, London: Earthscan. - United Nations (2021) Sustainable transport, sustainable development. Interagency report for second Global Sustainable Transport Conference. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Evolution of Containerships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/evolution-containerships-classes/) **Published:** November 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Containership Size Class Panamax New Panamax ULCS](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerships_evolution2.png?resize=900%2C959&ssl=1 "Evolution of Containerships | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Evolution of Containerships*Source: All dimensions are in meters. LOA: Length overall. The loads displayed on deck represent maximal possible loads, which would involve a large share of empty containers. The loads are usually 1 to 3 containers less in height. Containerships usually carry fewer containers because of weight restrictions and lack of demand on certain routes.* The definition of a containership class is a function of draft and related capacity in TEU. Since the beginning of containerization in the mid-1950s, containerships have undergone six general waves of changes, each representing new generations of containerships: ## A. Early containerships The **first generation** of containerships was composed of **modified bulk vessels or tankers** that could transport up to 1,000 TEUs. The first containership, the “[Ideal-X](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1323)” was a converted World War II T2 tanker. At the beginning of the 1960s, the container was a transport technology being tested and gradually deployed, and reconverting existing ships proved to be less costly and less risky. These ships were carrying onboard cranes since most port terminals were not equipped to handle containers. They were also relatively slow, with speeds of about 18 to 20 knots, and could only carry containers on the converted decks and not in their bellyhold. Once the container began to be massively adopted at the beginning of the 1970s, the construction of the first fully cellular containerships (FCC; second generation) entirely dedicated to handling containers started. The first cellular containerships, called the C7 class, were introduced in 1968. In 1972, the largest container ship, the Tokyo Bay, had a capacity of 2,300 TEU. All containerships are composed of cells lodging containers in stacks of different heights depending on the ship’s capacity. Cellular containership also offers the advantage of using the whole ship to stack containers, including below deck. Usually, an extra two containers in width can be carried above the deck rather than below the deck. Cranes were removed from the ship design so that more containers could be carried (cranes remain today on some specialized containerships). The ability of ports to handle cellular containerships ceased to be a major concern with the setting of specialized container terminals worldwide. Cellular containerships were also much faster, with speeds of 20-24 knots, which would become the speed of reference in containerized shipping. ## B. Panamax During the 1980s, economies of scale rapidly pushed for the construction of larger containerships. The larger the number of containers being carried, the lower the costs per TEU. The process became a virtuous circle, compounding larger volumes and lower costs, which significantly helped the diffusion of the container and its use for international trade. The size limit of the Panama Canal, which came to be known as the **Panamax standard**, was achieved in 1985 with a capacity of [about 4,000 TEUs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2588). The maximum capacity of Panamax ships has been optimized to reach around 4,500 TEUs, depending on the load configuration. Once this limit was achieved, a decade passed before a new generation of larger containerships was designed. Simultaneously, Panamax container ship designs were evolving to take maximum advantage of the canal’s limitation in beam width. These ships came to be known as **Panamax Max**. The original dimensions of the Panama Canal, built by the US Army Corps of Engineers, are similar to the dimensions of the US Inland Waterways locks, resulting in a narrow and long ship design. ## C. Post Panamax I and II Going beyond Panamax was perceived as a risk in terms of the configuration of shipping networks, additional handling infrastructure, and draft limitations at ports. The APL C10 containership class, with a capacity of 4,500 TEUs, was introduced in 1988 and was the first containership class to exceed the 32.2 m width limit of the Panama Canal. By 1996, full-fledged Post-Panamax containerships were introduced, with capacities reaching 6,600 TEUs. The first Post-Panamax ship classes were not much longer than the Panamax class, but wider, making them more efficient. A ship above the Panamax size requires a substantial amount of cargo to be used profitably along a service loop. By the late 1990s, the rapid growth of global trade made such a ship class a marketable proposition. Once the Panamax threshold was breached, ship size quickly increased, with capacities reaching 8,000 TEUs (Post Panamax II; “Sovereign Class”). Post-Panamax containerships triggered an infrastructure challenge for many ports. They require deeper drafts (at least 43 feet) and are highly efficient but costly, with portainers (ship-to-shore cranes) having wider reaches. Draft constraints became a factor, placing pressure on ports to dredge to accommodate post-Panamax containerships. ## D. Very Large Containership (VLCS) By 2006, the third generation of post-Panamax containerships came online when Maersk Shipping Line introduced a ship class with a capacity in the range of 11,000 to 14,500 TEUs; the Emma Maersk ([E Class](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2206)). They were dubbed Very Large Containerships since they were bigger than the specifications of the expanded Panama Canal. This new class was particularly demanding for port infrastructures as their draught exceeded 15 meters and a width of 22 containers across. The number of ports capable of handling VLCS is limited, particularly ports in river deltas that can face access channel constraints. ## E. New-Panamax, or Neo-Panamax (NPX) This refers to ships designed to fit exactly in the locks of the expanded Panama Canal, which opened in June 2016. These ships have a capacity of about 12,500 TEU, but there are several configurations of Neo-Panamax ships in terms of length (17 to 22 bays) and width (19 or 20 containers across). Like its Panamax counterparts, Neo-Panamax ships are likely to define a specific ship class able to service the Americas and the Caribbean, either from Europe or Asia, and become the new standard in port infrastructure design. ## F. Ultra Large Containership (ULCV) A further extension of the post-Panamax design led to the introduction of the Ultra Large Containership class of 18,000 TEUs and above in 2013 (named ‘Triple E’ by Maersk). This class was further expanded, and by 2017, ships above 20,000 TEUs started to be delivered. An additional expansion in 2019 introduced ships with 24 containers across and 24 bays, dubbed Megamax-24 (MGX-24), with a capacity reaching 24,000 TEUs. The ULCS/Megamax-24 is approaching the technical limits the Suez Canal can accommodate, beyond which its commercial relevance declines substantially. Routes and ports Megamax ships can service are more limited, mostly to routes between Asia and Europe, and potentially some transatlantic routes. There are [larger ship designs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7395) on the drawing boards, such as the “Malacca Max” class, that could carry about 27,000-30,000 TEU, but they are not expected to be constructed until there are sufficient volumes on the limited routes these ships could service. ## Future Prospects Containership speeds have peaked at an average of 20 to 25 knots, and it is unlikely that speeds will increase due to energy consumption; many shipping lines are opting for [slow steaming](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5955) to cope with higher bunker fuel prices (when there are market spikes) and overcapacity (to have more ships in a slower service). The deployment of a class of fast containerships has remained on the drawing boards because the speed advantages they would confer would not compensate for the much higher shipping costs. Supply chains have been synchronized with container shipping speeds, and the setting of landbridges, such as the [Eurasian landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7197), offers a competitive service for time-sensitive cargoes. Each subsequent generation of containership faces a shrinking number of harbors able to handle them and places pressure on port infrastructure and equipment. Maritime shipping companies are incited to use the largest containerships possible on their shipping routes since they benefit from economies of scale. However, ports and inland transportation systems must provide substantial capital investment if they expect to accommodate larger containerships. Thus, operational limitations are to deploy ships bigger than 8,000 TEU in terms of ports of call and the required infrastructure to provide an acceptable loading and unloading throughput. Also, large containership deployments require a substantial amount of cargo to be commercially feasible, such as adequate service frequency. Containerships in the range of 5,500 to 6,500 TEU appear to be the most flexible in terms of the ports they can access and the market they can service, since using larger ships requires fewer port calls. Therefore, limits to economies of scale in container shipping are much more limited by commercial attributes than technical constraints. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/evolution-containerships-classes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/evolution-containerships-classes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/evolution-containerships-classes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/evolution-containerships-classes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [American Rail Network, 1861](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-rail-network-1861/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US_Rail_1861.png?resize=900%2C788&ssl=1 "American Rail Network, 1861 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")American Rail Network 1861*Sources: Railroads and the Making of Modern America, University of Nebraska, Lincoln (Rail Network). US Census Bureau (Urban Population).* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_US_Rail_1861.pdf) In only 30 years after its introduction, the American rail network totaled about 28,900 miles (46,500 km) on the eve of the Civil War (1861-1865). Yet, the American rail network was composed of two systems reflecting the political division between the North (Union States) and the South (Confederate States). Outside a connection through Washington, the networks were disconnected and serviced different economic systems. This lack of connectivity was compounded by the fact that railways servicing the same city were often not connected, requiring ferrying cargo from one terminal to the other, and for passengers to spend a night to catch the next day train (schedules were not effectively coordinated). The dominantly rural society of the South was mainly serviced by penetration lines seeking to connect the agricultural hinterland to ports where surpluses were exported (e.g. New Orleans & Charleston). As such, the network was not very cohesive. The more urbanized North developed a network that interconnected its main urban centers and agricultural regions in the Midwest in a complex lattice. At the end of the Civil War, the expansion of the network would resume, as well as its level of integration. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-rail-network-1861/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-rail-network-1861/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-rail-network-1861/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-rail-network-1861/?share=reddit) - --- ### [American Intermodal Rail Traffic, 1988-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-traffic-united-states/) **Published:** November 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/intermodal_rail_traffic_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "American Intermodal Rail Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")American Intermodal Rail Traffic 1988 2021*Source: Intermodal Association of North America & American Association of Railroads.* Rail transport trends in the United States indicate a significant shift in intermodal traffic toward containerized freight. While rail intermodal container traffic (container on flat cars; COFC), both ISO and domestic, increased, the number of trailers carried by rail (trailers on flat cars; TOFC) declined. This represents a significant shift in the TOFC/COFC balance: 55%/45% in 1990, 25%/75% in 2000, and 9%/91% containers in 2020. TOFC has thus become a marginal segment of intermodal transportation used for niche services, most of which are point-to-point. In 2005, 58% of the containers handled were international (maritime) containers, while domestic containers accounted for 23% and trailers for 19%. About 25% of all international cargo moved by rail is transloaded into domestic containers. COFC traffic peaked in 2007 and declined in 2008 and 2009 due to a decline in import demands. As of 2018, intermodal rail traffic recovered to pre-2006- 07 traffic levels. The COVID-19 pandemic led to a decline in intermodal rail volumes in 2020. However, the surge in demand from late 2020 resulted in record intermodal traffic levels in 2021, creating several pressures on system capacity. This raises the question of whether intermodal rail has reached its market potential in the United States or if there is additional growth to be expected. One of the core advantages of COFC versus TOFC is double stacking, which involves a much higher utilization density of rail assets. Several prominent American trucking companies are also converting to containerization, thus relying on COFC as opposed to TOFC. For instance, in 2009, citing energy and cost advantages, major LTL shipper Schneider National converted its entire intermodal fleet to containers. JB Hunt, with the largest fleet of domestic 53-foot containers, has also converted to COFC operations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-traffic-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-traffic-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-traffic-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-traffic-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Alameda Corridor and Containers Handled by the San Pedro Bay Ports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/alameda-rail-traffic/) **Published:** November 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/alameda_traffic.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "The Alameda Corridor and Containers Handled by the San Pedro Bay Ports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Alameda Corridor and Containers Handled by the San Pedro Bay Ports 2002 2024*Source: Alameda Corridor Transportation Authority and American Association of Port Authorities.* The [Alameda corridor](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2017) represents an unusual intermodal system for freight distribution. Its long-term success leans mainly on efficient rail transshipments both at the San Pedro Bay port cluster (ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach) and at the rail yards near downtown Los Angeles. If transshipment costs and delays can be reduced, the corridor could gather additional traffic and fulfill the role it was designed for. The Alameda corridor has a maximum capacity of more than 150 train trips per day, while in 2024, there were about 31 trains per day using the corridor. This is about 50% less than what was anticipated, even if about half of the 20,000 containers that transit through the port each day are handled by the corridor. A plateau appears to be emerging in the growth of traffic, underlining operational limits that are not related to its capacity. The dynamism of the corridor was initially linked with the dynamism of the San Pedro Bay ports, which did not recover from their 2006 plateau until 2016. Over the first four full years of operation (2003 – 2006), the number of trains has grown relatively in line with the containerized traffic at the port cluster. Thus, growth follows port traffic growth, with little growth in the share accounted for by the corridor, indicating that the expected modal shift is slow to occur. Since empty container exports have accounted for a substantial share of the recent growth of port traffic, empty containers being transited at a discount (empties are $6.11 per TEU as opposed to $25.51 per TEU for full containers) account for a significant share of the traffic growth. Since 2014, the Alameda corridor has experienced a decline in train traffic. A part of the decline in the number of trains was initially attributed to a larger number of units per train; however, since 2009, very limited growth has taken place. The Alameda freight corridor appears to be in an inertia phase in its expected modal shift as users are reluctant to abandon existing modal and freight distribution practices, particularly the function of transloading (moving the contents of 40-foot maritime containers into 53-foot domestic containers). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/alameda-rail-traffic/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/alameda-rail-traffic/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/alameda-rail-traffic/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/alameda-rail-traffic/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Port Inland Distribution Network of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-inland-distribution-network-new-york/) **Published:** February 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/PIDN.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "Port Inland Distribution Network of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Port Inland Distribution Network of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_PANYNJ-PIDN.pdf) As a growing share of the consumption of vast markets such as BostWash is being supplied by international sources new systems of inland freight distribution are being established. Many ports see growth opportunities and potential to capture added value activities, particularly at inland freight distribution clusters. Such expectations are however clashing with acute congestion since there is limited potential to increase the capacity of existing road systems along the BostWash corridor. There is thus competition between ports over the hinterland they service, but this competition increasingly takes the shape of the reliability of these services. To do so, modal shift and freight diversion strategies are contemplated. Modal shift implies that freight entering or exiting the port terminals would use a mode other than road, particularly rail. Freight diversion, which goes concomitantly with modal shift, involves the setting of inland terminals where freight converges. There is thus a hinterland access strategy in the making along the BostWash corridor. Unlike Europe, the North American East Coast does not offer a significant axis of fluvial circulation (the St. Lawrence Seaway is limited). In the early 2000s, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey developed an ambitious plan to siphon off some traffic through a web of inland hubs connected to the mother port by barge and rail. The Port Inland Distribution Network (PIDN) plan would free up valuable terminal space, ease mounting congestion and provide environmental benefits. It would also provide reliable, scheduled service for containers no longer subject to the saturated highway system and the potential disruptions that congestion may create. Making this strategy operational, however, is another matter. The PIDN planned to service a set of freight clusters within a 50-mile radius of a number of potential feeder locations, which are either barge or rail terminals. For instance, in 1991 the port of New York / New Jersey inaugurated a direct on-dock rail facilities, a function which grew at a phenomenal rate (much faster than the port traffic growth) from 43,000 containers handled in 1992 to more than 377,000 in 2011. It was expected that by 2010, intermodal rail share would climb to 25-30% of transshipped containers, but as of 2008 this share was at 12.3% underlining that modal shift expectations are yet to be realized. The setting of barge services is also an initiative not without challenges. For instance, the New York / Albany barge service, which started in April 2003, was suspended in February 2006 due to the lack of funding, which corresponded to the end of subsidies provided to help jump-start the service. Inland barge distribution remains a problematic endeavor for the Eastern Seaboard. Still, PIDN has helped improving accessibility to the hinterland in the vicinity of Boston with a rail shuttle service to Worcester about 4 times per week and barge services to Boston. The port of Hampton Roads (Virginia Port Authority) has also initiated an inland freight service to a terminal named the Virginia Inland Port, located about 80 miles west of Washington. It can be serviced by an 18-hour train journey between the port and the inland terminal. This terminal is conveniently located along the double-stack rail corridor that leads to Chicago. The two most important container ports of the BostWash corridor are thus competing at their respective margins through modal shift and freight diversion. [Port regionalization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3577) – the setting of inland terminals linked to port terminals by rail or barge services – thus appears to be used as a tool of port competition. In an effort to capitalize on the growing traffic by offering a new corridor available to double stack rail train, Norfolk Southern completed in 2010 a major rail project reducing the distance of container train trips between the middle East Coast and the Midwest. The Heartland Corridor connects the port terminal facilities of Hampton Roads, Virginia, with rail lines through West Virginia and ends in Columbus, Ohio. At this point, the corridor links up with western rail networks or with the double-stack rail corridor to Chicago. Prior to its opening, double-stack trains heading towards the Port of Virginia went through Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, because of insufficient tunnel clearance. Through an increase in the clearance of 28 tunnels at a cost of about $266 million, the Heartland Corridor project bypasses this loop, cutting 233 miles and 36 hours off the route from Virginia to the Midwest. This setting is thus likely to increase hinterland competition at the margin of the BostWash corridor and offer a new alternative to long-distance transcontinental freight distribution. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-inland-distribution-network-new-york/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-inland-distribution-network-new-york/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-inland-distribution-network-new-york/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-inland-distribution-network-new-york/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Traffic Handled at Major North American Gateways, 2007](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/north-america-gateways-traffic/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/usagateways.png?resize=850%2C596&ssl=1 "Traffic Handled at Major North American Gateways, 2007 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Traffic Handled at Major North American Gateways 2007*Source: BTS. Transport Canada. Economic Analysis Directorate, adapted from Statistics Canada International Trade Data.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_US-Gateways.pdf) Trade and physical flow imbalances are clearly reflected at major North American modal gateways. Almost all the gateways – land, maritime, and air alike – are characterized by traffic imbalances where inbound traffic far exceeds outbound traffic. This is particularly the case for maritime gateways linked with long-distance international trade with Europe and, more specifically, Asia. The West Coast is notably revealing and is the most imbalanced, both in terms of concentration and direction of traffic. Inbound traffic accounts for about 80% of all the traffic handled by ports (a 3:1 ratio). The ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach handled 75% of the total freight dollar value brought in through the West Coast. NAFTA land trade gateways tend to be more balanced, but still reflect a negative flow. A surge in oil and commodity prices has increased the share of ports along the Gulf Coast that are focused on energy and raw material trade. A similar pattern is observed for air gateways, with New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles being the most important. The two largest freight airports in the United States, Memphis and Louisville, are not gateways but hubs in a national air freight system. Although they handle some international traffic, this traffic is too small to rank these hubs as major air freight gateways. What also characterizes North American gateways is their high level of concentration in a limited number of gateway systems; a set of modal gateways within a relatively defined region that acts as a functional system linking that region to international trade. **Gateway System****Gateways****Total Share (%)****Imports / Exports ($ billions) 2007**Southern CaliforniaPort of Los Angeles, Port of Long Beach, Los Angeles International Airport, Otay Mesa (Port of Entry)17.4%$329.5$108.1New York / New JerseyJFK International Airport, Port of New York / New Jersey, Newark Liberty International Airport13.5%$219.2$121.3DetroitDetroit (Port of Entry), Huron (Port of Entry)8.5%$109.6$104.1### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/north-america-gateways-traffic/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/north-america-gateways-traffic/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/north-america-gateways-traffic/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/north-america-gateways-traffic/?share=reddit) - --- ### [2.3 - Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The location of economic activities is related to their nature and function, with each activity having a dependence on transportation. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Importance of Transport in Location](#1_The_Importance_of_Transport_in_Location) - [2. Location Spectrum and Factors](#2_Location_Spectrum_and_Factors) - [3. Accessibility and Location Economies](#3_Accessibility_and_Location_Economies) # 1. The Importance of Transport in Location The location of activities encompasses the concepts of the [site and its situation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=422). The **site** relates to the characteristics of a specific location, while the **situation** concerns the relationships of a location in relation to other locations. Both concepts are interdependent as the characteristics of a site can be expanded by a better situation (connectivity), and a situation can improve if a site is better endowed. Historically, specific sites suitable for defense or commerce have been essential factors in the [location of cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1054). This perspective can further be expanded by [three interdependent factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9373) in the global location of cities: - **Connectivity**. The city is located at a load breakpoint where cargoes are moved from one mode to another, connecting two or more circulation systems. This is particularly the case for port cities, which explains, for a large part, the coastal location of most of the world’s largest cities. - **Proximity**. The city is located in proximity to major (or several) resources and serves as a convenient point of collection, distribution, and transformation. The resource can exist at a specific location (e.g. a mine) or encompass an area (e.g. agriculture). - **Accessibility**. The city serves a hinterland in providing goods and services, with its size a function of the density. In addition to being a factor of spatial organization, transportation is linked with the location of economic activities, including retail, manufacturing, and services. In a market economy, location is the outcome of a [constrained choice](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1504) where many issues are being considered, transportation being one of them. The goal is to find a suitable location that would maximize the economic returns for this activity, such as the amount being produced, production cost, or market accessibility. There is a long tradition within economic geography of developing [location theories](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1509) to explain and predict the [locational logic](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1512) of economic activities by incorporating market, institutional, and [behavioral](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1517) considerations. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_site_situation.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "Site and Situation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/site-situation-concept/transport_site_situation/)Site and Situation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/historical_urban_location_factors.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Historical Urban Location Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/urban-defense-commerce/historial_urban_location_factors/)Historical Urban Location Factors[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/factors_urban_location.png?resize=900%2C336&ssl=1 "Factors in Urban Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/urban-location-factors/factors_urban_location/)Factors in Urban Location[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/location_decision_making.png?resize=900%2C221&ssl=1 "Strategic Decision Making in Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategic-decision-making/location_decision_making-png/)Strategic Decision Making in Location[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/location_behavioral-scaled.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "Behavioral Approach to Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-behavioral-approach/location_behavioral/)Behavioral Approach to LocationLocation theories tend to have an **explicit or implicit** role attributed to transport since accessibility is an important factor in the location preferences of firms and individuals. As there are no absolute rules dictating locational choices, the importance of transport can only be evaluated with varying degrees of accuracy and based on the context it takes place. Transportation has [four main locational influences](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/locational-influences-transportation/ "The Four Main Locational Influences of Transportation"), including costs, agglomeration, density, and co-location. At best, the following observations concerning transportation modes and terminals and their importance as locations can be made: - **Ports and airports**. Main port and airport facilities, particularly the networks they support, have been important factors in reducing transportation costs, particularly over long distances. The location and the level of activity of ports and airports are reflective of global trade patterns. These facilities are also important drivers of co-location of related activities, particularly for ports, since inland distribution costs tend to be higher. - **Roads and railroads**. Road and rail infrastructures provide a structuring and convergence effect that varies according to accessibility and density. In addition to reducing transport costs, efficient roads and railways support higher-density economic activities. For rail transport, terminals also have an important co-location effect with the setting of inland ports. - **Telecommunications**. They provide no specific local influence, but the quality of regional and national telecommunication systems tends to ease transactions. Telecommunication systems benefit from higher densities since it becomes more practical to service a customer base. With the ongoing digitalization of transportation, information technologies impact mobility in numerous ways, mainly by allowing the providers and consumers of transportation services to interact better. Further, telecommunications can support remote work, which provides locational flexibility. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/locational_influences_transportation.png?resize=900%2C715&ssl=1 "The Four Main Locational Influences of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/locational-influences-transportation/locational_influence_transportation/)The Four Main Locational Influences of Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-2020.png?resize=768%2C399&ssl=1 "World's Major Container Ports, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/map-teu-throughput-2/)Worlds Major Container Ports 2016[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Passengers-Airports-2018.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Passenger Traffic at the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-passengers-airports/map-passengers-airports-2018-1/)Passenger Traffic at the Worlds Largest Airports 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Oceanic-Cables.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Global Submarine Cable Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-submarine-cable-network/map-world-oceanic-cables-png/)Global Submarine Cable NetworkGlobalization has been associated with significant changes in business operations and markets. The whole scale of locational considerations has been expanded. Managing operations in such an environment has become increasingly complex, especially with the globalization of production and consumption. Manufacturing strategies tend to use different locations for each component of a product in order to optimize respective comparative advantages and reduce input costs. Transport requirements have proportionally increased to support and organize the related flows. The provision of faster long-distance transport services has propelled the importance of air transport, especially for freight. **Air terminals** have thus become a significant location factor for globally oriented activities, which tend to agglomerate in the vicinity. Additionally, the surge in long-distance trade has put **logistical activities**, namely transport terminals and distribution centers, at the forefront of locational considerations. Technological changes have also been linked with relocating industrial and service activities. **Global telecommunication** can favor the outsourcing of several services to lower-cost locations. Still, the relationships between transportation and location are **dynamic**, meaning that circumstances can change due to economic and even political factors. # 2. Location Spectrum and Factors The location of economic activities is dependent on the nature of the activity, particularly what its inputs are and who consumes its outputs. While in the past, locations were mainly considered at the scale of whole industries, such as petrochemicals, the focus is now more on the specific activities involved. This allows for a broader range of locations to be considered since it can focus on specific components or services. The [location spectrum](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/the-location-spectrum/ "The Location Spectrum") represents a range of requirements for a specific activity, such as its material (resources) and non-material inputs (labor) and its outputs (market). **Covariance** is important since the economic success of a location is more than often not just the outcome of a single factor but of a combination. Therefore, assessing location factors such as the attributes of the site, its level of accessibility, and its socioeconomic environment is an important exercise to understand better and articulate the principle of location. Although each type of economic activity has its own set of location factors, some general factors can be identified by major economic sectors: - **Primary economic activities**. Their dominant location factor is related to **environmental endowments**, such as natural resources. For instance, mining occurs where economically recoverable mineral deposits are found, and agriculture is subject to environmental constraints such as soil fertility, precipitation, and temperature (climate). The most basic location factors thus characterize primary activities and strongly rely on transportation since their locations are rarely close to markets. When ponderous goods are concerned, substantial investments in extraction and distribution infrastructures must thus be made before they can be brought to markets. The capacity to transport raw materials plays a significant role in the possible development of extractive activities at a location. - **Secondary economic activities**. Imply a complex web of location factors which, depending upon the industrial sector, relate to labor (cost and/or skill level), energy costs, capital, land, markets, and proximity of suppliers. Location is thus an important **cost factor,** and the general purpose is usually to minimize it. Considering the wide variety of industrial and manufacturing activities, understanding the rationale of each sector is a difficult task that has been subject to many investigations in economic geography. Globalization, recent developments in supply chain management, and [global production networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4306) underline the locational complexity with the presence of many intermediaries and significant [locational changes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7308). The contemporary industrialization of Japan, South Korea, and China has been supported by several strategies trying to multiply locational advantages, such as setting export-oriented [special economic zones](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4103) and large investments in transport infrastructure. - **Tertiary economic activities**. Involve activities that are most bound to market proximity. The ability to distribute a product or make a service available is a crucial location requirement. As many of these activities are retail-oriented, consumer proximity, as well as their income level, are essential and directly related to sales levels. The main focus is to maximize sales revenues, with location an important **revenue factor**. The retail industry has seen the emergence of large retail stores that maximize sales through economies of scale and local road accessibility. E-commerce also provides a new dynamic where niche retailing markets can be developed with high product diversity. - **Quaternary economic activities**. Imply activities not linked to environmental endowments or access to a market, but to high-level knowledge-based services such as banking, insurance, education, research, and development. This often relates to the high-technology sector, where innovation is a key commercial factor. With improvements in telecommunications, many of these activities can be located almost anywhere, as evidenced by the trend to offshore call centers. There are still some strong locational requirements for high technology activities that include proximity to large universities and research centers and a pool of highly qualified workers (as well as cheap labor for supporting services), availability of venture capital, high quality of life (cultural and commercial amenities), and access to excellent transportation and telecommunication facilities. The sector has shown a propensity for **clustering** as close inter-firm relations are an innovation factor. The development of **data centers** has created new locational requirements in this sector, which are mainly related to the availability of energy. Their location factors tend to be related to the tertiary sector, but they are a fundamental support to knowledge-based industries. Each of these sectors thus has its own set of [economies related to its relations with production, distribution, and consumption](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1530). However, [basic location strategies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategies-basic/ "Basic Location Strategies") appear to be dominantly cost-minimization or revenue-maximization endeavors. Understanding location factors enables a better overview of the dynamics of the global economy and the associated territorial changes at the global, regional, and local levels. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/location_spectrum2.png?resize=900%2C411&ssl=1 "The Location Spectrum | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/the-location-spectrum/location_spectrum/)The Location Spectrum[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_location_factors-scaled.png?resize=900%2C501&ssl=1 "Basic Location Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-factors-basic/basic_location_factors/)Basic Location Factors[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_production_networks2.png?resize=900%2C348&ssl=1 "Global Production Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/global-production-networks/global_production_networks/)Global Production Networks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-Zones.png?resize=900%2C657&ssl=1 "China's Special Economic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/special-economic-zones-china/map-china-special-economic-zones-png/)Chinas Special Economic Zones[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economies_production_distribution_consumption.png?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Types of Economies in Production, Distribution and Consumption | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/economies-production-distribution-consumption/economies_production_distribution_consumption/)Main Types of Economies in Production Distribution and Consumption[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/locational_changes_manufacturing.png?resize=900%2C518&ssl=1 "Locational Changes in Manufacturing | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/manufacturing-locational-changes/locational_changes_manufacturing/)Locational Changes in Manufacturing[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_location_strategy.png?resize=900%2C357&ssl=1 "Basic Location Strategies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategies-basic/basic_location_strategies-png/)Basic Location Strategies# 3. Accessibility and Location Economies Since accessibility is dominantly the outcome of transportation activities, namely the capacity of infrastructures to support mobility, it presents the most significant influence of transportation on location. Hence, [location (accessibility) and economic activities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1543) are interrelated. Accessibility plays an important role by offering more customers through an expanded market area, making distribution more efficient (in terms of capacity, costs, and time), or enabling more people to reach workplaces (labor cost and qualification). While some transport systems have favored the dispersion of socioeconomic activities (e.g. automobiles and suburbanization), others have favored their concentration (e.g. airports and container terminals). All transport systems are bearers of spatial specialization and configuration. Among the [five main economies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1530) (economies of transportation, economies of scale, economies of scope, agglomeration economies, and economies of density), four are particularly influential for transportation: - **Transportation costs**. Refer to the benefits of a location that minimizes transport costs for passengers or freight. These considerations are at the core of [classic industrial location theories](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1548), where transport-dependent activities seek to [minimize total transport costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1553). With the expansion of transport infrastructures, shifts in manufacturing, new economic activities such as high technology, logistical management, and an overall decline in transport costs, cost minimization is no longer a substantial consideration in the locational choice. However, transport costs cannot be easily dismissed and must be considered in a broader context where the quality and reliability of transport are of growing importance. It has been demonstrated that travel time, instead of distance, is the determining factor behind commuting ranges. For freight distribution, while cost factors are significant, there is a growing importance of the concept of reliability. - **[Agglomeration economies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1559)**. Refer to the benefits of having activities located (clustered) next to one another, such as using common infrastructures and services. Clustering continues to be a powerful force in location as the reduction in transport costs favored the agglomeration of retail, [manufacturing](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1565), and distribution activities at specific locations. For instance, shopping malls are based on agglomeration economies, offering customers a wide variety of goods and services in a single location. Distribution activities, even unrelated, also tend to cluster in [logistics zones](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8133) where they benefit from common infrastructures and access to markets. The development of special economic zones, many [export-oriented](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4103), also benefits from the clustering effect. - **[Co-location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1570)**. An agglomeration economy is specific to transport terminals and concerns the benefits of activities directly adjacent to a terminal facility. Globalization has underlined the growing importance of transport terminals and the principle of co-location, a particular form of an agglomeration economy. The main benefit concerns complete and privileged access to the transport capacity and connectivity of the terminal. Any level of separation between the activity and the terminal significantly reduces or even negates the advantages of co-location. It could involve an individual activity or a cluster of activities where agglomeration economies can be added to the benefits of co-location. Hotels adjacent to airports or rail stations are set on the co-location principle since they derive their business almost exclusively from the terminal’s passenger activities. The distribution centers of parcel companies are commonly located directly adjacent to runways so that their air freight services can be tightly synchronized with the consolidation and deconsolidation of air parcels. For intermodal rail terminals, [inland port facilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139) are built over the principle of co-location. - **Economies of density**. Somewhat related to economies of agglomeration but focuses on spatial coverage and proximity. A core issue concerns the benefits derived from market density so that the same customer base can be reached (or serviced) with shorter distances and thus with fewer facilities. For instance, if the customer density is sufficient, a retailer can achieve several types of cost savings by locating its stores in proximity to one another. Such a structure reduces logistics and delivery costs by sharing a distribution center. Other advantages may include the possibility of relocating part of the workforce between nearby facilities and having shared advertising. In such a circumstance, the locational strategies are based on proximity to existing facilities, even if this implies the selection of sub-optimal locations. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/accessibility_location-scaled.png?resize=900%2C373&ssl=1 "Accessibility and Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/accessibility-location/accessibility_locations-png/)Accessibility and Location[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/weber_location_triangle.png?resize=900%2C668&ssl=1 "Weber's Location Triangle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/weber-location-triangle/weber_triangle-png/)Webers Location Triangle[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_costs_surfaces.png?resize=900%2C765&ssl=1 "Transport Costs Surfaces and Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/weber-transport-costs-surface/transport_cost_surface-png/)Transport Costs Surfaces and Location[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economies_agglomeration.png?resize=900%2C857&ssl=1 "Agglomeration Economies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/agglomeration-economies/economies_agglomeration-png/)Agglomeration Economies[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_manufacturing_clusters.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Types of Manufacturing Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/cluster-manufacturing-types/types_manufacturing_clusters/)Types of Manufacturing Clusters[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_co_location.png?resize=900%2C639&ssl=1 "Transport and Co-Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/co-location-transport-facility/transport_colocation-png/)Transport and Co LocationBecause of the provided level of accessibility, new transport infrastructures influence the setting of economic activities. It becomes a particularly strong effect when new infrastructures are added to an undeveloped (or underdeveloped) site. In this context, locational decisions tend to be simpler and unhindered by the existing spatial structure. Therefore, there are more substantial locational impacts of transportation improvements in a less developed context than in the case of high density. The locational effects on activities are not always automatic or evident. However, they are important when infrastructure is accompanied by social, economic, and urban transformations. New infrastructures, therefore, play a catalytic role because they can transform space through land use and mobility changes, to which further improvements change in a more marginal fashion. --- ## Related Topics - [1.2 – Transportation and Space](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=322) - [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/ "2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility") - [6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3123) - [A.4 – Transportation and Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6945) - [A.16 – The Specialization Index and the Location Coefficient](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10279) ## Bibliography - Button, K. J., S. Leitham, R.W. McQuaid and J.D. Nelson (1995) “Transport and industrial and commercial location”, The Annals of Regional Science, 29(2), pp. 189-206. - Haggett, P., A.E. Frey, and A.D. Cliff (1977) Locational Analysis in Human Geography. New York: Wiley. - Harrington, J.W. and B. Warf (1995) Industrial Location: Principles, Practice and Policy, New York: Routledge. - Isard, W. (1956) Location and Space-Economy: a general theory relating to industrial location, market areas, land use, trade, and urban structure, Cambridge: MIT Press. - McQuaid, R.W. et al. (2004) The Importance of Transport in Business’ Location Decisions, United Kingdom, Department for Transport. - Weber, A, (1909; 1929 Translation) Alfred Weber’s Theory of the Location of Industries. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Commodity Price Indexes, 1992-2023](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/commodity-prices-index/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/main_commodity_price_indexes.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Main Commodity Price Indexes, 1992-2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Commodity Price Indexes 1992 2023*Source: IMF Primary Commodity Prices. Note: 2016=100.* Commodity prices tend to be reflective of the complex relationships between demand and supply in global markets. Scarcity is associated with a rise in prices, but other factors, such as inflation, may also affect prices as investors seek commodities as a form of leverage. The above chart depicts the price evolution of four major commodity groups: - **Food Price Index** includes cereals, vegetable oils, meat, seafood, sugar, and other food price indices. - **Base Metals Price Index** includes aluminum, cobalt, copper, iron ore, lead, molybdenum, nickel, tin, uranium, and zinc price indices. - **Fuel Energy Index** includes crude oil (petroleum), natural gas, coal, and propane price indices. - **Fertilizer Index** includes DAP (Diammonium phosphate), potash, and Urea (Carbamide) prince indices. The fuel energy price index is a core index because it is a major input for others, as the prices of metals, fertilizers, and food are influenced by the price of energy. The production of a unit of food often requires fertilizers and energy. While the period between the 1950s and 1980s saw a steady increase in the inflation-adjusted price of key commodities, the period between 1980 and 2002 was characterized by a gradual and consistent decline. This is better explained by a more extensive and liberalized global commodity market, putting pressure on prices with increased competition. From 2002 to 2010, commodity prices surged and became highly volatile, a process mostly the outcome of growing energy demands and tightening supplies, but mitigated by technological improvements in resource use efficiency. Between 2015 and 2020, commodity prices and volatility abated, but the outcomes of the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly disruptions related to quantitative easing and demand surges, were associated with sharp increases in commodity prices. These were further exacerbated by the War in Ukraine from March 2022, particularly energy and fertilizers. Irrespective, food prices remain the most stable component of commodity prices, in part because they are an end-use for many commodities, such as energy and fertilizers, implying the possibility of mitigating price changes through changes in sources, processes, and inputs. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/commodity-prices-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/commodity-prices-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/commodity-prices-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/commodity-prices-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [5.1 - Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/) **Published:** November 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transport modes are the means supporting the mobility of passengers and freight. They are mobile transport assets and fall into three basic types; land (road, rail, pipelines), water (shipping), and air. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. A Diversity of Modes](#1_A_Diversity_of_Modes) - [2. Modal Competition](#2_Modal_Competition) - [3. Modal Shift](#3_Modal_Shift) - [4. Passengers versus Freight](#4_Passengers_versus_Freight) - [5. A Growing Divergence](#5_A_Growing_Divergence) # 1. A Diversity of Modes Transport modes are designed to carry [passengers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1738) or [freight](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1742), but most modes **combine both**. For instance, an automobile has the capacity to carry some freight, while a passenger plane has a bellyhold that is used for luggage and cargo. Each mode is characterized by technical, operational, and commercial characteristics defining its market opportunities and [economies of scale](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/atomization-massification-modes/ "Atomization versus Massification in Transportation Modes"). Technical characteristics relate to attributes such as speed, capacity, and motive technology, while operational characteristics involve the context in which modes operate, including speed limits, safety conditions, or operating hours. The demand for transport and the ownership of modes are dominant commercial characteristics, as transportation modes are used to support economic activities and generate income. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passenger_modal_options.png?resize=900%2C721&ssl=1 "Main Passenger Modal Options | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Passenger Modal Options[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_options_freight2.png?resize=768%2C561&ssl=1 "Main Freight Modal Options | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-modal-options/modal_options_freight2/)Main Freight Modal Options[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/atomization_massification.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Atomization versus Massification in Transportation Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/atomization-massification-modes/atomization_massification-1/)Atomization versus Massification in Transportation Modes## a. **Road transportation** Road infrastructures are **large consumers of space** with the lowest level of physical constraints among transportation modes. However, physiographical constraints are significant in road construction, with substantial additional costs to overcome features such as rivers or rugged terrain. While historically, road transportation was developed to support non-motorized forms of transportation (walking, domestic animals, and cycling at the end of the 19th century), it is motorization that has shaped most of its development since the beginning of the 20th century, particularly with the setting of national highway systems. Road transportation has average operational flexibility as vehicles can serve several purposes, but can rarely operate outside roads. Road transport systems have low barriers to entry, but high maintenance costs, both for vehicles and infrastructure, which are related to the short life spans of less than 10 years for a vehicle. They are mainly linked to light industries and freight distribution, where rapid freight movements in small loads are the norm. With containerization, road transportation has become a crucial link in freight distribution between ports and commercial hinterlands. ## b. **Rail transportation and pipelines** Railways are composed of a traced path for a right of way on which wheeled vehicles are bound. Rail transportation also includes monorails and maglev, which are more recent developments of guided rail technology. They have an average level of physical constraints, and a low gradient is required, particularly for freight. Heavy industries are traditionally linked with rail transport systems, although containerization has improved the flexibility of rail transportation through its connectivity with road and maritime modes. Rail is the land transportation mode offering the highest capacity, with a 23,000 tons fully loaded coal unit train being the heaviest load ever carried. [Gauges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1771), however, vary around the world, often challenging the integration of rail systems. Pipeline routes are practically unlimited as they can be laid on land or underwater. They aim to move liquids such as [petroleum products](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=15969) over long distances cost-effectively. The longest gas pipeline links Alberta to Sarnia (Canada), which is 2,911 km in length. The longest oil pipeline is the Transiberian, extending over 9,344 km from the Russian Arctic oilfields in eastern Siberia to Western Europe. Physical constraints are low and include the landscape and permafrost in arctic environments. Pipeline construction costs vary according to the diameter and increase proportionally with the distance and viscosity of fluids (from low-viscosity gas to high-viscosity oil). The Trans-Alaskan pipeline, which is 1,300 km long, was built under challenging conditions and had to be above ground for most of its route. Pipeline terminals are essential since they correspond to refineries and harbors. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Road-Network-1.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World Main Highway Road Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/world-road-network/road-network-map-png/)World Main Road Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Network2.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World Rail Network and Rail Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-network-system/rail-network-map-png/)World Rail Network and Rail Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Gauge.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/major-gauges-rail/map-rail-gauge/)Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Pipelines.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Major Oil Pipelines | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/major-oil-pipelines/map-pipelines/)Major Oil Pipelines## c. Maritime transportation With physical properties such as buoyancy and limited friction, maritime transportation is the most effective mode of moving large quantities of cargo over long distances. Main maritime routes are composed of oceans, coasts, seas, lakes, rivers, and channels. However, due to the location of economic activities, [maritime circulation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1782) takes place in specific parts of the maritime space, particularly over the North Atlantic and the North Pacific. The construction of channels, locks, and dredging is attempting to facilitate maritime circulation by reducing its discontinuity, but such endeavors are highly expensive. Comprehensive inland waterway systems include those in Western Europe, the Volga-Don system, the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes system, the Mississippi and its tributaries, the Amazon, the Panama-Paraguay system, and the interior of China. Maritime transportation incurs high terminal costs, as port infrastructures are among the most expensive to build, maintain, and operate. These high costs also relate to maritime shipping, where the construction, operation, and maintenance of ships are capital-intensive. More than any other mode, maritime transportation is linked to heavy industries, such as steel and petrochemical facilities adjacent to port sites. Yet, with containerization, maritime shipping has become the linchpin of globalization, allowing the trading of a wide range of goods and commodities. ## d. Air transportation The core advantage of air transportation is speed and flexibility in network configuration. Air routes are practically unlimited but denser over the North Atlantic, inside North America and Europe, and over the North Pacific. Even if planes can have a long range, the majority of services link city pairs less than 2 hours apart. Air transport constraints are multidimensional and include the site (a commercial plane needs about 3,300 meters of runway for landing and take-off), the climate, fog, and wind currents. Air activities are linked to the tertiary and quaternary sectors, notably finance and tourism, which lean on the long-distance mobility of people. More recently, air transportation has accommodated growing quantities of high-value freight and is playing an increasing role in global logistics. ## e. Intermodal transportation Intermodalism concerns a variety of modes used in combination so that the respective advantages of each mode are advantaged. Although intermodal transportation applies to passenger movements, such as using the different, interconnected modes of a public transit system, it is over freight transportation that the most significant impacts of intermodalism have been observed. Containerization has been a powerful vector of intermodal integration, enabling maritime and land transportation systems to interconnect. ## f. Telecommunications Telecommunication systems are paradoxical in terms of whether they can be considered as a transport mode since telecommunications often do not have an apparent physicality. This physicality is real since they are structured as high-capacity networks with low constraints, which may include the physiography and oceanic masses crossed by [fiber optic cables](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1300). They provide for the instantaneous movement of information (speed of light). Because of their limited coverage, wave transmissions often require substations, such as for cellular phone and data networks where WiFi connections are of even more limited range. Satellites are often using a geostationary orbit, which is getting crowded. High network costs and low distribution costs characterize many telecommunication networks, which are linked to the tertiary and quaternary sectors (stock markets, business-to-business information networks, etc.). Telecommunications can provide a substitution for personal mobility in some economic sectors, but the major impact is e-commerce, which has opened a range of commercial opportunities. More recently, [![Map World Maritime Shipping Lanes Bottlenecks Chokepoints](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Domains-Maritime-Circulation.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Domains of Maritime Circulation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/domains-maritime-circulation/map-domains-maritime-circulation/)Domains of Maritime Circulation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_traffic_flows.png?resize=900%2C462&ssl=1 "Major Air Traffic Flows Between Regions, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-traffic-flows/air_traffic_flows/)Major Air Traffic Flows Between Regions 2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Oceanic-Cables-scaled.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Global Submarine Cable Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-submarine-cable-network/map-world-oceanic-cables-png/)Global Submarine Cable Network# 2. Modal Competition Each transportation mode has [key operational and commercial advantages and properties](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1793). However, contemporary demand is influenced by **integrated transportation systems** that require flexibility in the respective use of each mode. As a result, modal competition exists to various degrees and takes several dimensions. Modes can [compete or complement](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1797) one another in [cost](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-transport-revenue-ton-mile/ "Freight Transport Revenue per Ton-Mile"), speed, accessibility, frequency, safety, comfort, etc. Three main conditions ensure that some modes complement one another: - **Different geographical markets**. If different markets are involved, modes will enable continuity within the transport system, particularly if different scales are concerned, such as between national and international transportation. This requires an interconnection, commonly known as a gateway, where transferring from one mode to another is possible. Intermodal transportation has been particularly relevant to improving the complementarity and connectivity of different geographical markets. - **Different transport markets**. The nature of what is being transported, such as passengers or freight, often indicates a level of complementarity. Even if the same market area is serviced, it may not be equally accessible, depending on the mode used. Thus, in some markets, rail and road transportation can be complementary as one may focus on passengers and the other on freight. - **Different levels of service**. For a similar market and accessibility, two modes offering different service levels will tend to complement one another with niche services. The most prevailing complementarity concerns cost versus time. Thus, there is modal competition when there is an **overlap** in geography, transport markets, and level of service. Cost is one of the [most important considerations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1801) in modal choice. Because each mode has its [price/performance profile](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9990), competition between the modes depends primarily upon the distance traveled, the quantities shipped, and their value. While maritime transport might offer the lowest variable costs, road transport tends to be most competitive over short distances and for small bundles of goods. A critical factor is the terminal cost structure for each mode, where the costs (and delays) of loading and unloading a unit impose fixed costs incurred independent of the distance traveled. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/efficiencyrail_trucking_usa.png?resize=900%2C239&ssl=1 "Relative Efficiencies of Rail and Trucking in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/efficiencyrail_trucking_usa/)Relative Efficiencies of Rail and Trucking in the United States[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_competition_complementarity2.png?resize=900%2C418&ssl=1 "Modal Competition and Complementarity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-competition-complementarity/modal_competition_complementarity/)Modal Competition and Complementarity[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_modal_choice_transport_costs2.png?resize=900%2C513&ssl=1 "Distance, Modal Choice and Transport Cost | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distance-modal-choice-transport-cost/distance_modal_choice_transport_costs/)Distance Modal Choice and Transport Cost[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distribution_freight_demand_mode.png?resize=900%2C727&ssl=1 "Distribution of Freight Demand by Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distribution-demand-mode/distribution_freight_demand_mode/)Distribution of Freight Demand by Mode[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lenght_domestic_hauls_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Length of Haul, Domestic Passenger and Freight Transport | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/length-haul-passengers-united-states/domestic_haul_lenght_usa/)Average Length of Haul Domestic Passenger and Freight Transport United States[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_revenue_ton_mile.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Freight Transport Revenue per Ton-Mile | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-transport-revenue-ton-mile/freight_revenue_tonmile/)Freight Transport Revenue per Ton MileWith increasing income levels, the **propensity for people to travel rises**. At the same time, international trade in manufactured goods and parts has increased. These trends in travel demand act differently upon modes. Those that offer faster and more reliable services gain over modes that might provide a lower cost but slower alternative. For passenger services, rail is challenged by road transport competition over short distances and aircraft for longer trips. Freight, rail, and shipping have been impacted by competition from road and air modes. While shipping, pipelines, and rail still perform well for bulk shipments, competition has seen road and air modes capture an important market share of the high revenue-generating goods over the last decades. Road transportation continues to dominate the passenger and freight transportation markets. Although intermodal transportation has opened many opportunities for complementarity between modes, transport operators are now competing over many modes in the transport chain. A growing paradigm thus involves supply chain competition, with the modal competition component occurring over [three dimensions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1811): - **Modal usage**. A competition that involves the comparative advantage of using a specific or a combination of modes. [Distance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1818) remains one of the primary determinants of modal utilization for passenger transportation. However, for a similar distance, [costs, speed, and comfort](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1814) can be significant factors behind the choice of a mode. - **Infrastructure usage**. Competition resulting from the presence of freight and passenger traffic on the same itineraries linking the same nodes. Therefore, each level of capacity a mode uses is at the expense of the other mode. - **Market area**. Competition between transport terminals for using new locations (terminal relocation or expansion) or capturing new markets (hinterland). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/forms_modal_competition2.png?resize=900%2C497&ssl=1 "Forms of Modal Competition | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-competition-forms/forms_modal_competition/)Forms of Modal Competition[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passenger_modal_split2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Passenger Modal Split by Travel Distance | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-split-distance-passenger-united-states/passenger_modal_split2/)Passenger Modal Split by Travel Distance United StatesIt is generally advocated that **modal equality** (or **modal neutrality**) should be part of public policy, where each mode would compete based on its inherent characteristics and merits. Since different transport modes are under different jurisdictions and funding mechanisms, modal equality is conceptually impossible, as some modes will always be more advantageous than others. Modal competition is influenced by public policy, particularly over the funding of infrastructure and regulation issues. The public sector usually provides roads, while many other transport infrastructures are financed by their operators. This is the case for rail, air, and maritime transportation. For instance, in the United States, the Federal Government would finance 80% of the costs of a highway project, leaving the state government to supply the remaining 20%. This share is 50% for public transit, while the Federal Government will not provide any funding for passenger rail. Under such circumstances, public policy shapes modal preferences. # 3. Modal Shift The technological evolution in the transport industry aims at **adapting transport infrastructures** to growing needs and requirements. When a transport mode becomes more advantageous than another over the same route or market, a [modal shift](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1823) is likely to take place. > A modal shift involves the growth in the demand of a transport mode at the expense of another, although a modal shift can involve an absolute growth in both concerned modes. The comparative advantages behind a modal shift can be in terms of costs, convenience, speed, or reliability. For passengers, this involved a **transition in modal preferences** as incomes increased, such as from collective (public transit) to individual modes (motorbikes, automobiles) of transportation. For [freight](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1828), this has implied a shift to faster and more flexible modes when possible and cost-effective, namely trucking and air freight. A modal shift can further be nuanced by **time shift**, for which the same mode takes place at another time period, likely when there is less congestion. During congestion, it is thus likely that **a time shift will be preferred to a modal shift**, particularly if the time shift is relatively marginal (e.g. a few hours). An individual may delay travel at a later time while a freight delivery can be rescheduled. There are important **geographical variations in modal competition**. The availability of transport infrastructures and networks varies enormously, with [corridors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-competition-complementarity-corridor/ "Modal Competition, Complementarity and Shift along a Corridor") subject to the highest modal competition level. Corridors have many different modes that, in combination, provide a range of transport services that ensure an efficient commercial environment. Thus, in contrast to the European Union, China, and Japan, rail freight transport occupies a more significant market share in North America, but passenger rail has a negligible share. However, there are limited services in many parts of the world, and some critical modes, such as rail, may be absent altogether. This limits the choices for passengers and shippers and acts to limit accessibility. Passengers and freight are forced to use the only available modes that may not be the most effective to support their mobility. Areas with limited modal choices tend to be among the least developed. On the other hand, advanced economies possess a wide range of modes that can provide services to meet the needs of society and the economy. All modes are affected by **energy price volatility**, particularly [petroleum](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/west-texas-intermediate-spot-price/ "West Texas Intermediate, Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price (1970-2022)"), from the individual car owner to the corporation operating a fleet of hundreds of aircraft or ships. Different pricing mechanisms are used, namely direct rate adjustments, as in the case of shipping, or indirect adjustments, as in the case of airlines, with the reliance on fuel surcharges when energy prices are increasing. In the context of higher energy prices and environmental concerns, and higher input costs for transportation, the following can be expected: - Higher transport costs increase the **friction of distance** and constrain mobility. As a major consumer of petroleum, the transport industry must increase rates. Across-the-board increases cause people to rethink their movement patterns and companies to adjust their supply chains. - Because **energy costs** impact modes differently, a modal shift can be anticipated. Road and air transport are more energy-intensive than the other modes, so energy price increases are likely to impact them more severely than other modes. This could lead to a shift towards water and rail transport in particular. - Higher fuel prices incite a **greater fuel economy** across modes. This can be achieved by reducing speed, through engine and fuel innovations, or electrification. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/principles_modal_shif2t.png?resize=900%2C469&ssl=1 "Principles of Modal Shift | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-shift-principles/principles_modal_shif2t/)Principles of Modal Shift[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_share_freight_transportation.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Modal Share of Freight Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-share-selected-countries/modalsplieuusjapan/)Modal Share of Freight Transportation Selected Countries[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_competition_complementarity_shift.png?resize=900%2C301&ssl=1 "Modal Competition, Complementarity and Shift along a Corridor | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-competition-complementarity-corridor/modal_competition_shift/)Modal Competition Complementarity and Shift along a Corridor[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/wti_spot_oil_price.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "West Texas Intermediate, Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price (1970-2022) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/west-texas-intermediate-spot-price/wti_oil_prices/)West Texas Intermediate Monthly Nominal Spot Oil PriceIf a modal shift results in higher costs and less efficiency, then this shift is not sustainable. Modal shift strategies often supported by public policy goals have initial difficulties competing with existing transport alternatives. Evidence underlines that subsidies are usually required to support initial attempts at modal shifts, but if the shift needs to be constantly subsidized, it may not be a viable option. # 4. Passengers versus Freight There is a **complementarity** between [passenger and freight transport systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3013). With some exceptions, such as buses and pipelines, most transport modes have been developed to handle freight and passenger traffic, but [measuring performance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/performance-freight-modes/ "Performance Comparison for Selected Freight Modes") is completely different for freight. In some cases, both are carried in the same vehicle, as in air transport, where about 80% of the freight is transported in the cargo holds of passenger aircraft. In others, different types of vehicles have been developed for freight and passenger traffic, but they share the same infrastructure, such as rail and road traffic. In shipping, passengers and freight shared the same vessels and often the same terminals. Since the 1950s, specialization has occurred, and the two are now entirely distinct, except for ferries and some RORO services. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/operational_differences_passengers_freight-scaled.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "Operational Differences between Passengers and Freight Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Operational Differences between Passengers and Freight Transportation![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/performance_freight_modes.png?resize=900%2C532&ssl=1 "Performance Comparison for Selected Freight Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Performance Comparison for Selected Freight ModesSharing freight and passenger modes is **not without difficulties**, and indeed, some of the major problems confronting transportation occur when the two compete for the use of scarce transport infrastructure. For example, trucks in urban areas are seen as a nuisance and cause congestion by passenger transport users. Daytime deliveries and double-parked trucks are perceived as a particular nuisance. The poor performance of some modes, such as rail, is seen as the outcome of freight and passengers having to share routes. There is growing interest in using transit system segments to move freight, particularly in central areas. This raises the question as to what extent and under which circumstances freight and passengers are compatible. The main advantages of joint operations are: - **High capital costs** can be justified and amortized with a diverse revenue stream. - **Operating and maintenance costs** can be spread over a broader base. - The same modes or traction sources can be used for **freight and passengers**, particularly for rail. The main disadvantages of joint operations are: - **Unmatching demand locations**. The origins and destinations of freight flows are usually quite distinct from passenger traffic. - **Frequency of demand**. Passengers usually need high-frequency services, while freight, except air cargo, tends to be less critical. - **Timing of service**. Demand for passenger services has specific peaks during the day. For freight, it tends to be more evenly spread throughout the day. Several freight operations prefer night services since they ensure that shipments arrive at their destination in the morning. - **Traffic balance**. On a daily basis, passenger flows tend to be in equilibrium, irrespective of the distance involved (e.g. commuting or air transportation). For freight, market imbalances produce empty flows that require repositioning assets such as trucks or containers. - **Reliability**. Although freight traffic increasingly demands quality service, delays (diversion from posted schedules) are unacceptable for passengers. - **Sharing routes**. Favors passenger traffic, with passenger trains often given priority or trucks excluded from specific areas at certain times of the day. - **Different operational speeds**. Passengers demand faster service but specific cargo, such as parcels, face similar requirements. - **Security screening measures**. Require different procedures for passengers and freight. Consequently, the ongoing separation of passengers and freight on specific gateways and corridors likely involves a growing divergence of flows, modes, and terminals. # 5. A Growing Divergence Passengers and freight are increasingly divergent activities as they reflect different transportation markets. Passenger and freight transport are being unbundled in several modes and across many regions. ## a. Shipping It has already been mentioned that passenger services have become separated from freight operations in the maritime sector. **Ferry services** are the exception, where ro-ro ships on high-frequency services adapt to the needs of both passenger and freight market segments. These ferry ships can transport cars, buses, and trucks carrying freight with the respective proportions determined by the demand. Deep-sea passenger travel is dominated by cruise shipping, which has no freight-handling capabilities and cargo ships rarely have an interest or the ability to transport passengers. ## b. Rail Most rail systems improved passenger and freight services, maintaining both segments **sharing the same infrastructures**. Proportions have a strong geographical variation, with much of the developing world having passenger rail as the dominant mode for inter-city transport, particularly in India and China. In Europe, national rail systems have also prioritized passenger service to expand regional mobility. Significant investments have improved the comfort of trains and passenger rail stations, but most notable has been upgrading track and equipment to achieve higher operational speeds. Rail freight transport has tended to lose out because of the emphasis on passengers since such systems were optimized for passenger flows. Because of their lower operational speeds, freight trains are frequently excluded from day-time slots, when passenger trains are most in demand. Overnight journeys may not meet the needs of cargo owners. This incompatibility is a factor in the loss of freight business by most rail systems still trying to operate freight and passenger operations. The separation between freight and passenger rail business in North America is the most extensive. Private railway companies could not compete against the automobile and airline industry for passenger traffic and withdrew from the passenger business in the 1970s. They were left to operate a freight-only system, which has generally been successful, especially with the introduction of intermodality. Public agencies have taken over the passenger business, AMTRAK in the US, and VIA Rail in Canada. The major problem is that they have to lease trackage from the freight railways; thus, slower freight trains are prioritized. ## c. Roads Freight and passenger vehicles still share the roads. The growth of freight traffic is increasing road congestion, and in many cities, concerns are being raised about the presence of trucks. There are already restrictions on truck dimensions and weights in certain parts of cities, and there are growing pressures to limit truck access to non-daylight hours. For example, certain highways exclude truck traffic, which is likely to become a growing trend; the need to separate trucks from passenger vehicle traffic. This separation can be **spatial** (separate roads or lanes) or **temporal** (evening deliveries). ## d. Air transport Air transport is the mode where freight and passengers are the most integrated. First, they share the same terminal facilities, although there is a specialization with some airports focusing on freight activity. Yet, even here, a divergence is being noted. The growth of all-freight airlines and freight-only planes operated by some major carriers, such as Singapore Airlines, is a trend. The interests of the shippers, including the timing of the shipments and the destinations, are sometimes better served than in passenger aircraft. The divergence between passengers and freight is also accentuated by the growing importance of charter and low-cost carriers. Their interest in freight is minimal, especially when their business is oriented toward tourism, as tourist destinations tend to be lean freight-generating locations. --- ## Related Topics - [5.2 – Road Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1756) - [5.3 – Rail Transportation and Pipelines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1759) - [5.4 – Maritime Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1762) - [5.5 – Air Transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1765) - [5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1768) - [3.3 – Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5268) - [3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transport Services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5277) ## Bibliography - BTS \[Bureau of Transportation Statistics\] (2006) America on the Go: Long Distance Transportation Patterns: Mode Choice. - Donovan, A. (2000) “Intermodal Transportation in Historical Perspective”, Transportation Law Journal, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp 317-344. - ITF (2022) Mode Choice in Freight Transport, ITF Research Reports, OECD Publishing, Paris. - Sultana, S. and J. Weber (eds) (2017) Minicars, Maglevs, and Mopeds: Modern Modes of Transportation around the World, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Manufacturing Clusters](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/cluster-manufacturing-types/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_manufacturing_clusters.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Types of Manufacturing Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Manufacturing Clusters*Source: adapted from Markusen, A. (1996) “Sticky Places in Slippery Space: A Typology of Industrial Districts”, Economic Geography, Vol. 72, No. 3, pp. 293-313.* The above figure portrays three types of manufacturing clusters (or districts): - **Marshallian industrial cluster**. Based on the initial work of the economist Marshall in the 1910s, who tried to articulate the reasons why industrial firms are usually found in districts, localities, or clusters. Given enough time, an area will develop a series of manufacturing skills, expand its assets of specialized machinery, and experience the setting of leading firms. This cluster is characterized by a division of labor between small firms, both engaged in competitive and complementary activities, and an advanced specialization. It reflects a flexible regional specialization where networking is an important component of industrial dynamics. The distribution system is commonly serviced by small-batch flows between numerous suppliers and customers. This propensity to cluster characterized protoforms of industrialization, such as specialized towns during the Middle Ages (e.g., glassmaking, silk weaving), and also occurred during the Industrial Revolution (e.g., cotton), often represented by guilds and trade associations. More recently, specialized manufacturing clusters have emerged around this principle as well, such as those focusing on apparel, shoemaking, and toys in several Chinese cities, which serve global supply chains. - **Hub-and-spoke cluster**. A situation in which an industrial sector has suppliers clustering around one or several core firms. The hub-and-spoke district is distinct from a Marshallian district, as its dynamics are a function of a dominant firm rather than networking among smaller firms. This can only emerge when economies of scale allow for the setting up of a leading firm manufacturing large quantities of a product (and related products) for a significant consumer market related to exports. The development of assembly-line techniques at the onset of the 20th century allowed the formation of hub-and-spoke clusters around the steelmaking, petrochemical, and vehicle manufacturing sectors. The fate of the cluster is often linked with the fate of the core firm. The firm Boeing and the region of Seattle are common examples of a hub-and-spoke district. The distribution system is bound to the requirement of the large firm, which is large enough to have its own transport operations. Economic development theories, such as growth poles, rely on the type of cluster as a rationale to explain the economic multiplier that large firms can have on regional economies. The core matter is the setting of a main firm in a competitive sector subject to growth and the expectation that a cluster of related firms will eventually emerge. - **Satellite platform cluster**. A set of unconnected branch plants or distribution centers embedded in external organization links, each part of its own globally-oriented supply chain. A satellite platform cluster often corresponds to a location of high accessibility around which branch plants have clustered, such as a transport terminal (ports, airports, intermodal terminals). These are the characteristics of many [logistics zones](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/ "B.11- Freight Distribution Clusters (Logistics Zones)") built around the principle of co-location and localization economies. Since plants are part of separate supply chains, there are limited intra-cluster links outside service activities. On occasion, a border can be the reason for clustering, primarily due to cost differences, such as labor and land. For instance, the Maquiladoras along the US/Mexico border are manufacturing and distribution clusters, granting access to the large American consumption market. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/cluster-manufacturing-types/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/cluster-manufacturing-types/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/cluster-manufacturing-types/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/cluster-manufacturing-types/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Customs Fraud by Misclassification of Goods](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/customs-misclassification/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Customs Frand Misclassification](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/customs_frand_misclassification.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Customs Fraud by Misclassification of Goods | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Customs Fraud by Misclassification of Goods*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2016.* The most common form of customs fraud concerns the undervaluation of goods on the customs import declaration, since it enables the payment of lower duties to the customs authority. Another is an inaccurate marking of the country of origin to avoid a higher duty if the real country of origin is subject to a high duty regime, as opposed to a third country from which the origin is fraudulently claimed. Misclassification of goods is also a common issue, as it involves declaring a good under a lower duty category than its actual duty category. Lastly, there is the failure to pay in full or in part customs duties. Although regular importers and large firms are unlikely to default on their obligations, there is a risk that this can happen for irregular importers or when a product dumping fine has been imposed afterward. The above photo depicts a customs fraud through product misclassification. Under the involved customs regime, chickpeas and black-eyed beans in dry form are subject to a duty of 5%, while the same goods in a canned form are subject to a duty of 20%. The above box of canned black-eyed beans was, however, declared as dried black-eyed beans (paying a 5% duty instead of a 20% duty). This form of fraud enables an importer to be more competitive in the national market than an importer complying with customs regulations. The misclassification can even go as far as declaring cooking oil subject to a 40% duty, as powdered milk subject to a duty of 2%. Customs fraud is more likely to occur when customs forms are paper-based instead of a single window where the information is filled out and transmitted electronically. Therefore, trade facilitation is an important factor for a higher level of customs regime compliance and fraud avoidance. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/customs-misclassification/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/customs-misclassification/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/customs-misclassification/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/customs-misclassification/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Rationale for Outsourcing](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/rationale-outsourcing/) **Published:** September 9, 2021 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rationale_outsourcing.png?resize=900%2C481&ssl=1 "Rationale for Outsourcing | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Rationale for OutsourcingOutsourcing involves moving some of the internal activities of a firm to outside provider(s). The supplier replaces some internal capacity and production through a binding agreement defining the terms, costs, and duration of the procurement. The means of production are transferred to the supplier, which can be a benefit but also carries risks. The primary rationale for outsourcing is primarily related to the ability to find lower input costs for the good or service, which is particularly relevant when it is standard and easy to replicate. This enables better cost control and frees up internal resources that can be utilized more effectively for core activities that are most valuable. In other cases, outsourcing allows access to capabilities that would otherwise not be internally available, particularly when it involves specialized goods, parts, or services. There are three sectors where outsourcing dominates: - **Services**. Administrative, engineering, research, development, or technical support processes. - **Manufacturing**. Fabrication, assembly, and customization. - **Distribution**. Transportation, packaging, and warehousing, services that can be provided by third-party logistics firms. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/rationale-outsourcing/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/rationale-outsourcing/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/rationale-outsourcing/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/rationale-outsourcing/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Break-Even Distance between Sail and Steam, 1850-1890](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/steam-sail-breakeven/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/break_even_sail_steam.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Break-Even Distance between Sail and Steam, 1850-1890 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Break Even Distance between Sail and Steam 1850 1890*Source: adapted from W.J. Bernstein (2008) A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World, New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, p. 327.* One of the leading technical drawbacks of a steamship was the requirement of carrying coal in storage, which was done at the expense of the regular payload. Even if steam technology is more effective in terms of speed and capacity, the energy performance of the engine implies that at some distance, the use of sailships remains an economically sound proposition. As steam engine technology improved (better boiler and piston systems), more power could be generated by the same quantity of coal, implying that longer distances could be traveled. Thus, the break-even distance between sail and steam steadily improved from the 1850s. A steamship built in 1855 would require about 40% of its available cargo space to store enough coal to cross the Atlantic, making such a journey a losing proposition from a financial standpoint. By the 1860s, transatlantic steamship services became cost-effective, and steamships began to dominate. By the 1870s, particularly in conjunction with the opening of the Suez Canal (1869), South Asia became economically accessible. By the 1890s, steamship technology had improved to enable long-distance voyages, such as linking Great Britain with its Pacific Asian colonies (e.g., Singapore and Hong Kong). This marked the downfall of sailing as a commercially viable form of freight transportation. By the early 20th century, commercial sailship services had almost disappeared. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/steam-sail-breakeven/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/steam-sail-breakeven/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/steam-sail-breakeven/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/steam-sail-breakeven/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.15 - Green Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/) **Published:** December 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dr. Brian Slack and Dr. Claude Comtois > **Green logistics** relates to supply chain management practices and strategies that reduce its environmental and energy footprint. It focuses on material handling, waste management, packaging, and transport. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Greenness and Logistics](#1_Greenness_and_Logistics) - [2. Green Logistics and Its Paradoxes](#2_Green_Logistics_and_Its_Paradoxes) - [3. A Blueprint for Green Logistics](#3_A_Blueprint_for_Green_Logistics) - [4. Applying Green Logistics to Supply Chains](#4_Applying_Green_Logistics_to_Supply_Chains) # 1. Greenness and Logistics Most considerations in sustainable transportation focus on passengers, leaving freight issues somewhat marginalized. **Logistics** are at the heart of the operation of modern transport systems and imply a degree of organization and control over freight movements that only modern technology could have brought into being. It has become one of the most important developments in the transportation industry. **Greenness** has become a code word for a range of environmental concerns and is usually considered positively. It is employed to suggest compatibility with the environment, and thus, like logistics, it is perceived as beneficial. When put together, the two words suggest an environmentally friendly and efficient transport and distribution system. The loosely defined term of green logistics covers [several dimensions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6502) related to production planning, materials management, and physical distribution. It opens the door to a wide array of potential applications of environmentally friendly strategies along supply chains. This implies that different stakeholders could apply different strategies, all labeled as green logistics. One corporation could focus on product packaging while another on alternative fuel vehicles; both are undertaking green logistics. However, after a closer look at the concept and its applications, a great many **paradoxes and inconsistencies** arise, which suggests that its application may be more difficult than what might have been expected in the first place. Although much debate has been about what green logistics truly entails, the transportation industry has developed very narrow and specific interests in the issue. If transportation costs are reduced, and assets such as vehicles, terminals, and distribution centers are better utilized, the assumption is that green logistics strategies are being implemented. In common with many other areas of human endeavor, **greenness** became a catchword in the transportation industry. It emerged from the growing awareness of environmental problems and negative externalities, which began in the 1950s with the rapid expansion of trucking, impacting urban communities. Factors such as truck size, emissions, and noise became public concerns, leading to the first legislation focusing on pollutant and noise emissions and road access conditions. In a more recent context, well-publicized issues such as sustainability, energy, waste disposal, and climate change have contributed to establishing green logistics as a formal field of inquiry and mitigation. Environmental concepts, such as [material flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6508) or the carbon cycle, became readily applicable to supply chain management. The World Commission on Environment and Development Report (1987) established environmental sustainability as a goal for international action, giving green issues a significant boost in political and economic arenas. The transportation industry was recognized as a major contributor to environmental issues through its modes, infrastructures, and flows. The developing field of logistics was seen as an opportunity for the transportation industry to become more environmentally friendly. Yet, environmental perspectives and transportation sustainability issues remain predominantly focused on passenger transportation. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_activities_green.png?resize=900%2C592&ssl=1 "Logistic Activities and their Green Dimensions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/logistics-green-dimensions/logistics_activities_green/)Logistic Activities and their Green Dimensions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/material_flows_cycle.png?resize=900%2C531&ssl=1 "Material Flows Cycle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/material-flows-cycle/material_flows_cycle/)Material Flows Cycle[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/circular_economy2.png?resize=900%2C621&ssl=1 "The Circular Economy and Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/circular-economy-supply-chains/circular_economy2/)The Circular Economy and Supply ChainsInterest in the environment by the logistics industry manifested itself most clearly in terms of exploiting new market opportunities. While traditional logistics seeks to organize forward distribution, that is, the transport, warehousing, packaging, and inventory management from the producer to the consumer, environmental considerations opened up markets for recycling and disposal and led to an entirely new sub-sector; reverse logistics. This reverse distribution involves waste transport and the movement of used materials. Even if the term reverse logistics is widely used, other names have been applied, such as [reverse distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6502), reverse-flow logistics, and even green logistics. A more recent framework is the [circular economy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8913), which inserts logistics into reuse, remanufacturing, recycling, and waste disposal into a feedback loop. It is becoming an emerging approach that considers the full extent of logistics, which is the greening of both the forward and reverse segments of supply chains. # 2. Green Logistics and Its Paradoxes An overview of the standard characteristics of logistical systems reveals several inconsistencies with regard to the mitigation of environmental externalities. They take the form of [five basic paradoxes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/paradoxes-green-logistics/ "The Paradoxes of Green Logistics"). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/paradoxes_green_logistics.png?resize=900%2C526&ssl=1 "The Paradoxes of Green Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Paradoxes of Green Logistics## a. Costs The purpose of logistics is to reduce costs, notably transport costs. While the former remains the most salient [logistics cost](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6517), inventory carrying costs come second. In addition, economies of time and improvements in service reliability, including flexibility, are further objectives. Corporations involved in the physical distribution of freight are highly supportive of strategies to cut transport costs in a competitive setting. Economies of scale in transportation and higher load densities are common cost-saving strategies that concomitantly lead to environmental benefits in terms of lower fuel consumption per ton-km. On some occasions, the cost-saving strategies pursued by logistic operators can be at variance with environmental considerations that become externalized. This means that users realize the benefits of logistics, and these benefits eventually reach the consumer if they are shared along the supply chain. However, the environment assumes a wide variety of burdens and costs, which form a [hierarchy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5746) ranging from costs internal to the supply chain to externalized costs. Society is becoming less willing to accept these costs, and pressure is increasing on governments and corporations to include more significant environmental considerations in their activities. A salient example concerns food supply chains that have been impacted by lower transport costs, enabling diversification of the suppliers and longer transport chains. The concept of [food-miles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6523) has been developed to capture the full costs of food distribution by using the distance food is carried as a proxy. Such measures are controversial since sourcing can vary substantially for a product based on changing input costs and seasonality. ## b. Time In logistics, time is often of the essence. By reducing the time of flows, the velocity of the distribution system is increased, and consequently, its efficiency. This is mainly achieved by using the most polluting and least energy-efficient transportation modes. The significant increase in air freight and trucking is partially the result of time constraints imposed by logistical activities. The time constraints result from the increased flexibility of industrial production systems and the retailing sector. Logistics offers door-to-door (DTD) services, mostly coupled with just-in-time (JIT) strategies. Other modes cannot satisfy the requirements such a situation creates as effectively. This leads to a [vicious circle](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6529); the more DTD and JIT strategies are applied, the further the negative environmental consequences of the traffic they create. The slow steaming strategy pursued by maritime shipping companies is further challenging time management within long-distance supply chains. ## c. Reliability At the heart of logistics is the overriding importance of service reliability. Its success is based on the ability to deliver freight on time with the least breakage or damage. Logistics providers often realize these objectives by utilizing the modes that are perceived as being the most reliable. The least polluting modes are generally regarded as the least reliable in terms of on-time delivery, breakage, and safety. Ships and railways have inherited a reputation for poor customer satisfaction. For instance, the schedule reliability of container shipping is around 50%, implying that about half the time, a container ship will not arrive at a port terminal on the scheduled day. Lower reliability levels are linked with lower asset utilization and higher inventory levels, which are wasteful and indirectly damaging to the environment. The reliability of the logistics industry is built around air and truck shipments, the two least environmentally friendly modes. ## d. Warehousing Logistics is an important factor in promoting globalization and international flows of commerce. Modern logistics systems economies are based on reducing inventories, as the speed and reliability of deliveries remove the need to store and stockpile. Consequently, a reduction in warehousing demands is one of the advantages of logistics. However, this means that inventories have been transferred to a certain degree to the transport system, especially roads and terminals. Inventories are actually in transit, contributing still further to congestion and pollution. The environment and society, not the logistical operators, assume external costs. Not all sectors exhibit this trend, however. For example, in some industrial sectors, such as computers, there is a growing trend for vertical disintegration of the manufacturing process, in which extra links are added to the supply chain. Intermediate plants where some assembly is undertaken have been added between the manufacturer and the consumer. While facilitating the customization of the product for the consumer, it adds external movement of products in the production line. ## e. Information Technologies Information technologies have led to new dimensions in retailing. One of the most dynamic markets concerns e-commerce. This is made possible by an integrated supply chain with data interchange between suppliers, assembly lines, and freight forwarders. Even if there is an appearance of a movement-free transaction for online customers, the distribution created by online transactions may consume more energy than other retail activities. The distribution activities that have benefited the most from e-commerce are parcel-shipping companies that rely solely on trucking and air transportation. Information technologies related to e-commerce applied to logistics can have positive impacts. So once again, the situation may be seen as paradoxical. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_logistics_costs_function_mode.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "Global Logistics Costs by Function and Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-logistics-costs-function/global_logistics_costs_function_mode/)Global Logistics Costs by Function and Mode 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Well-Travelled-Yogurt-Pot.png?resize=900%2C971&ssl=1 "The Food-Mile: Yogurt Supply Chain, Germany | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/food-mile-yogurt-supply-chain/yogurtsupplychain/)The Food Mile Yogurt Supply Chain Germany[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vicious_circle_logistics.png?resize=900%2C717&ssl=1 "Environmental Vicious Circle of Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/environmental-vicious-circle-logistics/logistics_vicious_circle/)Environmental Vicious Circle of Logistics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_ecommerce_logistics.png?resize=900%2C462&ssl=1 "Retail Logistics and E-commerce | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-ecommerce/retail_ecommerce_logistics/)Retail Logistics and E commerceIt can be argued that the paradoxes of green logistics make it challenging for the logistics industry to become significantly greener. The internal inconsistencies between the goal of environmental sustainability and an industry that gives undue preference to road and air transport **can be seen as irreconcilable**. Yet internal and external pressures promoting a more environmentally-friendly logistics industry appear inexorable. How the logistics industry has responded to the environmental imperatives is not unexpected, given its commercial and economic imperatives, particularly given the paradoxes it faces. # 3. A Blueprint for Green Logistics Environmental pressures in many economic sectors are already manifest in the logistics industry, including incentives to decarbonize. The matter is how these pressures will take shape and which actors will be the most proactive. Over the latter three scenarios are possible, but they are not mutually exclusive: - A **top-down approach** involves imposing environmental standards on the logistics industry through government policies and **regulations**. - A **bottom-up approach** where environmental improvements are coming from the industry itself through the **adoption of best practices** by innovative firms. - A **compromise** between the government and industry, notably through certification schemes leading to **accreditation** to desirable environmental standards. First is that government action will force a green agenda on the industry, in a top-down approach. Although this is the least desirable outcome for the logistics industry, it is already evident that government intervention and legislation are reaching more directly into environmental issues. In Europe, there is a growing interest in charging for external costs, as the EU moves towards a ‘fair and efficient’ pricing policy. A sharp increase in costs could have a more severe impact than a more gradual, phased-in tax. In North America, there is a growing interest in road pricing, with the reappearance of tolls on new highways and bridges built by the private sector, and by congestion pricing, especially in metropolitan areas. Pricing is only one aspect of government intervention. **Legislation** controlling the movement of hazardous goods, reducing packaging waste, stipulating the recycled content of products, and the mandatory collection, and recycling of products are already evident in most jurisdictions. Indeed, it is such legislation that has given rise to the reverse logistics industry. Truck safety, driver education, and limits on drivers’ time are among many types of government action with the potential to impact the logistics industry. A difficulty with government intervention is that the outcomes are often unpredictable, and in an industry as complex as logistics, many could lead to unintended consequences. Environmentally-inspired policies may impact freight and passenger traffic differently, just as different modes may experience widely variable results of common regulation. Issues concerning the greenness of logistics extend beyond transport regulations. The siting of terminals and warehouses is crucial to moving the industry towards sustainability. Yet, these are often under the land use and zoning control of lower levels of government whose environmental interests may be at variance with national and international bodies. A positive trend has been the joint planning and siting of logistics zones and intermodal terminals as co-located facilities. If a top-down approach appears inevitable, at least a bottom-up solution would be the industry preference in some respects. Its leaders oppose leaving the future direction to be shaped by government action. There are several ways a bottom-up approach might come about. As with reverse logistics, these occur when the business interests of the industry match the imperatives of the environment. One such match is the concern of the logistics industry with empty movements, which range from empty trucking backhauls for regional freight distribution to the repositioning of empty containers across oceans. Further gains are achievable with the growing sophistication of fleet management and IT control over scheduling and routing. Another match involves fine-tuning the routing and operations of freight transport systems in response to [higher energy prices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5949). The adoption of [slow steaming](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5955) strategies by maritime shipping companies uses the rationale of environmentalism to reduce fuel consumption and improve the utilization of their ship assets. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/impacts_high_energy_prices_transportation.png?resize=900%2C567&ssl=1 "Potential Impacts of High Energy Prices on Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/high-energy-prices-impacts-transportation/impacts_high_energy_prices_transportation/)Potential Impacts of High Oil Prices on Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fuel_consumption_containership.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Fuel Consumption by Containership Size and Speed | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/fuel-consumption-containerships/fuel_consumption_containership/)Fuel Consumption by Containership Size and SpeedLess predictable, but with a much greater potential impact on the greenness of the industry, are possible **attitudinal changes** within logistics and without. These changes are comparable to those that have already occurred in recycling. There has emerged striking public support for domestic recycling. Some firms have successfully extended this in marketing their compliance and adopting green strategies. Firms have found that by advertising their friendliness towards the environment and compliance with environmental standards, they can obtain an edge in the marketplace over their competitors. Traditionally, price and quality characteristics formed the basis of choice, but greenness can become a competitive advantage because environmental preservation is seen as desirable in general. Ultimately, pressure from within the industry can lead to greater environmental awareness. Corporations that stand apart will lose out because purchasers will demand environmental compliance. The compromise appears to be the most desirable option, with the industry following up by implementing [**environmental management systems**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) (EMS). Although governments are involved in varying degrees, a number of voluntary systems are in place, notably ISO 14001 and EMAS (Environmental Management and Audit System). In these systems, firms receive a **certification** based on establishing an environmental quality control tailored to that firm and setting up environmental monitoring and accounting procedures. Obtaining certification is seen as evidence of the firm’s commitment to the environment and is frequently used as a public relations, marketing, and government relations advantage. This represents a fundamental commitment of the corporation to engage in environmental assessment and audits that represent a significant modification of traditional practices, in which efficiency, quality, and cost evaluations prevailed. The challenges of certification schemes include: - **Certification** can be biased to represent or protect the interests of specific stakeholders and markets. - Attaining **compliance** can be a costly endeavor in terms of time and resources, due to the uncertainty of the benefits. Figures vary, and it can take from 6 months to two years to go through the certification process. This can be a negative factor for smaller firms or developing economies. Thus, certification can create barriers to entry, effectively protecting the market advantage of compliant firms. - Once a certification has been achieved, **auditing and review** can continue to be time and resource-intensive as they can take place every three years. They can also relapse, implying that the certified firm may not consistently adhere to the standards they have been certified for. Of the three possible directions by which a greener logistics industry may emerge, it is realistic to consider that they will help shape the industry in the future. Although there is a clear trend in policy guidelines to make the users pay the full costs of using the infrastructure, logistical activities have largely escaped these initiatives. Environmental policy focuses on private cars (e.g. emission controls, gas mixtures, and pricing). While there are increasingly strict regulations being applied to air transport (noise and emissions), the degree of control over trucking, rail, and maritime modes is less. For example, diesel fuel is significantly cheaper than gasoline in many jurisdictions, despite the negative environmental implications of the diesel engine. Yet trucks contribute on average 7 times more per vehicle-km to nitrogen oxide emissions than cars and 17 times more to particulate matter. The trucking industry has avoided the bulk of the environmental externalities it created, notably in North America. # 4. Applying Green Logistics to Supply Chains Although the environment was not a significant preoccupation or priority in the industry itself, the last decades have shown a remarkable change as green logistics became increasingly part of the supply chain management discourse and practices. The standard themes of materials management and physical distribution can be expanded with an [additional focus](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6502) on strategies able to mitigate the paradoxical nature of green logistics: - **Product design and production planning**. The conventional focus of product design and development is the improvement of its commercial and competitive attributes, such as price, quality, features, and performance. There is also planned obsolescence in product design, with the expectation that it will be discarded after a certain amount of time or uses. This process is common for electronic goods, as each new generation of a product (computers, phones, televisions) is quantitatively and qualitatively better. Products are increasingly being considered from a supply chain perspective, namely, their sourcing and distribution, where the concern is about designing or redesigning supply chains that are more environmentally friendly. This can involve the physical characteristics of the product itself, such as its material intensity (lighter, [alternative materials](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6536)) or production processes that allow for a higher transport density of parts. Suppliers that are closer (near sourcing) may be considered even if they may be more expensive, so that transportation costs can be reduced. A decision can also be made to preferably contract suppliers that have demonstrated that the parts and resources they provide have been procured in a sustainable manner. - **Physical distribution**. Concerned about strategies to reduce the environmental impacts of physical distribution, namely the transportation and warehousing processes. It could involve using facilities that have been certified as environmentally efficient (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design – LEED – is a globally recognized certification scheme), as well as carriers abiding by environmentally friendly principles. Preferences could also be placed on delaying shipments until a sufficient load factor is reached. Using alternative modes and fuels is increasingly applied, particularly for city logistics. For long-distance travel, a modal shift to rail and economies of scale on maritime shipping are considered strategies that may lead to greener supply chains. - **Materials management**. Concerned about reducing the environmental impacts related to the manufacturing of goods in all their stages of production along a supply chain. A salient strategy involves [better packing and packaging](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packaging-ipad1-ipad2/ "Weight and Packaging Improvements: iPad 1 versus iPad 2") to increase the load density as well as to reduce materials consumption and waste. Low-impact materials, particularly recycled resources, can be preferred as industrial inputs. As products, or their components, tend to be increasingly recyclable, waste management strategies are being pursued to ensure that the end products are either discarded properly or, preferably, recycled for other uses. - [**Reverse distribution**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6502). Concerned about activities and movements related to taking back consumed goods, as well as waste to be recycled or discarded. It has opened up new market opportunities in specific aspects of materials management (mostly recycling and waste disposal) and physical distribution (collection channels). Here, the environmental benefits are derived rather than direct. The transportation industry itself does not necessarily present a greener face. Indeed, in a literal sense, reverse logistics adds further to the traffic load and facilities required to handle them. The manufacturers and domestic waste producers are the ones achieving environmental credit. Applying green logistics to supply chains must also consider the **network and spatial footprint** of freight distribution. The hub structures supporting many logistical systems result in a [land take that is exceptional](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6200). Airports, seaports, and rail terminals are among the largest consumers of land in urban areas. For many airports and seaports, development costs are so large that they require subsidies from local, regional, and national governments. User costs rarely completely reflect the dredging of channels in ports, the provision of sites, and operating expenses. For example, in the United States, local dredging costs were to be nominally covered by a harbor improvement tax. However, this has been ruled unconstitutional, and channel maintenance remains under the authority of the US Corps of Army Engineers. In Europe, national and regional government subsidies are used to assist infrastructure and superstructure provision. The trend in logistics toward hub formation is clearly not green, as it incites the [convergence of traffic flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6548) and their externalities within a well-defined area. On the positive side, this confers opportunities to mitigate these environmental externalities since they are focused and identifiable. [![Packed Memory Foam Mattresses](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/packed_memory_foam_mattresses.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Packed Memory Foam Mattresses | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packed-memory-foam-mattress/2016-03-30-183134/)Packed Memory Foam Mattresses[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/package_ipad1_ipad2.jpg?resize=750%2C660&ssl=1 "Weight and Packaging Improvements: iPad 1 versus iPad 2 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packaging-ipad1-ipad2/package_ipad1_ipad2/)Weight and Packaging Improvements iPad 1 versus iPad 2[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hub_spoke_network_externalities.png?resize=900%2C609&ssl=1 "Hub-and-Spoke Network and Externalities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/hub-and-spoke-environment/hub_externalities/)Hub and Spoke Network and Externalities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/taxonomy_logistics_clusters.png?resize=900%2C517&ssl=1 "Taxonomy of Logistics Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-clusters/taxonomy_logistics_clusters/)Taxonomy of Logistics Clusters[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/footprint_transportation.png?resize=900%2C375&ssl=1 "The Footprint of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/land-footprint-freight-distribution/footprint_transportation/)Land Requirements for Freight Distribution[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/chicago_cach.jpg?resize=900%2C543&ssl=1 "UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/footprint-cach-chicago/chicago_cach/)UPS Chicago Area Consolidation HubImprovement of logistics flows and performance required setting up new facilities in suburban areas, a trend labeled as “logistics sprawl”. In turn, this process is related to an additional footprint and a level of disorganization of freight flows within a metropolitan area. Logistics zones provide a more coherent setting for distribution centers, including shared facilities such as parking areas and intermodal terminals. They confer the advantage of minimizing the impacts of freight distribution on surrounding areas more effectively, such as with direct access ramps to highways (less local intrusion) or the setting of buffers to mitigate noise and emissions. There is an [array of rationale and settings](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8295) for logistics zones and, correspondingly, environmental mitigation strategies. Still, the [environmental impacts of distribution centers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6208) remain a daunting issue to mitigate. Logistics involve complex and energy-intensive activities, including packaging, warehousing, and distribution. These observations support the paradoxical relationship between logistics and the environment: reducing costs does not necessarily reduce environmental impacts. Overlooking significant environmental issues, such as pollution, congestion, and resource depletion, means that greenness remains challenging to apply to the logistics industry. Green logistics remains an indirect outcome of policies and strategies to improve the cost, efficiency, and reliability of supply chains. A key aspect of more environmentally friendly freight distribution systems concerns city logistics, where the “last mile” in freight distribution takes place, as well as a large share of reverse logistics activities. Still, even in this context, the driving force is not directly environmental issues but factors linked with costs, time, reliability, warehousing, and information technologies. An argument could be made that pursuing green strategies in the logistics sector may be associated with declines in capacity, reliability, and performance. --- ## Related Topics - [Environmental Management Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) - [Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5717) - [Transportation, Land Use and the Environment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5721) - [Transport and Sustainability](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5725) - [Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3928) - [Transportation Environmental Management](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) - [City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792) - [Logistics Zones](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8133) ## Bibliography - Curkovic, S. and R. Sroufe (2011) “Using ISO 14001 to Promote a Sustainable Supply Chain Strategy”, Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol. 20, pp. 71-93. - Darnall, N. (2006) “Why firms Mandate ISO 14001 Certification”, Business and Society, Vo. 45, No. 3, pp. 354-382. - Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2014) Towards the Circular Economy: Accelerating the Scale-Up Across Global Supply Chains. - McKinnon, A., M. Browne and A. Whiteing (eds) (2013) Green Logistics: Improving the Environmental Sustainability of Logistics, Second Edition, London: Kogan Page. - McKinnon, A. C. and Piecyk, M.I. (2012) “Setting targets for reducing carbon emissions from logistics: current practice and guiding principles”, Carbon Management, 3 (6), 629-639. - Rodrigue, J-P, B. Slack and C. Comtois (2013) “Green Supply Chain Management”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Rodrigue, J-P, B. Slack and C. Comtois (2001) “Green Logistics”, in A.M. Brewer, K.J. Button. and D.A. Hensher (eds) The Handbook of Logistics and Supply-Chain Management, Handbooks in Transport #2, London: Pergamon/Elsevier, pp. 339-351. ISBN 0080435939. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Laredo Commercial Vehicle Border Crossing (World Trade Bridge / Laredo IV)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/laredo-commercial-vehicle-border-crossing/) **Published:** May 25, 2025 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/laredo_commercial_border_crossing.png?resize=900%2C567&ssl=1 "The Laredo Commercial Vehicle Border Crossing (World Trade Bridge / Laredo IV) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Laredo Commercial Vehicle Border Crossing World Trade Bridge Laredo IVLaredo is the most active commercial crossing port of entry along the US-Mexico border. It comprises four bridge border crossings of the Rio Grande, with only two bridges allowing commercial truck traffic: the Laredo-Colombia Solidarity Bridge (Laredo III, opened in 1991) and the World Trade Bridge (Laredo IV, opened in 2000). The more significant is the World Trade Bridge, an 8-lane bridge exclusively available for commercial traffic. It was built to support the growing cross-border trade that emerged in the 1990s with the setting up of NAFTA. The two older border crossing facilities, the Juarez-Lincoln Bridge (Laredo II / opened in 1976) and the Gateway to the Americas Bridge (Laredo I / opened in 1956), passed through the downtown area of Laredo. Only one commercial lane was available on the Juarez-Lincoln Bridge, which created significant congestion. The World Trade Bridge is jointly owned and operated by the City of Laredo (US) and Caminos y Puentes Federales de Ingresos y Servicios Conexos (Mexico). The bridge handles a daily traffic of 15,000 to 18,000 trucks, which is around 40% of all the truck border crossings on the US-Mexico border. There are two major customs facilities on each side of the border, as well as massive truck logistics complexes in the vicinity, which perform activities unique to cross-border logistics. One type involves the consolidation and preparation of truckloads for border crossing, including documentation, and their reciprocal deconsolidation once the shipment has crossed the border. The core driver of this activity is to avoid cabotage restrictions, stating that: - Foreign drivers may not move shipments between two US locations. - Foreign drivers may not move empty trailers between two US locations without leaving the US with that trailer. - Domestic cargo cannot be combined with international cargo. Another activity type involves switching drivers and trucks for cross-border crossings, implying a class of cross-border movements done over short distances between marshalling yards on both sides of the border. Visa restrictions have a notable impact on cross-border logistics, as Mexican truck drivers are not allowed to enter the United States without a B1 visa (non-immigration entry to the United States for the purpose of business) or a Border Identification Card (DSP-150). The latter allows Mexican nationals to stay on the US side for a period of up to 30 days within 25 miles (40 km) of the said border. Canadian truck drivers do not have such restrictions for cargo flows between Canada and the United States, but the same cabotage restrictions still bind them. Four dedicated FAST (Free and Secure Trade) lanes were opened at the World Trade Bridge in 2023 to expedite border crossings. These lanes allow pre-approved, low-risk commercial carriers to bypass routine checks, reducing processing times. They are jointly managed by Customs and Border Protection (CBP) and Servicio de Administración Tributaria (SAT). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/laredo-commercial-vehicle-border-crossing/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/laredo-commercial-vehicle-border-crossing/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/laredo-commercial-vehicle-border-crossing/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/laredo-commercial-vehicle-border-crossing/?share=reddit) - --- ### [7.1 - Transborder and Crossborder Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/) **Published:** November 24, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. William Anderson > Cross-border transportation involves the activities, infrastructures, and flows that support the passage of passengers and freight across an international border. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. International Transportation](#1_International_Transportation) - [2. International Transportation and Geopolitics](#2_International_Transportation_and_Geopolitics) - [3. Boundaries and Borders](#3_Boundaries_and_Borders) - [4. Cross-border Transportation](#4_Cross-border_Transportation) # 1. International Transportation The growth of the amount of freight being traded and a great variety of origins and destinations underlines the **importance of international transportation** as a fundamental element supporting the global economy. Economic development in Pacific Asia and China, in particular, has been the **dominant factor behind the growth of international transportation** in recent years. Since the trading distances are often considerable, this has increased demands on the maritime shipping industry and port activities. As its industrial and manufacturing activities develop, China is importing growing quantities of raw materials and energy and exporting increasing quantities of manufactured goods. The ports in the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong province now handle as many containers as all the ports in the United States combined. International transportation systems have been under pressure to support **additional demands in freight volume** and the **distance at which this freight is being carried**. This could not have occurred without considerable technical improvements allowing to transport larger quantities of passengers and freight more quickly and efficiently. Few other technical improvements than **containerization** have contributed to this environment, supporting the growing mobility of freight. Since containers and their intermodal transport systems improve the efficiency of global distribution, a growing share of general cargo is containerized. Consequently, transportation is often referred to as an **enabling factor** that is not necessarily the cause of international trade but as a condition without which globalization could not have occurred. A common development problem is the inability of international transportation infrastructures to support flows, undermining access to the global market and the benefits derived from international trade. International trade also requires **distribution infrastructures** that can support trade between several partners. Three components of international transportation facilitate trade: - **Transportation infrastructure**. Concerns physical infrastructures such as terminals, vehicles, and networks. Efficiencies or deficiencies in transport infrastructures will either promote or inhibit international trade. - **Transportation services**. Concerns the complex set of services involved in the international circulation of passengers and freight. It includes distribution, logistics, finance, insurance, and marketing activities. - **Transactional environment**. Concerns the complex legal, political, financial, and cultural setting in which international transport systems operate. It includes aspects such as exchange rates, regulations, quotas, tariffs, but also consumer preferences. About half of all global trade occurs between locations more than 3,000 km apart. Because of this geography, most international freight movements involve several modes since having a physical continuity in freight flows over long distances is impossible. [Transport chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3942) must thus be established to service these flows, reinforcing the importance of intermodal transportation modes and terminals at strategic locations. Among the numerous transport modes, two are specifically concerned with international trade: - **Ports and maritime shipping**. The importance of maritime transportation in global freight trade is unmistakable, particularly in terms of [tonnage](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3950), as it handles about 80% of global trade. Thus, globalization is the realm of maritime shipping, with containerized shipping at the forefront of the process. The global maritime transport system is composed of a series of major gateways granting access to major production and consumption regions. Between those gateways are major hubs acting as points of interconnection and transshipment between systems of maritime circulation. - **Airports and air transport**. Although, in terms of tonnage, air transportation carries an insignificant amount of freight (0.2% of total tonnage) compared with maritime transportation, its importance in terms of the total value is much more significant; 15% of the value of global trade. International air freight is about 70 times more valuable than its maritime counterpart and about 30 times more valuable than freight carried overland, linked with the types of goods it transports (e.g. electronics). The location of freight airports corresponds to high-technology manufacturing clusters as well as intermediary locations where freight planes are refueled, and cargo is transshipped. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/international_trade_transport_chains_logistics.png?resize=900%2C718&ssl=1 "International Trade, Transportation Chains and Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/trade-transport-chains-logistics/trade_transportation_flows/)International Trade Transportation Chains and Logistics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trade_modal_share_volume_value.png?resize=900%2C533&ssl=1 "Modal Shares of World Trade by Volume and Value | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/world-trade-modal-share/world_trade_modal_share/)Modal Shares of World Trade by Volume and Value 2008[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_share_usmca2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Cross-Border North American Freight by Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/nafta-modal-share/modal_share_usmca2/)Cross Border North American Freight by Mode 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-2020.png?resize=768%2C399&ssl=1 "World's Major Container Ports, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/map-teu-throughput-2/)Worlds Major Container Ports 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Freight-AIrports-2018.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Freight Traffic at the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-freight-airports/map-freight-airports-2018-1/)Freight Traffic at the Worlds Largest Airports 2018Road and railway modes tend to occupy a more marginal portion of international transportation since they are, above all, modes for national or regional transport services. Their importance is focused on their role in the “[first and last miles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5603)” of global distribution. Freight is mainly brought to port and airport terminals by trucking or rail. However, there are notable exceptions in the role of overland transportation in international trade for highly integrated economic regions. A substantial share of the [trade between Canada, the United States, and Mexico](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3956) is supported by trucking, as well as a large share of the Western European trade. The development of rail and road connections in Eurasia, spearheaded by China, also involved additional overland international trade. Despite this, these exchanges are regional by definition, although intermodal transportation confers a more complex interpretation of the geographical scale of these flows. # 2. International Transportation and Geopolitics The basic features of international transportation are constrained by its geography, which involves **geopolitical considerations**. In the past, many conflicts took place to gain control over trade routes, gain control over mineral or energy deposits, gain colonial control over untapped regions, or set trade routes via existing ocean ports. This has been particularly important for maritime nations seeking to support the existing trade, expand it, and secure its circulation. Throughout history, maritime passages were subject to conflicts that aimed to ensure strategic location control. > “Whosoever commands the sea commands trade; whosoever commands the trade of the world commands the riches of the world, and consequently the world itself”.. > > *Sir Walter Raleigh (c1610)* International transport infrastructures, such as ports, airports, and canals, were also subject to geopolitical considerations as they could provide access to strategic resources or key markets. The geopolitics of international transportation can be considered from five perspectives. ## a. Conquest and Conflicts Transport technology was initially a means to control and conquer oceans, territories, and resources. From the 16th century, European powers were the first to improve maritime technology significantly in terms of military and commercial potential. Thus, they established maritime trading routes and colonies worldwide, which accelerated in the middle of the 19th century. This period of **early globalization** was thus characterized by the usage of military advantages of European colonial powers to access markets and resources to their advantage. The railroad was also meant to achieve territorial conquest, notably in North America (nation-building) and Africa (colonialism). The need for efficient transportation and logistics became even more apparent as warfare started to take place on a broader scale in the 19th century. The role of transportation in supporting international conflicts enabled three crucial aspects. First, it allowed a faster mobilization and deployment of military units. Second, it enabled their strategic and operational mobility in theaters of conflict. Third, it allowed the resupply of all the goods crucial for their continuing operation, such as food, fuel, and ammunition. ## b. Competition International transportation allows competition in the global economy. Traditionally, through **cabotage regulations**, many nations reserved the right to carry national passengers and freight to national transport companies. For freight, this is often associated with empty flows on return trips. Although cabotage regulations are still prevalent for air (air freedoms) and maritime transportation (e.g. [Jones Act](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6312)), competition has become a prevalent force in shaping modern transportation systems. Competition also took place over air transportation as many nations tended to protect their national carriers by only allowing foreign carriers over negotiated routes. Developing their international transport system has favored exports and transport-related activities such as shipbuilding, trade, and insurance for several countries. For instance, emerging maritime nations in East Asia, such as South Korea, Taiwan, and China, have grown using this strategy. A new form of international transport competition is related to using [flags of convenience](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2275), where a maritime company can significantly reduce its costs by using the fiscal advantages of another country. ## c. Jurisdiction All sovereign nations have jurisdiction over their territories, including internal water bodies such as lakes and rivers, if they do not act as a boundary with another nation. Boundaries are constructed using geographical or arbitrary features. For instance, many boundaries were imposed by external actors. The UK and France accounted for 40% of the world’s international boundaries during the colonial era. Another important jurisdictional issue concerns the concept of extraterritoriality, where a territory is subject to different regulations, particularly concerning trade. [Free zones](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4092) are prevalent extraterritorial constructs designed to promote trade and attract investments. Any international transportation entering, exiting, or going through a jurisdiction is subject to national regulations. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982 formally defined different levels of jurisdiction a nation can have over its adjacent sea. The territorial sea, a buffer of 12 nautical miles (22 km) from the coast, is considered sovereign territory for the above airspace and the seabed. Foreign ships are, however, allowed passage, but doing so is subject to national regulations. This jurisdiction is partially extended to the [Exclusive Economic Zone](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/exclusive-economic-zones/ "Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)") (EEZ), over which a state has rights to the exploration and use of marine resources (e.g. fishing, oil extraction). By convention, it extends to 200 nautical miles (370 km), but a state cannot prevent free commercial passage through the EEZ. Nations also have jurisdiction over their air spaces and can decide which carrier is able to go through. During the Cold War, much of the airspaces over Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union, and China were not accessible by Western carriers. ## d. **Cooperation** Although international transportation mostly involves competition, common interests favor agreements over different aspects involving access to infrastructures or setting standards. By 1792, most countries along the Rhine agreed to free navigation to have access to a wider range of goods and market opportunities. Canada and the United States started in 1871 a long process of negotiation for the common management of the St. Lawrence River that would eventually lead to the development of the [St. Lawrence Seaway in 1954](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9075). This supplemented prior trade agreements allowing goods produced in the United States to travel through Canada and re-enter the United States without duties. This was particularly relevant along the Great Lakes, which act as a boundary between Canada and the United States. International trade within Europe was enhanced by adopting a standard over rail gauges (1.435 meters) that eventually replaced different national standards. International air transportation is subject to regulations over security, access to specific gateways ([air freedoms](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2403)), and prices. Furthermore, the emergence of economic blocs such as the European Union leans on common rules about transport standards and prices. The development of continental landbridges, such as the [Eurasian Landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7197), represents new and complex forms of collaboration between nations and private companies operating transport infrastructure. ## e. **Security** Controlling strategic locations is also important in international transportation, mainly to reduce vulnerability to disruptions and improve national security. As the global economy becomes more interdependent, economies are becoming vulnerable to disruptions in the supply of raw materials, energy, and food. For instance, the dependence of the United States on external supplies of energy is shaping its foreign policy aiming at securing [strategic locations in the oil trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3973). Further, international trade involves the circulation of valuable goods along trade lanes, which can be subject to security concerns such as illicit trade and [piracy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6395). Security issues became particularly salient at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic as international routes and borders were closed or seriously curtailed to the circulation of passengers. Freight movements were allowed, but workers such as ship crews were not permitted to disembark at ports of call. Then, the conflict in Ukraine that began in 2022 brought an additional round of geopolitical challenges involving grain and energy trades, particularly around the Black Sea. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/free_zones_types.png?resize=900%2C356&ssl=1 "Types of Free Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/free-zones-types/types_free_zones/)Types of Free Zones[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-EEZ-1024x551.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Exclusive Economic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/exclusive-economic-zones/map-eez/)Exclusive Economic Zones[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Trade-Agreements.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Economic Integration Levels, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/economic-integration-levels/map-trade-agreements/)Economic Integration Levels 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-New-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/map-new-silk-road/)The Trans Asian Railway Eurasian Landbridge[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/oil_transited_strategic_locations.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Oil Transited at Major Strategic Locations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/oil-transit-strategic-locations/oil_chokepoints/)Oil Transited at Major Strategic Locations 2016[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-St-Lawrence-Seaway.png?resize=900%2C645&ssl=1 "The St. Lawrence Seaway | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-map/map_slseaway/)The St Lawrence Seaway# 3. Boundaries and Borders Globalization implies increasing flows of people and goods **across international borders**. Thus, an increasing proportion of passenger and freight transportation operations must cope with borders as impediments to mobility. When technologies for identification and surveillance are proliferating, this might seem a significant problem, as borders are more easily crossed than in the past. However, concerns about illegal immigration, illicit trade, and terrorism have led some states to exert more scrutiny at their borders. Thus, crossing borders remains one of the greatest global transportation challenges for passengers and freight. A boundary is an abstract line separating the territories over which two states have sovereignty. Since the boundary is a legal entity, its precise location must be determined in a treaty between the two states. This means that for a state to have a [precisely defined territory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3978), it must have boundary treaties with all contiguous states. Even where such treaties exist, the boundary may be delineated on paper but not demarcated on the ground, which means its exact location cannot be found without surveying. The **border** is a more broadly defined geographical entity, comprising elements of the natural and built environment that define the boundary and control passage across it. Sometimes, the distinction between the boundary and the border is one of precision. For example, a river may define the border between two countries, while the boundary is a precise line located somewhere on the river. The main point is that the border includes a set of things that **facilitate** (roads, bridges, ferries), **prevent** (fences, military installations), **monitor** (cameras, motion detectors), and **control** (border crossing facilities) movement across the boundary. Borders also create bottlenecks in transportation networks, commonly associated with a concentration of cross-border flows and a limited number of gateways. Cross-border flows in North America are particularly illustrative since they are intensive and occur at specific entry points. Due to differences in air transportation regulations, air travel tends to be less expensive in the United States than in Canada, prompting Canadians to use [alternative American border airports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/alternative-airports/ "Alternative Airports"). Further, a customs [pre-clearance agreement](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3873) exists between Canada and the United States, enabling passengers bound for the United States to clear customs at the main Canadian airports. While boundaries have become more clearly delineated and immutable, it might appear that borders, specifically border functions, are **declining in importance**. At one time, the most important border function was defense. Since territory increasingly defined the state, defending territory was critical to preserving sovereignty. To some extent, the territorial integrity norm has reduced the importance of border defense. However, changes in warfare technology that undermine the importance and even the possibility of defending lines on the ground have also reduced the defensive function of borders. After defense, the main functions of borders are **customs and immigration control**. With the reduction of tariffs and the application of information and communications technology to both customs and immigration, one might expect that borders as impediments to the movement of goods and people would be a matter of declining importance. Yet, a “borderless world” is far from being a reality. In some places, such as North America, border impediments have increased, particularly along the U.S.-Mexico border. The same observation applies to Europe in light of migrants and refugees entering from Northern Africa and the Middle East. The pressure to open and expand border crossing facilities is substantial in light of the growth in international traffic. The completion of the [Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/sitehongkongairport/ "Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal") in 2018 across the Pearl River Delta necessitated the support of a large border crossing facility built on an artificial island adjacent to Hong Kong airport. The border remains an important element impacting transportation activities and flows. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_international_boundaries.png?resize=900%2C388&ssl=1 "Types of International Boundaries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/international-boundaries-types/international_boundaries/)Types of International Boundaries[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/effect_border_transport_network.png?resize=900%2C653&ssl=1 "The Effect of a Border on a Transportation Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/border-transport-network/effect_border_transport_network/)The Effect of a Border on a Transportation Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/alternative_airports.png?resize=900%2C466&ssl=1 "Alternative Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/alternative-airports/alternative_airports/)Alternative Airports[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US-Pre-Clearance-Airports.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Customs Pre-Clearance Airports for the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/pre-clearance-airports-united-states/map-us-pre-clearance-airports-png/)Customs Pre Clearance Airports for the United States[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hong_kong_chek_lap_kok_terminal.jpg?resize=768%2C441&ssl=1 "Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/sitehongkongairport/hong_kong_airport_terminal_rs-jpg/)Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal# 4. Cross-border Transportation > **Cross-border transportation**. The activities, infrastructures, and flows that ensure the passage of passengers and freight across an international border. Cross-border transportation can be facilitated, monitored, controlled, and even prevented. Unless all goods are unloaded and transferred at the border, cross-border freight movement involves some trade in transportation services. For example, if an American trucking company moves a consignment from an origin in the United States to a Canadian destination, it is providing transportation services in a foreign country as soon as it crosses the border. This brings up two types of challenges: - The first is **compliance with technical standards** for transportation operators, which may vary between the two states. - The second is **cabotage restrictions** that limit the ability of transportation providers to sell their services in a foreign country. The classic problem of technical standards is when national rail systems have [inconsistent track gauges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1771), making it impossible to link networks directly across borders. While most gauge inconsistencies have been resolved by adopting the standard gauge (1435 mm), some still exist, for example, between countries of the former Soviet Union that use the 1520 mm Russian gauge and neighboring EU countries using the standard gauge. Trade imbalances also influence cross-border transportation as they imply different freight volumes depending on the direction of the border crossing, as well as [empty cargo flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3998). A more current problem, especially in North America, is inconsistency in truck size and weight (TSW) standards. Most of the trade within USMCA is in goods moved by trucks. Still, the three countries have widely varying TSW standards, with Mexico and Canada allowing higher gross weights and having more liberal regulations on long combination vehicles (LCVs) than the United States. To complicate matters further, Canadian provinces and U.S. states have their own TSW regulations, leading to 66 different regulatory regimes within the NAFTA area. This gives carriers a choice between making cargo swaps between trucks with different configurations or operating with the lowest common denominator configuration that will be legal in all jurisdictions, generally a single semi-trailer truck carrying no more than 36,288 kg (80,000 pounds). **Cabotage** refers to a foreign firm providing transportation services between two points within the same country. Cabotage is restricted under USMCA because a Canadian truck could move loads from a Canadian origin to a U.S. destination or from a U.S. origin to a Canadian destination, but not between a U.S. origin and a U.S. destination, since it would be considered cabotage. The problem with cabotage restrictions is that they lead to frequent empty backhauls, especially at crossings where cross-border flows are imbalanced. Cabotage restrictions reflect that, in the case of USMCA, free trade does not extend to transportation services. In the case of the European Union, cabotage restrictions have been lifted only after many years of negotiation and legal challenge. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Gauge.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/major-gauges-rail/map-rail-gauge/)Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems[![Emty Trucks Border Hong Kong Shenzhen](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/emty_trucks_border_hong_kong_shenzhen.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Empty Trucks Crossing the Border between Hong Kong and Shenzhen | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/empty-trucks-hong-kong-shenzhen/trucks_border_hk_shenzhen/)Empty Trucks Crossing the Border between Hong Kong and Shenzhen[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/effect_border_freight.png?w=900&ssl=1 "The Effect of a Border on Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/border-effect-freight-distribution/border_effect_freight_distribution-2/)The Effect of a Border on Freight Distribution[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/laredo_commercial_border_crossing.png?resize=900%2C567&ssl=1 "The Laredo Commercial Vehicle Border Crossing (World Trade Bridge / Laredo IV) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/laredo_commercial_border_crossing/)The Laredo Commercial Vehicle Border Crossing World Trade Bridge Laredo IVDespite trade liberalization, new technologies for communication and surveillance, and improved border procedures, crossing borders remains **one of the main challenges in global transportation**. The [border effects on freight distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4003) remain salient, even in areas where levels of economic integration are high. For instance, the [Laredo (Texas) / Nuevo Laredo (Mexico) border complex](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/laredo-commercial-vehicle-border-crossing/ "The Laredo Commercial Vehicle Border Crossing (World Trade Bridge / Laredo IV)") accounts for more than 50% of all the commercial border crossings between the United States and Mexico, leading to unique forms of cross-border logistics. Increased concern about clandestine transnational actors (drugs, illegal immigration, terrorism) has led to a new regime of enhanced scrutiny that has offset many institutional and technological changes that once promised to make borders irrelevant. While the threat of international terrorism is very real, the intensification of scrutiny is reinforced by public opinion that is more aware of the benefits of security than of the benefits of trade. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in additional challenges to borders, creating a temporary trend of border closures and increased border control for sanitary reasons. The border effect was particularly apparent for air travel between 2020 and 2021, with domestic travel bouncing back much faster than international travel because of sanitary restrictions on international travelers. --- ## Related Topics - [7.2 – Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3919) - [Interoceanic Passages](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=756) (PEMP external link) - [9.3 – Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6289) ## Bibliography - Andreas, P. (2003) “Redrawing the Line: Borders and Security in the 21st Century”, International Security, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 78–111. - Anderson, W.P. (2012) “Public policy in a cross border economic region”, International Journal of Public Sector Management, Vol. 25(6/7), pp. 492-499. - Anderson, W.P (2013) “Transborder Transportation”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Baud, M. and W. Van Schendel (1997) “Toward a comparative history of borderlands”, Journal of World History, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 211–242. - Braudel, F. (1982) The Wheels of Commerce. Civilization and Capitalism 15th-18th Century, Vol. II. New York: Harper & Row. - Gomory, R.E. and W.J. Baumol (2001) Global Trade and Conflicting National Interests, Cambridge: MA: MIT Press. - Helliwell, J.F. (1997) “National Borders, Trade and Migration”, Pacific Economic Review, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 165–185. - Zacher, M.W. (2001) “The Territorial Integrity Norm: International Boundaries and the Use of Force”, International Organization, Vol. 55, No. 2, pp. 215–220. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.1 - Methods in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/) **Published:** December 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > In addition to providing a conceptual background to the analysis of the mobility of passengers and freight, transport geography is an applied science relying on quantitative and qualitative methods. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transportation and Methodologies](#1_Transportation_and_Methodologies) - [2. Transport-Related Methods](#2_Transport-Related_Methods) - [3. Multidisciplinary Methods](#3_Multidisciplinary_Methods) # 1. Transportation and Methodologies Transportation is not a science but a field of inquiry and application. Two common traits of transportation studies, regardless of disciplinary affiliation, are their **heavy reliance on empirical data** and the [intensive use of data analytic techniques](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6573), ranging from simple descriptive measures to more complex modeling structures. In some respects, transport geography stands out from many other fields of human geography by the nature and function of its quantitative analysis. Transport geography was one of the leading forces in the quantitative revolution that helped redefine geography in the 1960s using inferential statistics, abstract models, and new theories. Although this perspective provided much-needed rigor, it also favored a disconnection between empirical and theoretical approaches. Similar to economics, the quantitative revolution led to a mechanistic perspective where concordance with reality became somewhat secondary; realities were made to fit into models. Even if contemporary transport geography has a more diversified approach, the quantitative dimension plays an important part in the discipline since transportation research is expected to be substantiated by data and methodological approaches. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/models_transport_geography2.png?resize=900%2C581&ssl=1 "Models in Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/models-transport-geography/models_transport_geography/)Models in Transport Geography[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/taxonomy_transport_geography_methods.png?resize=900%2C481&ssl=1 "Taxonomy of Transport Geography Methods | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/taxonomy_transport_methods/)Taxonomy of Transport Geography MethodsThe primary goal of these methods is to enhance mobility by identifying its spatial constraints. These constraints can include capacity, cost, time, regulatory, social, and environmental factors, but are often encountered in combination. It is consequently possible to identify relevant strategies and policies and provide scenarios about their expected consequences. There are various ways of classifying the methods that are used by transport geography: - Whether they are **qualitative or quantitative**. - Whether they deal with **infrastructures** (e.g. terminals) or **flows**. - Whether they provide **interpolation or extrapolation**. - Whether the technique provides **description, explanation, or optimization**. - According to the level of **data aggregation**, the nature of the **assumptions**, or the **complexity of the calculations**. Like in geography, spatial and temporal processes cannot be considered separately. A basic [taxonomy ](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19023)can be divided into transport-related methods and multidisciplinary methods. # 2. Transport-Related Methods The first group of methods concerns those directly related to the study of transportation since most draw their origins from transport planning. The methods mainly used in transport geography include: - **Network analysis** (also referred to as **graph theory**) is used to study transport network forms and structures, particularly how they change over time. Network science has offered transport geography a whole set of mathematical tools. For example, network analysis can be used to assess the evolution of the hub-and-spoke configuration of airline services. - Transport geographers also play a key role in studying **land use – transport interactions**. Numerical models have been developed, which, over time, have become increasingly complex. - Transport geographers are also interested in **flow and location-allocation models** that can be used to define such things as school district boundaries or the location of a new retail outlet. These techniques are **optimization procedures** rather than methods for describing or understanding current transport systems. Transport geography enables **empirically-based representations** of various dimensions of transportation systems. In addition, there are various methods of general use in transportation studies to are readily applicable to transport geography: - First, a diverse set of techniques is used in the **urban transportation modeling** exercise, the purpose of which is to understand and predict urban spatial patterns. - Second, **traffic surveys** gather empirical information about movements, such as their routing and frequency. # 3. Multidisciplinary Methods Include the range of methods **not explicitly developed for transportation studies** but readily applicable to its analysis. They are labeled as multidisciplinary since they can be applied to a wide range of issues irrespective of the discipline. First, some methods are central to geography but are not restricted to the study of transportation systems: - **Cartography** is the most obvious example of a geographic technique. Indeed, various types of maps are used to analyze transport systems, including land use maps, depictions of transport infrastructure, isoline maps of transportation costs, or schematics of transportation activity patterns. - [Geographic information systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6578) (GIS), an outgrowth of digital cartography, provide tools for storing, retrieving, analyzing, and displaying spatial data. GIS technology has been applied to large-scale transportation planning and engineering applications. However, they are applied in a prescriptive way to small-scale problems, for example, to plot optimal routes for buses, delivery trucks, or emergency vehicles. - Various **statistics** have been developed or modified by geographers to describe urban-economic systems. Examples include the Gini coefficient and indexes of concentration and specialization. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gis_and_transportation.png?resize=900%2C516&ssl=1 "Geographic Information Systems and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/transportation-gis/gis_transport/)Geographic Information Systems and Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/dimensions_transport_geography2.png?resize=900%2C904&ssl=1 "Dimensions of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-dimensions/dimensions_transport_geography2/)Dimensions of Transport GeographySecond, various methods are used in many different applications, including transportation analysis. They underline that transportation analysts are not restricted to methods developed with transportation in mind but to whatever is relevant to a specific problem. In fact, many methods that were initially developed for other problems have widespread use in transportation studies: - Some methods are used to **collect primary data** (e.g. questionnaires and interviews), while others are used to analyze data. Some analytic techniques are straightforward to implement and interpret; graphs (e.g. scattergrams, distance-decay curves) and tables (e.g. origin-destination matrices) are two examples. Others are more complex, such as inferential statistics like the t-test, correlation, variance, regression, and chi-square. - Increasingly, transportation studies are concerned with **economic impacts and public policy issues**. They rely more on qualitative information such as policy statements, rules, and regulations, including their evolution. Various types of impacts are considered, including economic (e.g. community development), social (e.g. access to services), environmental (e.g. air or water pollution), and health (e.g. road accidents). The broad fields of environmental impact assessment, risk assessment, and policy analysis are relevant to these issues. The development and application of methods in transport studies, in general, and transport geography, in particular, have become increasingly complex, particularly as improvements in **information technologies** have made more powerful analytical tools available. For instance, a commercial geographic information system package offers analytical and modeling capabilities that far exceed those typically employed by most researchers, analysts, or policymakers. Therefore, future developments will likely focus on **empirical data analysis** using known methods but with more extensive datasets. Using what is known as “**big data**” shows the potential to automate data gathering using remote sensing, sensors, and mobile devices. This will lead to a more detailed and consequential analysis of real-world transport phenomena and help better connect theoretical knowledge and real-world applications. Transport geography is, therefore, more constrained by the availability of data than by methodological limitations. --- ## Related Topics - [What is Transport Geography?](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=40) - [Teaching Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=748) - [Graph Theory: Definition and Properties](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5976) - [Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6741) - [Transportation and Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6945) - [Network Data Models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7585) - Traffic Assignment - [Technical and Economic Performance Indicators](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19302) - [The Gini Coefficient](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9229) - Linear Programming - Delphi Forecasting - [Spatial Interactions and the Gravity Model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8565) - Transportation / Land Use Modeling - [Market Areas Analysis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9293) - Location Analysis - The Policy Process - [Transportation Environmental Management](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) - Cost / Benefit Analysis - Traffic Counts and Traffic Surveys ## Bibliography - Cliff, A.D. and J.K. Ord (1981) Spatial processes: models and applications, London: Pion. - Darmofal, D. (2015) Spatial analysis for the social sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Demsar, U., P. Harris, C. Brunsdon, A.S. Fotheringham, and S. McLoone (2013) “Principal Component Analysis on Spatial Data: An Overview”. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol 103 (1): pp. 106-128. - Fischer, M.M. and J.F. Wang (2011) Spatial Data Analysis: Models, Methods and Techniques, Berlin: Springer Verlag. - International Transportation Forum (2015) Big Data and Transport: Understanding and Assessing Options. Paris: OECD. - Taaffe, E., H.L. Gauthier and M.E. O’Kelly (1998) Geography of Transportation, 2nd Edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. - Wilson, A. G (1974) Urban and Regional Models in Geography and Planning. London: Wiley. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Selected North American Trade Corridor Initiatives](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/trade-corridor-initiatives-north-america/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Corridors.png?resize=900%2C684&ssl=1 "Selected North American Trade Corridor Initiatives | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Selected North American Trade Corridor InitiativesSeveral trade corridor initiatives have been established in North America, mostly on a consensual basis, in order to address common problems, such as infrastructure improvements. Many have a form of governance, such as forums with major stakeholders (state Departments of Transportation, Metropolitan Planning Organizations). However, many do not reflect a functional reality, but an expectation that at some point, a coherent corridor will emerge. This is particularly the case for those having a north/south orientation. There is thus a dichotomy between **functional corridors** and **formal corridors**. The Eastern Seaboard corridor, also known as the “I-95 corridor”, is one of the most cohesive, mainly because it focuses on a continuous Interstate highway shared through the East Coast as well as going through the most massive and coherent urban agglomeration in North America, the Boston-Washington megalopolis. Its interests are various, reflecting the complexity of the corridor itself, with issues ranging from tolls, key highway bottlenecks, to promoting rail and short sea shipping. The segment of the Mid-Continent corridor between Laredo and Chicago, which is also labeled the “NAFTA/USMCA corridor”, has seen a growth in the intensity of its traffic. The Asia-Pacific Gateway and Corridor initiative focuses on strengthening an existing axis of continental freight distribution between the Canadian West Coast (Vancouver and the new container port of Prince Rupert) and North America’s heartland (Chicago). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/trade-corridor-initiatives-north-america/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/trade-corridor-initiatives-north-america/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/trade-corridor-initiatives-north-america/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/trade-corridor-initiatives-north-america/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Effect of a Border on Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/border-effect-freight-distribution/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/effect_border_freight.png?resize=900%2C376&ssl=1 "The Effect of a Border on Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Effect of a Border on Freight DistributionEconomic integration processes such as trade agreements and customs unions have greatly contributed to the growing fluidity of freight flows across borders, notably in Europe and North America. Still, border effects have not disappeared, and they continue to influence the structure of hinterlands and freight distribution. The three most common border effects are: - **Gateway**. Locations that are able to handle and process cross-border traffic are pre-defined by customs agencies and are commonly known as ports of entry. The choice of ports of entry can be subject to standard geographical constraints, such as a bridge across a river, or a deliberate choice to reduce costs by operating only a few facilities along a border. Therefore, transport networks are often constrained to use specific gateways (or ports of entry) to go from one jurisdiction to another. This creates a convergence effect on networks and flows where the border represents an opportunity to consolidate or deconsolidate shipments. It also incites the setting of high-capacity corridors, which can reinforce the border convergence effect. While this structure is common in maritime shipping and air transportation, it also occurs at land gateways. - **Barrier**. Relates to a conventional border effect where a change in jurisdiction imposes a sudden friction effect. It mostly involves customs procedures, tariffs and duties, delays at border crossings, and also physical differences in transport infrastructures, such as capacity. The border will strongly deter cross-border traffic if the trade regime is substantially different. [Rail gauges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1771) are an example of capacity change taking place at a border (e.g. between Europe and Russia). Therefore, the border usually marks a change in the efficiency of freight distribution and is related to a different transport rate structure. - **Operational cost differences**. As borders mark a change in jurisdiction, those jurisdictions commonly have differences in operational costs such as labor, land value, energy, and taxation levels. This can be linked to different levels of economic development, such as borders between developed and developing countries (e.g., the United States and Mexico) or subsidies and economic development policies (e.g., Europe). In a setting where there are notable operational cost differences, freight distribution activities will tend to locate where operational costs are lower and use the proximity offered by border regions to service jurisdictions having higher operational costs. This can take the form of transloading activities, where cargo units are moved into different loads. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/border-effect-freight-distribution/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/border-effect-freight-distribution/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/border-effect-freight-distribution/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/border-effect-freight-distribution/?share=reddit) - --- ### [5.4 - Maritime Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/) **Published:** November 4, 2017 **Author:** Theo Notteboom **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Theo Notteboom > Maritime transportation concerns the movement of passengers and freight over water masses, from oceans to rivers. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Maritime Geography and Routes](#1_Maritime_Geography_and_Routes) - [2. Maritime Traffic](#2_Maritime_Traffic) - [3. Maritime Shipping](#3_Maritime_Shipping) - [4. Maritime Economics](#4_Maritime_Economics) - [5. Shipping Services and Networks](#5_Shipping_Services_and_Networks) # 1. Maritime Geography and Routes From its modest origins as Egyptian coastal and river sailships around 3,200 BCE, maritime transportation has always been the dominant support of global trade. By 1,200 BCE, Egyptian ships traded as far as Sumatra, representing one of the longest maritime routes of that time. By the 10th century, Chinese merchants frequented the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean, establishing regional trade networks. During the same period, [maritime trade routes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/ "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes (11th and 12th Centuries)") between the Middle East and Asia were established, mainly under the control of Arab merchants. In the early 15th century, Admiral Zheng He led a large Chinese fleet of more than 300 vessels manned by a crew of 28,000 to conduct seven major expeditions, one of which reached the East African coast. However, China’s attempt to assert regional maritime dominance was short-lived. Such expeditions were not permitted to continue mainly because China perceived itself as a continental power with maritime trade of limited interest. However, for other nations, the projection of maritime power became of strategic interest of vital economic importance. European colonial powers, mainly Spain, Portugal, England, the Netherlands, and France, were the first to establish a dependable [global maritime trade network](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1083) in the 16th century. Most maritime shipping activities focused around the Mediterranean, the [northern Indian Ocean](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1089), Pacific Asia, and the [North Atlantic](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1094), including the Caribbean. Thus, access to trade commodities remains historically and contemporarily the main driver in the setting of maritime networks. [![Map Silk Road](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C540&ssl=1 "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/map-silk-road/)The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-ShippingDensity1750_1810.png?resize=900%2C507&ssl=1 "Density of Ship Log Entries, 1750-1810 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ship-log-density-1750-1810/map-shippingdensity1750_1810-png/)Density of Ship Log Entries 1750 1810[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/VOC_Trade_Network2.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Dutch East India Company, Trade Network, 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/dutch-east-india-company-trade-network/voc_trade_network2/)Dutch East India Company Trade Network 18th Century[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/North-Atlantic-Colonial-Trade-18C.png?resize=900%2C650&ssl=1 "Colonial Trade Pattern, North Atlantic, 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/colonial-trade-pattern-atlantic-18th-century/north-atlantic-colonial-trade-18c-png/)Colonial Trade Pattern North Atlantic 18th Century[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/international_seaborne_trade_exports2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "International Seaborne Trade and Exports of Goods, 1955-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/international-seaborne-trade/international_seaborne_trade_exports/)International Seaborne Trade and Exports of Goods 1955 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/changes_maritime_shipping2.png?resize=900%2C421&ssl=1 "Selected Changes in Maritime Shipping | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/selected-changes-maritime-shipping/changes_maritime_shipping2/)Selected Changes in Maritime ShippingWith the development of the steam engine in the mid-19th century, trade networks expanded considerably as ships were no longer subject to dominant wind patterns. Accordingly, and in conjunction with the opening of the Suez Canal, the second half of the 19th century saw an **intensification of maritime trade** to and across the Pacific. In the 20th century, maritime transport grew exponentially as changes in international trade and seaborne trade became interrelated. Maritime transportation, like all transportation, is a derived demand that exists to support trade relations, which are influenced by the existing maritime shipping capacity and the [changes in the composition of maritime shipping services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10343). Thus, there is a level of reciprocity between trade and maritime shipping capabilities. As of 2018, seaborne trade accounted for 80% of global trade in volume and 70% in value. Maritime shipping is one of the most globalized industries in ownership and operations. Maritime transportation, like land and air modes, operates on its own space, which is concomitantly **geographical** by its physical attributes, **strategic** by its control, and **commercial** by its usage. While geographical considerations tend to be constant in time (except for the seasonality of weather patterns), strategic and especially commercial considerations are much more dynamic. The physiography of maritime transportation is composed of two major elements, which are rivers and oceans. Although they are connected, each represents a specific [domain of maritime circulation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1782). The notion of maritime transportation rests on the existence of **regular itineraries**, better known as maritime routes. > **Maritime routes**. Corridors trying to avoid the discontinuities of land transport by linking ports. Maritime routes are a function of obligatory points of passage, physical constraints (coasts, winds, marine currents, depth, reefs, ice), and political borders. Maritime routes draw arcs on the ocean surface as they try to follow the **great circle distance**. The most recent technological transformations affecting water transport have focused on **modifying water channels**, such as dredging port channels to deeper depths and expanding the capacity of transoceanic passages such as Panama and Suez. Increasing the size, automation, and specialization of vessels (e.g. container ships, tankers, bulk carriers) has also been the focus. This has required the development of **massive port terminal facilities** to support the technical requirements of maritime transportation. Maritime traffic has been adapting to increasing energy demand (mainly fossil fuels), the movements of raw materials, the location of major grain markets, and the growth in intermediate and finished goods trade. Yet, this process is not uniform, and various levels of connectivity to global shipping networks are being observed. The massification of transport into regular flows over long distances is not without consequences when [accidents affecting oil tankers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2082) can lead to major ecological disasters (e.g. Amoco Cadiz, Exxon Valdez). The growing importance of container shipping is also associated with risks related to the immobilization of ship assets, such as the grounding of the [Ever Given in the Suez Canal in 2021](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/suez-canal-blockage-2021/). Fluvial transportation, even if slow and inflexible, offers a high capacity and a continuous flow. The fluvial / land interface often relies less on transshipment infrastructures and is thus more permissive for the location of dependent activities. Ports are less relevant to fluvial transportation, but fluvial hub centers experience a growing integration with maritime and land transportation, notably with containerization. The degree of integration for fluvial transportation varies from totally isolated distribution systems to well-integrated ones. In regions well supplied by hydrographic networks, fluvial transportation can be a privileged mode of shipment between economic activities. In fact, several industrial regions have emerged along the major fluvial axis, as this mode was initially an important vector of industrialization. More recently, **river-sea navigation** provided a new dimension to fluvial transportation by establishing a direct interface between fluvial and maritime systems. [![Map World Maritime Shipping Lanes Bottlenecks Chokepoints](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Domains-Maritime-Circulation.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Domains of Maritime Circulation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/domains-maritime-circulation/map-domains-maritime-circulation-1/)Domains of Maritime Circulation[![Map Landlocked Countries](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landlocked-Countries.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Landlocked Countries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/landlocked-countries/map-landlocked-countries/)Landlocked Countries[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_maritime_routes2.png?resize=900%2C495&ssl=1 "Types of Maritime Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/maritime-routes-types/types_maritime_routes2/)Types of Maritime Routes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lenght_inland_waterways.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Length of the Major Inland Waterway Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/length-inland-waterways/lenght_inland_waterways/)Length of the Major Inland Waterway SystemsMost maritime circulation occurs **along coastlines**, and two continents have limited fluvial trade; Africa and Australia. [Large fluvial waterway systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2092) in North America, Europe, Southeast Asia, and China have significant fluvial circulation. Fluvial-maritime ships can go directly from fluvial to oceanic maritime networks. Despite regular services on selected fluvial arteries, such as the Yangtze, the potential of waterways for passenger transport remains limited to fluvial tourism (river cruises). Most major maritime infrastructures involve maintaining or modifying waterways to establish more direct routes (navigation channels and canals). This strategy is very expensive and undertaken only when necessary. Significant investments have been made to expand the transshipment capacities of ports, which is also very expensive as ports have a large footprint. Not every region has direct access to the ocean and maritime transport. [Maritime enclaves](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2103) (**landlocked countries**) are such countries that have difficulties in undertaking maritime trade since they are not directly part of an oceanic domain of maritime circulation. This requires agreements with neighboring countries to access a port facility through a highway, a rail line, or a river. However, being landlocked does not necessarily imply exclusion from international trade, but substantially higher transport costs which may impair economic development. Further, being landlocked can be a relative concept since a coastal country could be considered **relatively landlocked** if its port system is insufficient to handle its maritime trade or if its importers or exporters are using a port in a third country. For instance, France has significant nautical accessibility, but the primary port handling containerized traffic is Antwerp in Belgium. The importance and [configuration](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2108) of maritime routes have changed with economic development and technical improvements. Among those, containerization **changed the configuration of freight routes** with innovative services. Before containerization, loading or unloading a ship was a costly and time-consuming task, and a cargo ship typically spent more time docked than at sea. While sailing time represented around 25% of the annual ship time for standard break-bulk ships, this figure is now around 70% for containerships. With faster and cheaper port operations, inter-range routes have emerged as a dominant configuration of containerized maritime networks. > **Inter-range service**. Involves a set of sequential port calls from at least two maritime ranges, commonly including a transoceanic service and structured as a continuous loop. They are almost exclusively used for container transportation with the purpose of servicing a market by balancing the number of port calls and the frequency of services. The main advantage of inter-range services is the ability to call several ports and increase the ship load factor. This sequence of ports tends to be highly flexible in terms of which ports are serviced to maximize the market potential. However, there is the risk of empty trips (particularly backhauls) and longer service times between distant port pairs along the route. The first inter-range route was set in 1962 by Sea-Land between the ports of New York (Newark facilities), Los Angeles, and Oakland using the Panama Canal. The return trip also included a stop in San Juan (Puerto Rico). The most extensive inter-range services are known as “round-the-world” routes, as major maritime ranges of the world are services along a continuous loop. Another recent trend has been the integration and specialization of several routes with feeder ships converging at major maritime intermediate hubs. This is notably the case for Europe (Mediterranean, North Sea, and the Baltic) in light of the negative impacts of deviations from main maritime shipping routes regarding service length and frequency of port calls. # 2. Maritime Traffic Before the era of intercontinental air transportation, long-distance passenger services were assumed by [liner passenger ships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2135), dominantly over the North Atlantic. Long-distance passenger movements are now a **marginal leisure function** solely serviced by cruise shipping in specific regional markets such as the Caribbean and the Mediterranean. Still, several oceanic ferry services operate over short distances, namely in Europe ([English Channel](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2149), Baltic Sea, Aegean), Japan, and Southeast Asia (Indonesia and the Philippines). Maritime transportation is **dominantly focused on freight** since there is no other effective alternative to the long-distance transportation of large amounts of freight. The systematic growth of maritime freight traffic has been fueled by the following: - **Absolute advantages.** They are linked with the geographical distribution of resources, implying that the places of extraction usually differ from the places of consumption. Therefore, large quantities of cargo need to be carried over long distances. The growth in [mineral and energy trades](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2155), the dominant cargo carried by maritime shipping, is the outcome of conventional demands from developed countries and new demands from developing economies. For instance, coal is mainly used for energy generation and steel-making, activities that grew substantially in the developing world. - **Comparative advantages.** Concerns cargoes that under ideal circumstances would likely not be carried. Substantial shipping is generated because of cost and capabilities differentials. Outsourcing, offshoring, and trade liberalization resulted in parts and finished goods being carried over long distances, supporting the growth in container shipping. This has been associated with a [change in the balance of maritime trade flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4125), where developing economies have more extensive involvement. However, due to economic conditions, such cargo can be temporary and subject to changes in their origins and destinations. - **Technical improvements.** Ships and maritime terminals have become more efficient in terms of their throughput and their ability to handle several types of cargoes (e.g. containers, natural gas, refrigerated goods), enabling them to support long-distance trade. - **Economies of scale.** The growth in the size of ships permitted maritime transportation to become increasingly cost-effective, a trend that has been strengthened by containerization. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/liner_transatlantic_crossing.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times, 1833 - 1952 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/liner-transatlantic-crossing-time/liner_transatlantic_crossing/)Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times 1833 1952 in days[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_seaborne_trade_cargo_type.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Seaborne Trade by Cargo Type | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/seaboard-trade-cargo-type/world_seaborne_trade_cargo_type/)World Seaborne Trade by Cargo Type 1970 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_maritime_cargo.png?resize=900%2C502&ssl=1 "Types of Maritime Cargo | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/types-maritime-cargo/types_maritime_cargo/)Types of Maritime CargoMaritime traffic is commonly measured in **deadweight tons**, which refers to the cargo that can be loaded on an “empty” ship without exceeding its operational design limits. This limit is often identified as a loadline, which is the maximal draft of the ship and does not account for the ship’s weight but includes fuel and ballast water. Maritime freight is conventionally considered in [two main markets](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10258): > **Bulk cargo**. Refers to freight, both dry and liquid, that is not packaged, such as minerals (oil, coal, [iron ore](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2195), bauxite) and grains. It often requires the use of specialized ships such as oil tankers as well as specialized transshipment and storage facilities. Conventionally, this cargo has a single origin, destination, and client and is prone to economies of scale. Services tend to be irregular, except for energy trades, and part of vertically integrated production processes (e.g. oil field to port to refinery). The dynamics of the bulk market are mainly attributed to industrialization and economic development, creating additional demand for resources and energy. > **Break-bulk cargo**. Refers to general cargo that has been packaged in some way with the use of bags, boxes, drums, and particularly containers. This cargo tends to have numerous origins, destinations, and clients. Before containerization, economies of scale were difficult to achieve with break-bulk cargo as loading and unloading were very labor and time-consuming. The dynamics of the breakbulk market are related to manufacturing and consumption. The composition of maritime traffic has shifted from being dominated by liquid bulk (petroleum) to dry bulk and containers. Technical improvements tend to blur the distinction between bulk and break-bulk cargo, as both can be **unitized** on pallets and increasingly in **containers**. For instance, it is possible, and increasingly common, to ship grain and oil, both bulk cargoes, in a container. Consequently, the amount of containerized freight has grown substantially, from 9.8% of total tons-km in 2000 to 15.2% in 2021. Geographically, maritime traffic has evolved considerably over the last decades, especially through growth in Asia-Europe and transpacific trade. By establishing commercial linkages between continents, maritime transport supports considerable traffic. The advantage of maritime transport does not rest on its speed, but on its capacity and on the continuity of its services. Railway and road transportation cannot support traffic at such a geographical scale and intensity. Heavy industrial activities that use bulk raw materials are generally [adjacent to port sites](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2215), benefiting from load breaks. The average haul length was about 4,200 miles. The global maritime shipping industry is serviced by about 55,000 registered commercial vessels of more than 1,000 tons falling into four broad categories: - **Passenger vessels** historically played an essential role since they were the only mode available for long-distance transportation. In a contemporary setting, passenger vessels can be divided into two categories: [passenger ferries](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2222), where people are carried across relatively small bodies of water (such as a river or a strait) in a shuttle-type service, and cruise ships, where passengers are taken on vacation trips of various duration, usually over several days. The former tend to be smaller and faster vessels. The latter are generally very large capacity ships having a full range of amenities. In 2019, about 27.5 million passengers were serviced by cruise ships, underlining an industry with much growth potential since it services several seasonal markets where the fleet is redeployed during the year. However, because of the COVID-19 pandemic, 2020 turned out to be the most disastrous year in cruise shipping history, with the number of passengers dropping to just above 7 million, a 75% drop in traffic. - **Bulk carriers** are ships designed to carry specific commodities and are differentiated into liquid bulk and dry bulk vessels. They include the [largest vessels afloat](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/berge-stahl-uloc/ "Ultra Large Ore Carrier, the Berge Stahl"). The largest tankers, the Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC) are up to 500,000 deadweight tons (dwt), with the more typical size being between 250,000 and 350,000 dwt; the largest dry bulk carriers are around 400,000 dwt, while the more typical size is between 100,000 and 150,000 dwt. The emergence of liquefied natural gas (LNG) technology enabled the maritime trade of natural gas with [specialized ships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/dredging-ship-zeebrugge/ "Dredging Ship at the Port of Zeebrugge, Belgium"). - **General cargo ships** are vessels designed to carry non-bulk cargo. The traditional ships were less than 10,000 dwt, because of extremely slow loading and off-loading. Since the 1960s, these vessels have been replaced by container ships because they can be loaded more rapidly and efficiently, permitting a better application of the principle of economies of scale. Like any other ship class, [larger containerships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/e-class-containership-evelyn-maersk/ "‘E’ Class Containership, The Evelyn Maersk") require larger drafts, with the current largest ships requiring a draft of 16 meters. - **Rol-on Roll-off (RORO) vessels** are designed to allow cars, trucks, and trains to be loaded directly on board. Originally appearing as ferries, these vessels are used in deep-sea trades and are much larger than the typical ferry. The largest are [car carriers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/roro-cargo-ships/ "RO-RO Cargo Ship") that transport vehicles from assembly plants to the main markets. Their capacity is measured in the amount of parking space they can offer to the vehicles they carry, mostly measured in lane meters. The distinctions in vessel types are further differentiated by the **type of services** on which they are deployed. Bulk ships tend to operate on a regular schedule between two ports or on a voyage basis to reflect fluctuations in demand. This demand may be seasonal, such as for grain transport, or niche, such as for project cargo (e.g. carrying construction material or windmills). General cargo vessels operate on liner services, in which the vessels are deployed on a regularly scheduled service between fixed ports of call, or as tramp ships, where the vessels have no schedule and move between ports based on cargo availability. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Tadoussac-4-24-07-jm.jpg?resize=900%2C642&ssl=1 "Laker Ship Supplying a Steel Mill in Hamilton, Ontario | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/laker-steel-mill-hamilton/tadoussac-4-24-07-jm/)Laker Ship Supplying a Steel Mill in Hamilton Ontario[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ferrylehavre.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Channel Ferry Ship Entering the Port of Le Havre | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/ferry-le-havre/ferrylehavre/)Channel Ferry Ship Entering the Port of Le Havre France[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bergestahl.jpg?resize=850%2C598&ssl=1 "Ultra Large Ore Carrier, the Berge Stahl | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/berge-stahl-uloc/bergestahl/)Ultra Large Ore Carrier the Berge Stahl[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lngship.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "LNG Ship, Port of Zeebrugge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/lng-ship-zeebrugge/lngship/)LNG Ship Port of Zeebrugge[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evelyn_maersk.jpg?resize=850%2C460&ssl=1 "'E' Class Containership, The Evelyn Maersk | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/e-class-containership-evelyn-maersk/evelyn_maersk/)E Class Containership The Evelyn Maersk[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/roroship.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "RO-RO Cargo Ship | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/roro-cargo-ships/roroship/)RO RO Cargo Ship# 3. Maritime Shipping The maritime shipping industry is one of the most globalized and is part of a [life cycle](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2244) that includes building, registration, operations, and the final scrapping of the ship. All these activities are substantially fragmented in their ownership and operations. Maritime shipping is [dominated by bulk cargo](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2155), with dry bulk cargoes such as iron ore, coal, and grain roughly accounting for 28% of all the ton-miles shipped in 2021. Due to containerization, the share of break-bulk cargo is increasing steadily, which accounted for 15% of all ton-miles in 2021. Maritime shipping has traditionally faced two drawbacks in relation to other modes. First, it is **slow**, with speeds at sea averaging 15 knots for bulk ships (26 km/hr), although container ships are designed to sail at speeds above 20 knots (37 km/hr). Secondly, **delays** are encountered in ports where loading and unloading take place. The latter may involve several days of handling when break-bulk cargo is concerned. These drawbacks are particularly constrained where goods must be moved over short distances or shippers require rapid deliveries. Maritime shipping has seen several major technical innovations aiming at improving the performance of ships or their access to port facilities, notably in the 20th century. ## a. Ship size and speed The last century has seen [growth in the number of ships as well as their average size](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2169). Size is a common denominator for ships as it expresses [type as well as capacity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2176). Each time the size of a ship is doubled, its capacity is cubed (tripled). Although the minimum size for cost-effective bulk handling is estimated to be around 1,000 deadweight tons, economies of scale have pushed for larger ship sizes to service transportation demand. For ship owners, the rationale for larger ships implies reduced crew, fuel, berthing, insurance, and maintenance costs. The largest tankers (ULCC) are around 500,000 dwt (dominant size between 250,000 and 350,000 dwt), while the largest dry bulk carriers are around 350,000 dwt (dominant size between 100,000 and 150,000 dwt). For container shipping, the scale effect on ships has been an important driving force in the growth of its capacity. Each [generation of containership](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/evolution-containerships-classes/ "Evolution of Containerships") comes with defined specifications and capacity ranges. Standards such as Panamax, Neo-Panamax, and Suezmax remain important factors in [ship design, capacity and class](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/draft-containership-capacity/ "Average Draft by Containership Capacity"). The remaining constraints on ship size are the capacity of ports, harbors, access channels, and canals to accommodate them. The average speed of ships is about 15 knots (1 knot = 1 marine mile = 1,853 meters), which is 28 km per hour. Under such circumstances, a ship would travel about 575 km per day. More recent ships can travel between 25 to 30 knots (45 to 55 km per hour), but it is uncommon for a commercial ship to travel faster than 25 knots due to energy requirements. To cope with speed requirements, propulsion and engine technology have improved from sails to steam, diesel, gas turbines, and nuclear (only for military ships; civilian attempts were abandoned in the early 1980s). Since the invention of the helix, propulsion has improved considerably, notably by the usage of double helixes, but peaks were reached by the 1970s. Reaching higher maritime speeds remains a challenge that is excessively costly to overcome. As a result, limited improvements in commercial maritime speeds are foreseen. An emerging commercial practice, particularly in container shipping, concerns “[slow steaming](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/fuel-consumption-containerships/ "Fuel Consumption by Containership Size and Speed")“, where the operating speed is reduced to about 19-20 knots to reduce energy consumption. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_merchant_fleet_tonnage.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Merchant Fleet, Tonnage Registered per Ship Size | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/world-registered-fleet-tonnage/world_merchant_fleet_tonnage/)World Merchant Fleet Tonnage Registered per Ship Size 1970 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vessel_size_groups2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Vessel Size Groups | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/vessel-size-groups/vessel_size_groups2/)Vessel Size Groups in deadweight tons[![Containership Size Class Panamax New Panamax ULCS](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerships_evolution2.png?resize=900%2C959&ssl=1 "Evolution of Containerships | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/evolution-containerships-classes/containerships_evolution2/)Evolution of Containerships[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/average_draft_containership.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Draft by Containership Capacity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/draft-containership-capacity/average_draft_containership/)Average Draft by Containership Capacity[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fuel_consumption_containership.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Fuel Consumption by Containership Size and Speed | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/fuel-consumption-containerships/fuel_consumption_containership/)Fuel Consumption by Containership Size and Speed## b. Ship specialization and design Economies of scale are often linked with [market specialization and segmentation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/flexibility-ship-design/ "Flexibility and Specialization of Major Ship Designs") since many ships are designed to carry **only one type of cargo**. In maritime transportation, ships have a **commercial openness** in terms of the diversity of customers they can serve and a **functional openness** in terms of the diversity of cargo they can carry. In time, ships became increasingly specialized, including general cargo ships, [tankers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/atlantic-prosperity-vlcc/ "VLCC Atlantic Prosperity"), grain carriers, [barges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/container-barge-seine-river/ "Container Barge, Seine River"), mineral carriers, bulk carriers, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) carriers, RO-RO ships (roll-on roll-off; for vehicles), and [container ships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/three-containership-classes/ "Three Containership Classes"). **Ship design** significantly improved from wood hulls (before the 16th century) to wood hulls with steel armatures (18th century), to steel hulls (19th century; the first were warships), and to steel, aluminum, and composite materials hulls in the 20th and 21st centuries. The hulls of contemporary ships result from considerable efforts to minimize energy consumption and construction costs and improve safety. Depending on its complexity, a ship can take between 4 months (container and crude carriers) and one year to build (cruise ship). Different **automation technologies** are possible, including self-unloading ships, computer-assisted navigation (crew needs are reduced, and safety is increased), global positioning systems, and Automatic Identification Systems (AIS). Automation has resulted in smaller crews being required to operate larger ships. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/flexibility_specialization_ship_designs.png?resize=900%2C568&ssl=1 "Flexibility and Specialization of Major Ship Designs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/flexibility-ship-design/flexibility_specialization_ship_designs/)Flexibility and Specialization of Major Ship Designs[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tankeratlanticprosperity.jpg?resize=850%2C638&ssl=1 "VLCC Atlantic Prosperity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/atlantic-prosperity-vlcc/tankeratlanticprosperity/)VLCC Atlantic Prosperity[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/barge_fluvial_europe.jpg?resize=800%2C601&ssl=1 "Container Barge, Seine River | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/container-barge-seine-river/barge_fluvial_europe/)Container Barge Seine River[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/three_contship_classes.jpg?resize=850%2C638&ssl=1 "Three Containership Classes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/three-containership-classes/three_contship_classes/)Three Containership Classes# 4. Maritime Economics An important feature of the economics of shipping relates to its **capital costs**, which require financing. Because of their size, ships represent a significant capital outlay, which is associated with an impressive [specialization of maritime actors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/life-cycle-maritime-transport/ "The Maritime Transport Life Cycle and Main National Actors") involved in financing, operations, insurance, and even terms of the origin of seafarers. Cruise ships represent the most expensive class of vessels, with an Oasis Class cruise ship costing $1.2 billion. Still, even container ships of the largest class represent initial capital outlays of $190 million. The annual cost of servicing the purchase of these vessels represents the largest single item of operating expenditures, typically accounting for over half of the annual operating costs. Under these financial constraints, shipowners and operators seek to maximize the utilization of their ship assets by carefully considering the market in which they are deployed. Container shipping requires the deployment of many vessels to maintain a regular service (14 ships in the case of a typical Far East – Europe service), which is a severe constraint on the entry of new players. On the other hand, older second-hand vessels may be purchased for much smaller amounts, and sometimes the purchase price can be easily covered by a few successful voyages. Therefore, in some regards, the **shipping industry is quite open** and historically has provided opportunities for entrepreneurs to accumulate vast fortunes. Many of the largest fleets are privately owned by individuals or family groups. The main advantage of maritime transportation is its **economies of scale**, making it the cheapest per unit of all transport modes, which fits well for heavy industrial activities. On the other hand, maritime transportation has one of the **highest entry costs** in the transport sector. Typically, a ship has an economic life between 15 and 20 years and thus represents a significant investment that must be amortized. For instance, a Panamax containership can cost $50,000 per day to [operate](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2250), with most of the expenses related to fuel and port charges. The operation of the maritime transport system requires financing that can come from two sources: - **Public**. The public sector is commonly responsible for guidance infrastructures (beacons and charts), public piers, dredging, security, and in several cases, the administration of ports (under the umbrella of port authorities). - **Private**. The private sector is mostly concerned with specific facilities such as piers, transshipment infrastructures, and ships, which are commonly owned by private maritime companies. In the past, governments have often intervened in the maritime sector to fulfill different goals such as economic development, national defense, prestige, the balance of payments, and the protection of domestic industries (e.g. energy and steel). To reach these goals, governments relied on regulations, subsidies, national fleets, preference of cargo, and ports of entry. **Cabotage regulations** have been one of the privileged measures to protect the domestic maritime transportation industry. > **Cabotage**. Transport between two terminals located in the same country irrespective of the country in which the mode providing the service is registered. Cabotage is often subject to restrictions and regulations. Under such circumstances, each nation reserves for its national carriers the right to move domestic freight or passenger traffic. Many cabotage laws were implemented, such as the Passenger Services Act of 1886, which restricted seaborne passenger travel in the United States. Further, the Merchant Marine (Jones) Act of 1920 implemented cabotage regulations for freight that could only be carried using US-registered ships. A similar situation applies in China, where cargo between domestic ports, including coastal ports, can only be carried by Chinese-flagged ships. The emergence of short-sea shipping has challenged this setting in recent years. Defining [short-sea shipping](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2254) is complex as it can involve different vessels (container feeder vessels, ferries, fast ships, etc..), tramp or liner operations, a variety of cargo handling techniques (horizontal, vertical, or a mixture of both), and different types of ports of loading or discharge. In an intermodal freight context, two major types of short-sea shipping can be distinguished: - **Feeder services** from transshipment hubs to feeder ports and vice versa. These services can be arranged on a direct hub port to feeder port base or can follow a line bundling set-up with several feeder port calls per vessel rotation. They tend to use regular containerships, but of smaller size (often aptly named feeder ships). - **Cabotage** services between ports of the same economic region, as within [Europe](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2258) or [North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2263). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/maritime_transport_life_cycle.png?resize=900%2C549&ssl=1 "The Maritime Transport Life Cycle and Main National Actors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/life-cycle-maritime-transport/blue_economy/)The Maritime Transport Life Cycle and Main National Actors[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/operating_costs_panamax_post_panamax.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Operating Costs of Panamax and Post-panamax Containerships | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/containerships-operating-costs-panamax-post-panamax/operating_costs_panamax_post_panamax/)Operating Costs of Panamax and Post panamax Containerships in USD[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/characteristics_short_sea_shipping.png?resize=900%2C497&ssl=1 "Characteristics of Short Sea Shipping Services | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/short-sea-shipping-services/characteristics_short_sea_shipping/)Characteristics of Short Sea Shipping Services[![Map North America Short Sea Shipping](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/north_america_short_sea_shipping.png?resize=900%2C653&ssl=1 "The North American Short Sea Shipping Market | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/short-sea-shipping-north-america/north_america_short_sea_shipping/)The North American Short Sea Shipping Market[![Map Europe Short Sea Shipping](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/europe_short_sea_shipping.png?resize=900%2C662&ssl=1 "The European Short Sea Shipping Market | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/short-sea-shipping-europe/europe_short_sea_shipping/)The European Short Sea Shipping Market# 5. Shipping Services and Networks ## a. Internationalization The shipping industry is very **international in character**, particularly in ownership and country of registry. The ownership of ships is extensive. While a vessel may be owned by a Greek family or a Japanese corporation, it may be flagged under another nationality. There are two types of registers, **national registers**, and **open registers**, which are often labeled as flags of convenience. Open registers ([flags of convenience](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2269)) allow ship owners to obtain lower registration fees, lower operating costs, and fewer restrictions while meeting standards acceptable to shipping markets. The maritime industry is now more deregulated than before because of technical changes, mainly containerization and open registry ships operating under fiscal shelters. As of 2021, about [72% of the global tonnage](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2275) was registered under a flag of convenience, with Panama and Liberia being the most prevalent. The maritime shipping industry offers two major types of services: - **Charter services** (also known as Tramp). In this service, an ocean carrier rents a ship to a cargo owner for a specific purpose, commonly between a particular port of origin and destination. This type of shipping service is notably used in the case of bulk cargo, such as petroleum, iron ore, grain, or coal, often requiring specialized cargo ships that become the load unit (the entire contents of the ship are usually traded). - **Liner shipping services**. It involves a regularly scheduled shipping service, often calling several ports along an inter-range route. The emergence of post-Panamax containerships has favored the setting of **inter-range services** since the maritime landbridge of Panama was no longer accessible to ship class until its expansion in 2016. To ensure schedule reliability, which rarely exceeds 50%, frequency, and a specific level of service (in terms of port calls), many ships can be allocated to a single route, taking different configurations. For instance, eight vessels must be allocated for an inter-range service between Europe and Pacific Asia and about five vessels for trans-Atlantic service to ensure a weekly port call. These maritime shipping services are available to any cargo owner, implying that the cargo carried on any given ship belongs to different corporate interests. A growing share of liner services is containerized. [![Countries Ship Registry Tonnage](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/largest_ship_registry.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Largest Countries of Ship Registry | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/tonnage-country-registery/largest_ship_registry/)Largest Countries of Ship Registry 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/share_foreign_flagged_dwt.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Foreign-flagged Deadweight Tonnage | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/share-flagged-tonnage/share_foreign_flagged_dwt/)Share of Foreign flagged Deadweight Tonnage 1989 2021## b. From conferences to alliances An important historic feature of oceanic liner transport is the operation of **conferences**, which were formal agreements between companies engaged in particular trading routes. They fixed the rates charged by the individual lines, operating, for example, between Northern Europe and the East Coast of North America, or eastbound between Northern Asia and the West Coast of North America. Over the years, in excess of 100 such conference arrangements have been established. While they may be seen as anti-competitive, the conference system escaped prosecution from national anti-trust agencies. This is because they were seen as a mechanism to stabilize rates in an inherently unstable industry, with significant variations in the supply of ship capacity and market demand. By fixing rates, exporters are given protection from price swings and guaranteed a regular level of service provision. Firms competed based on service provision rather than price. A new form of inter-firm organization has emerged in the container shipping industry since the mid-1990s, and conferences have almost disappeared. Because the costs of providing ship capacity to markets are escalating beyond the means of many carriers, many of the largest shipping lines have formed **strategic alliances**. They offer joint services by pooling vessels on the main commercial routes and making capacity available among them. In this way, they can commit fewer ships to a particular service route and deploy the extra ships on other routes maintained outside the alliance. Alliance services are marketed separately and subject to intense competition, but operationally involve close cooperation in ports of call selection and in establishing schedules. Alliances, with a **concentration of ownership**, have led to significant developments in route alignments and economies of scale in container shipping. The 20 largest carriers controlled 26% of the world slot capacity in 1980, 42% in 1992, 58% in 2003, 81% in 2013, and 90% in 2022. The concentration level is causing concerns among various national regulatory bodies that see such developments as potentially unfair competitive practices. For instance, in 2013, a large alliance dubbed P3 was being planned between the world’s three largest carriers, Maersk, MSC, and CMA CGM, to help mitigate overcapacity along several major trade routes, particularly between Asia and Europe. However, in 2014 the Chinese government rejected the alliance because it created an undue concentration level and the possibility of unfair competition with its state-owned carriers. Therefore, Maersk and MSC decided to form a smaller alliance called 2M, which began operations in 2015. Further, CMA CGM, China Shipping Container Lines, and United Arab Shipping Company (UASC) formed an alliance called Ocean Three, which became the Ocean Alliance in 2017 when COSCO joined. As of 2022, three major alliances (2M, Ocean Alliance, and The Alliance) controlled 83% of container shipping capacity. With the capacity shortages and rate increases related to demand surges following the COVID-19 pandemic, alliances were subject to additional scrutiny from regulating agencies such as the Federal Maritime Commission (United States) and the Directorate-General for Competition (European Union). ## c. Shipping network configuration Carriers are responsible for establishing and maintaining profitable routes in a competitive environment. This involves [three major decisions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2295) about how such a maritime network takes shape: - **Frequency of service**. Frequency is linked with more timely services since the same port will be called more often. A weekly call is considered to be the minimum level of service, but since a growing share of production is time-dependent, there is pressure from customers to have a higher frequency of service. A trade-off between the frequency and the capacity of service is commonly observed. This trade-off is often mitigated on routes that service significant markets since larger ships can be used with the benefits of economies of scale. - **Fleet and vessel size**. Due to the basic maritime economics, large ships, such as post-Panamax containerships, offer significant advantages over long distances. Shipping lines will obviously try to use this advantage over their long-distance routes, keeping smaller ships for feeder services. In addition, a large enough number of vessels must be allocated to ensure a good frequency of service. Shippers also try to have ships of similar size along their long-distance inter-range routes to keep their operations consistent. This is not an easy undertaking since economies of scale force the introduction of ever-larger ships, which cannot be added all at once due to extensive financial requirements and the capacity of shipbuilders to provide them. So, each time a bigger ship is introduced on a regular route, the distribution system must adapt to this change in capacity. - **Number of port calls**. A route that involves fewer port calls is likely to have lower average transit times and require fewer ships. Conversely, too few port calls could involve difficulties for the cargo to reach inland destinations remote from the serviced ports. This implies additional delays and potentially the loss of customers. An appropriate selection of port calls along a maritime facade will help ensure access to a vast commercial hinterland. Since many container shipping services have an inter-range structure, [cabotage imposes some restrictions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2299) on which port of entry can be used and if transshipment is necessary between a major deepsea service and a feeder service to small ports. The global maritime transportation system has substantially evolved to form **networks within networks**, connecting circulation systems and enabling global trade. Without maritime shipping, globalization could not have taken place to such an extent in part because of the capacity of maritime shipping to carry large quantities of goods across distances. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/factors_maritime_shipping_networks.png?resize=900%2C397&ssl=1 "Factors Impacting Maritime Shipping Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/maritime-shipping-networks-factors/shipping_networks_factors/)Factors Impacting Maritime Shipping Networks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/inter_range_cabotage2.png?resize=900%2C548&ssl=1 "Inter-Range Services and Cabotage | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/inter-range-cabotage/inter_range_cabotage2/)Inter Range Services and Cabotage--- ## Related Topics - [6.3 – Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/ "6.3 – Port Terminals") - [Interoceanic Passages](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/) (PEMP external link) - [Maritime Shipping and International Trade](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/) (PEMP external link) ## Bibliography - Brooks, M. (2000) Sea Change in Liner Shipping. New York: Pergamon. - Couper, A.D. (1972) The Geography of Sea Transport, London: Hutchinson. - Ducruet, C. (2016) Maritime Networks: Spatial Structures and Time Dynamics, London: Routledge. - Ducruet, C. (ed) (2018) Advances in Shipping Data Analysis and Modeling: Tracking and Mapping Maritime Flows in the Age of Big Data, New York: Routledge. - Ducruet, C. and T. Notteboom (2012) “The Worldwide Maritime Network of Container Shipping: Spatial Structure and Regional Dynamics”, Global Networks, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 395-423. - Fremont, A. (2007) Le monde en boîtes. Conteurisation et mondialisation, Paris: Les collections de l’Inrets. - Hansen, C.O. et al. (2016), “Arctic Shipping – Commercial Opportunities and Challenges”, CBS Maritime, Copenhagen. - International Transportation Forum (2015) The Impact of Mega Ships: Case-Specific Policy Analysis., Paris: OECD. - Levinson, M. (2006) The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, Princeton: Princeton University Press. - Notteboom, T. and R. Konings (2004) “Network dynamics in container transport by barge”, Belgeo, Vol. 5, pp. 461-477. - Notteboom, T. (2004) “Container Shipping and Ports: An Overview”, Review of Network Economics, Vol. 3, No.2, pp. 86-106. - Notteboom, T. (2006) “The Time Factor in Liner Shipping Services”, Maritime Economics & Logistics, Vol. 8, pp. 19-39. - Notteboom, T. (2013) “Maritime Transportation and Seaports”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2009) “The Future of Containerization: Perspectives from Maritime and Inland Freight Distribution”, Geojoural, Vol. 74, No. 1, pp. 7-22. - Notteboom, T., A. Pallis and J-P Rodrigue (2022) Port Economics, Management and Policy, New York: Routledge. - Piet, M. and K. Betz (2024) Flags of Convenience: Below the surface of the global shipping industry. - Rodrigue, J-P and T. Notteboom (2009) “The Geography of Containerization: Half a Century of Revolution, Adaptation and Diffusion”, Geojournal, Vol. 74, No. 1, pp. 1-5. - Song, D-W and P.M. Panayides (2012) Maritime Logistics: Contemporary Issues. Wagon Lane, Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing. - Stopford, M. (2009) Maritime Economics, Third Edition, London: Routledge. - Talley, W.K. (ed) (2012) The Blackwell Companion to Maritime Economics, New York: Wiley-Blackwell. - UNCTAD (various years) Review of Maritime Transport, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Facilities of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/facilities-port-authority-new-york-map/) **Published:** February 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map_panynj.png?resize=850%2C1049&ssl=1 "Facilities of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Facilities of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey*Source: PANYNJ; Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Transportation Atlas of the United States.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_PANYNJ_-Basemap.pdf) The PANYNJ has an extensive array of assets covering several transportation modes, including airports, bridges and tunnels, transit rail systems, port terminals, and real estate. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/facilities-port-authority-new-york-map/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/facilities-port-authority-new-york-map/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/facilities-port-authority-new-york-map/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/facilities-port-authority-new-york-map/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Packaging](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/types-packaging/) **Published:** November 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_packaging.png?resize=900%2C302&ssl=1 "Types of Packaging | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of PackagingThe purpose of packaging is to ensure the load integrity of the product so that it can be safely stored, transported, and sold. It involves three tiers: - **Primary packaging**. The packaging surrounding and being in direct contact with the product. Cans, bottles, jars, bags, boxes, and warps are commonly used to directly protect against damage and contamination and are a measure of itemization by number, volume, or mass. It is designed for display and shelf storage, allowing the end consumer to carry the item directly. - **Secondary packaging**. The packaging used to bundle products so that they can be handled, stored, or displayed. Boxes and bags are the most common packaging, which can usually be handled manually. - **Tertiary packaging**. The packaging used to bundle products for the main purpose of transport and storage. Boxes and, particularly, pallets are the most common forms. The container can be considered the ultimate form of tertiary packaging since it is a package used to transport bundled cargo. Most of this packaging cannot be handled manually and requires mechanized equipment such as forklifts. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/types-packaging/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/types-packaging/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/types-packaging/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/types-packaging/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Water Masses of the World](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/main-water-masses-world/) **Published:** August 21, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map-oceanic-masses.png?resize=900%2C457&ssl=1 "Main Water Masses of the World | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Water Masses of the World[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Oceanic-Masses.pdf) Water masses cover about 71% of the surface of the world and can be divided into four major categories (excluding lakes): - **Oceans**. Very large continuous bodies of salt water that are bounded by continents. They can be latitudinally divided for convenience, such as for the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (North and South). They are longitudinally divided by the narrowest segment from a southern continent (South America, Africa, or Oceania) and Antarctica. - **Seas**. Bodies of salt water that are partially or fully enclosed by land. The Mediterranean is considered a sea because of its full enclosure. - **Gulf and bays**. Oceanic or sea inlets with gulfs considered larger and deeper than bays, but gulfs have narrower entrances. - **Channels, straits and passages**. Narrow bodies of salt water connecting oceans. Straits are comparatively short, channels of medium length, and passages are long. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/main-water-masses-world/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/main-water-masses-world/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/main-water-masses-world/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/main-water-masses-world/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Typical Car and Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/car-truck-trips-temporal/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/car_truck_daily_trip_distribution.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Typical Car and Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Typical Car and Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day*Source: US Census Bureau. American Community Survey Reports, Commuting in the United States: 2009. & Commodity Flow Survey data. For shipments less than 50 miles on all modes.* In urban areas, trucks and cars share the roads, implying that when there is congestion, the road capacity used by one mode is at the expense of the other. Although cars and trucks have different trip distribution patterns and are related to different economic and social activities, they both have peak periods of activity between 8 AM and noon on a typical weekday. Most trucks make their deliveries immediately after the morning peak hour when businesses are open and able to receive shipments. Morning deliveries are often preferred since stores are less busy with more employees available for unloading, unpacking, and stacking. Goods are thus available for the more active afternoon and evening retail activities. This pattern compounds congestion problems during the morning and afternoon since they correspond to periods of high activity for both car and truck movements. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/car-truck-trips-temporal/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/car-truck-trips-temporal/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/car-truck-trips-temporal/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/car-truck-trips-temporal/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.20 - The St. Lawrence Seaway and Regional Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ##### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The St. Lawrence Seaway is an inland navigation system linking the St. Lawrence River and its oceanic access to the Great Lakes through channels and locks. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Rationale and Construction](#1_Rationale_and_Construction) - [2. Sections of the Seaway](#2_Sections_of_the_Seaway) - [3. Navigation and Cargo Carried](#3_Navigation_and_Cargo_Carried) # 1. Rationale and Construction The [St. Lawrence Seaway](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9075) is one of the world’s most comprehensive inland navigation systems, the outcome of centuries of navigation and waterway developments along with the [St. Lawrence and Great Lakes system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9082) where many segments are shared hydrological assets between Canada and the United States. By the [19th century](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1128), a large number of canals were being built to improve inland accessibility, particularly the Erie Canal, completed in 1825, which competed directly with the prominence of the St. Lawrence in accessing the Great Lakes. With the construction of the Lachine Canal in 1825 and the Welland Canal in 1829, in addition to [specific canals and locks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9091) linking it to Lake Ontario, the St. Lawrence remained a competitive corridor to access the North American Midwest. However, by the late 19th century, rail transportation assumed prominence, rendering several canal systems uncompetitive, many of which were closed down. The only way that inland navigation could endure was with better economies of scale, which could only be achieved along the St. Lawrence but required substantial infrastructure investments. The establishment of the **International Joint Commission** in 1909 to help resolve water development issues between Canada and the United States provided renewed impetus. After conducting a series of studies about the system, its constraints, and its commercial potential, the commission recommended the construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway. However, two groups lobbied against the project since it was perceived to have a negative impact on their businesses: - **Railway companies** saw the seaway as a direct competitor for their inland freight distribution system in the Midwest. By the early 20th century, rail development had reached a phase of maturity in North America and was beginning a phase of rationalization. - **East coast ports**, with the exception of those along St. Lawrence (mainly Montreal), that also saw the seaway as a competitor. Additionally, World War I and the Great Depression of the 1930s created a negative commercial environment. By the late 1940s, pressures were mounting to improve the waterways, particularly since it also involved the opportunity to build new hydroelectric power plants. Still, the project was rejected by the US Senate until 1954, when the Canadian government declared that it would unilaterally build the Seaway on its side of the border. Initial construction work thus began in 1954 with the full cooperation of the Canadian and American governments. Moving 192.5 million cubic meters of earth, pouring 5.7 million cubic meters of concrete, building 72 km of dikes, and digging 110 km of channels were impressive tasks. The goal was to replace a 14-foot (4.3 meters) deep waterway with 30 locks with a 27-foot (8.3 meters) deep channel with 15 locks. Each lock has 766 feet (233.5 meters) of usable length, 80 feet (24.4 meters) of usable width, and 30 feet (9.1 meters) of depth. One of the first challenges was the **relocation of the neighboring population** of the international rapids, which was to be flooded to provide sufficient depth as well as power pools. In total, 260 square kilometers of land were expropriated. The American side did not present many relocation problems since it was sparsely settled, but the more densely populated Canadian side included several riverside towns such as Iroquois, Morrisburg, Ingleside, and Long Sault. Overall, the flooding of this section involved the relocation of 6,500 residents to new towns built at the expense of the project. Different sections of the Seaway were subject to different construction works depending on the **power generation potential**. The International Rapids section was particularly subject to [hydroelectric power projects](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-power-project-1954/ "Inauguration Ceremonies of the St. Lawrence Power Project, 1954") such as the Saunders-Moses Dam and a set of spillway dams (Long Sault Dam) and control dams (Iroquois Dam). Provincial (or State) governments were mainly responsible for financing and undertaking power projects (Hydro Ontario and New York State Power Authority), while federal governments were concerned with navigation projects. Navigation work mainly included building locks and dredging channels to the 27 feet (8.3 meters) standard. In the International Rapids section, the United States built and dredged a 16 km long channel with two 800 feet (244 meters) long, 80 feet (24.5 meters) wide, and 30 feet (9.2 meters) deep locks, the **Dwight D. Eisenhower** and the **Bertrand H. Snell** Locks. The Thousand Islands sections between Lake Ontario and the International Rapids were also dredged to 27 feet by Canadian and American Governments. A significant share of the work was undertaken by the Canadian Government with the construction of a lock (**Iroquois Lock**) to bypass the Iroquois Dam, the enlargement of the Beauharnois Canal (25.7 km long) and two locks ([Upper and Lower Beauharnois](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9107)) and a new 32 km canal to bypass the Lachine Rapids near Montreal and which included two locks (**St. Lambert** and **[Cote Ste. Catherine](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9107)**). Lake St. Francois and Lake St. Louis were also dredged, as well as the Welland Canal, which was deepened to 27 feet. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-St-Lawrence-Seaway.png?resize=900%2C645&ssl=1 "The St. Lawrence Seaway | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-map/map_slseaway/)The St Lawrence Seaway[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/st_lawrence_great_lakes_system.png?resize=900%2C427&ssl=1 "The St. Lawrence / Great Lakes System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-great-lakes-system/stlawrencesys-2/)The St Lawrence Great Lakes System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/locks_montreal_ontario_1901.png?resize=900%2C717&ssl=1 "Locks of the Montreal - Lake Ontario Section of the Seaway prior to 1901 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/locks-system-montreal-ontario-1901/locksystemmontrealontario1901-2/)Locks of the Montreal Lake Ontario Section of the Seaway prior to 1901[![Inauguration St Lawrence Power Close 1954](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/inauguration_st_lawrence_power_close_1954.jpg?resize=440%2C328&ssl=1 "Inauguration Ceremonies of the St. Lawrence Power Project, 1954 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-power-project-1954/ec_slpower1954/)Inauguration Ceremonies of the St Lawrence Power Project 1954[![Construction Ste Catherine Lock 1958](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/construction_ste_catherine_lock_1958.jpg?resize=526%2C390&ssl=1 "Construction of the Ste. Catherine Lock, 1958 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-catherine-locks-seaway-1958/ec_stecath1958/)Construction of the Ste Catherine Lock 1958[![First Ship St Lambert Lock 1959](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/first_ship_st_lambert_lock_1959.jpg?resize=663%2C631&ssl=1 "First Ship to Cross the St. Lambert Lock, April 1959 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lambert-locks-seaway-1959/ec_inau1959/)First Ship to Cross the St Lambert Lock April 1959The St. Lawrence Seaway was opened to commercial navigation on [April 25th, 1959](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9116). The official opening ceremonies were held three months later, on June 26th, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II (representing Canada) and President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Overall, the project cost **470 million US dollars**, of which $336.2 million was paid by Canada and $133.8 million by the United States. Income from the operations of the Seaway is thus shared accordingly between the two federal agencies responsible for its management and upkeep; the Saint Lawrence Seaway Management Corporation (Canada) and the Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation (United States). # 2. Sections of the Seaway The St. Lawrence Seaway is only one part of a [greater navigation system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9128) and should not be confused with the St. Lawrence River or the Great Lakes. It is overall a relatively small section of the system that begins in Montreal, goes through Lake Ontario, and ends at Lake Erie at the outcome of the Welland Canal. Navigation beyond that point is no longer considered part of the seaway. The St. Lawrence Seaway can be divided into four major sections corresponding to specific infrastructures. - **Lachine Section**. This 50 km section is the doorway of the St. Lawrence Seaway, which begins around 1 km east of the Jacques Cartier Bridge. Its main purpose is to bypass the Lachine Rapids, the first major natural obstacle along the St. Lawrence. Instead of using the north shore, as the Lachine Canal did, the Seaway passes through the south shore, a much longer route. The main rationale was to avoid passing through the congested Montreal harbor and the St. Mary’s Current. Also, the south shore presented fewer impacts over the waterfront as well as better integration with existing transport infrastructure. Two locks provide a 45-foot (13-meter) climb, the **St. Lambert Lock** and the **Cote Ste. Catherine Lock**. - **Beauharnois Section**. This 74 km section extends from the end of Lake St. Louis to Cornwall in Ontario. It serves two major purposes, which are navigation and power generation. Two 42 feet (12 meters) lift dams were built, the **Upper and Lower Beauharnois locks**, permitting the Seaway to cross the Cascades, Split Rock, Cedars, and Coteau Rapids between Lake St. Louis and Lake St. Francois. The second purpose is a power dam taking advantage of an 80-foot (24-meter) drop, the Beauharnois Power Plant. This power plant is supported by a set of dams that regulate the flow along this section. - **International Section**. Such as the Beauharnois section, the International section has been the object of navigation and power works, but this section is jointly administered by Canada and the United States. It is 71 km long and consists of a set of dams (Long Sault and Iroquois), powerhouses, locks ([Iroquois](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9123), **Dwight. D. Eisenhower,** and **Bertrand H. Snell**), channels, and dikes, creating vast power pools. This section climbs 93 feet (28 meters). It can be subdivided between the International Rapids and Thousand Islands sections. - **Great Lakes Channels**. This section is composed of a series of channels and locks linking the Great Lakes together. The **Welland Canal** is the most significant, with eight locks climbing 326 feet (99 meters) from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, where the seaway ends. The channels linking Lake Erie and Lake Huron (St. Claire River, Lake St. Claire and Detroit River), Lake Huron and Lake Michigan (Straits of Mackinac), and Lake Huron and Lake Superior (St. Mary’s River and **Soo Locks**, a 6 meters climb) are also part of this system, but not considered to be part of the seaway. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/technical_st_lawrence_seaway.png?resize=900%2C896&ssl=1 "Technical Characteristics of the St. Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/technical-characteristics-saint-lawrence-seaway/technicalslseaway-2/)Technical Characteristics of the St Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Iroquois_Locks.jpg?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Iroquois Locks, St. Lawrence Seaway | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/iroquois-locks-seaway/iroquois_locks/)Iroquois Locks St Lawrence SeawayFurther, the St. Lawrence is part of the [North American system of river and coastal navigation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2098), which is complementing the existing railway and highway systems. # 3. Navigation and Cargo Carried The Seaway is generally open for navigation from **late March / early April to mid-December**, which is about 275 days. It can accommodate ships up to 766 feet (233.5 meters) long and 80 feet (24.4 meters) wide in the range of 30,000 dwt. The draft of the Seaway was upgraded in 2006 to 26’6″, and there are plans to expand the draft to 26’9″. Each additional inch of draft enables a ship to carry an additional 500 tons. A typical ship designed to use the Seaway, a Laker, can carry about 25,000 tons and is 222 meters long and 23 meters wide. This ship class is also referred to as Seawaymax since it was designed to fit specifically in the Seaway’s locks. It takes 8 to 10 days for a ship to go from Lake Superior to the Atlantic Ocean. On the [Welland Canal](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9142), the slowest section of the seaway, the average transit time is about 11 hours. For the Montreal-Lake Ontario section, the average transit time is 24 hours upstream and 22 hours downstream. The difference is mainly attributed to the downstream river current. Pleasure boats can also use the Seaway to go from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, but priority is obviously given to commercial ships at locks. At the end of the first navigation season on December 3rd, 1959, 6,595 ships passed through the Seaway, handling a total of 18.7 million metric tons. The tonnage passed 20 million in 1961, 30 million in 1964, 40 million in 1966, and 50 million in 1973. In 1977, a record was reached with 57.4 million metric tons being handled by the Seaway, and since then, this record has remained unsurpassed. On average, 50 million tons of cargo are handled each year (over a period of 8 months), and the majority of the flows are downbound (from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic). Over one billion tons of cargo passed over the Seaway over its first 25 years of operation (1959-84), and by 1997, this number had reached more than **two billion tons** handled by more than 250,000 vessel trips. Still, the Seaway remains used at about 50% of its design capacity. It is estimated that the St. Lawrence Seaway generates around 40,000 jobs and 2 billion dollars of annual personal income, but its most significant contribution is related to the [cargo it handles](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic/ "Tonnage Transiting Through the St. Lawrence Seaway, 1960-2022"), supporting a vast array of **industries**. The [system carries a composition](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic-composition/ "Composition of the Traffic Transiting Through the St. Lawrence Seaway, 1978-2022") of **bulk cargo** such as grain, iron ore, coal, and petroleum products and **general cargo** such as containers, steel, and machinery. The first category accounts for 90% of the annual tonnage, while the second accounts for the remaining 10%. - **Grain**. It is the most important cargo in terms of volume and accounts for 40% of all the cargo handled. Most of the grain comes from the American and Canadian prairies (mostly Manitoba and Saskatchewan) and is exported to international markets through the Seaway. Wheat accounts for 50% of the total grain, while corn and soybeans take 30%. Barley, oats, rye, and other grains account for the 20% that remains. Several ports along the Seaway have grain-handling infrastructures. - **Iron Ore**. Iron ore is the second most important commodity, accounting for a third of all the cargo handled. It is generally shipped from mines in Labrador, Quebec, Ontario, and Minnesota (Mesabi Range) to ports along the St. Lawrence or the Great Lakes and then to [steel mills](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2215). Pittsburgh was (and is still) one of the most significant steel production centers of the Great Lakes. - **Coal**. Coal is used for steel making or to heat thermal plants for electricity production. The Appalachians are a major coal extraction region of the United States, and coal is then shipped from the mines to the ports of Lake Erie and then to other plants of the region or the international market. - **Steel**. With 10% of the total annual tonnage, steel is mainly used by heavy industries such as construction and the automotive industry. The St. Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes are thus mainly used to ship **heavy raw materials,** and limited general cargo traffic occurs past Montreal (a major container port). One of the main reasons behind such a characteristic is that general cargo is now shipped through **containers**. The railway system is faster at shipping containers to eastern and western seaboard ports than at transporting containers through the seaway. For instance, it takes a little more than 24 hours to transit a container by rail from Chicago to Montreal, while this operation would take around one week through the Great Lakes and the Seaway. Additionally, the fact that the Seaway is closed for about three months is incompatible with supply chain management, which requires constant flows. Since the peak season for containerized cargo is mostly between April and November, using the Seaway may represent a niche market for import retail cargo where empty containers could be filled with commodities on the return trip. [![Laker Seaway Montrealpg](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/laker_seaway_montrealpg.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Laker on the Seaway at Montreal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/laker-seaway-montreal/img_2938/)Laker on the Seaway at Montreal[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Tadoussac-4-24-07-jm.jpg?resize=900%2C642&ssl=1 "Laker Ship Supplying a Steel Mill in Hamilton, Ontario | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/laker-steel-mill-hamilton/tadoussac-4-24-07-jm/)Laker Ship Supplying a Steel Mill in Hamilton Ontario[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/welland_niagara_escarpment.jpg?resize=850%2C636&ssl=1 "Welland Canal at the Niagara Escarpment | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/welland-canal-niagara/welland_niagara_escarpment/)Welland Canal at the Niagara Escarpment[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/traffic_type_st_lawrence_seaway.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Composition of the Traffic Transiting Through the St. Lawrence Seaway, 1978-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic-composition/traffic_type_st_lawrence_seaway/)Composition of the Traffic Transiting Through the St Lawrence Seaway[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/st_lawrence_seaway_transits.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Tonnage Transiting Through the St. Lawrence Seaway, 1960-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic/trafficseaway/)Tonnage Transiting Through the St Lawrence Seaway[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Fortunagracht_Cleveland.jpg?resize=850%2C567&ssl=1 "Ocean-Going Cargo Ship at the Port of Cleveland | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/fortuna-gracht-cleveland/fortunagracht_cleveland-2/)Ocean Going Cargo Ship at the Port of ClevelandThey were oceanic containership services using the Seaway in the 1960s and 1970s with ships of about 800 TEUs, mostly with the UK. They were abandoned afterward as containerships got bigger and as specialized container terminals started to emerge. In 2009, a container barge service with a weekly rotation between Hamilton and Montreal was inaugurated but canceled the year after because of the lack of demand. In 2014, a new oceangoing service between the [Port of Cleveland and Antwerp](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/fortuna-gracht-cleveland/ "Ocean-Going Cargo Ship at the Port of Cleveland") was inaugurated. It combines breakbulk and container cargoes on specifically designed self-unloading ships. The extent to which the Seaway can be used for container transportation and its role in North American freight transportation remains to be seen. --- ## Related Topics - [Chapter 1.6 Interoceanic Passages](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/) (PEMP) - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260) - [B.3 – Gateways and Transport Corridors in North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7652) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/?share=reddit) - --- ### [About](https://transportgeography.org/about/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ### Citation Information cited from this web site should be referred to as either: - Rodrigue, J-P (2024) The Geography of Transport Systems, Sixth Edition, New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003343196 - Rodrigue, J-P (2024) The Geography of Transport Systems, Texas A&M University – Galveston, https://transportgeography.org. ### Overview The Geography of Transport Systems represents a project that has been ongoing for more than 25 years. It was initially funded by **Industry Canada** (1997-98) “NoteMakers: Development of World Wide Web-Based Post-Secondary Education Courses”, but rapidly expanded well beyond its initial scope, which was to provide basic multimedia information about transport geography. The site has become one of the most widely used transportation sources on the Internet, averaging about 240,000 unique visitors per month. It totals more than 1,250 independent web pages. It is continuously being updated as new material becomes available and web design technology evolves. ### Chronology - 1997. Project inception funded by Industry Canada. - 1998. “Transport Geography on the Web” online in French and English. - 2000. Site ported to Hofstra University and renamed “The Geography of Transport Systems”. - 2001. Substantial cosmetic changes and integration with Cascading Style Sheets. - 2006. Routledge publishes the first edition of “The Geography of Transport Systems” as a textbook, which contains selected sections of the web site. - 2009. Second edition published. - 2010. Site upgraded with a revamped design, Dynamic Web Templates, and streamlined CSS. - 2012. Site converted to the HTML5/CSS3 standard. - 2013. Third edition published. - 2017. Fourth edition published. - 2018. Site migrated to the WordPress Content Management System with a new domain name: transportgeography.org. - 2020. Fifth edition published. - 2024. Sixth edition published. ### Project Leader - [Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue](https://jeanpaulrodrigue.info/), Professor, Dept of Maritime Business Administration, Texas A&M University-Galveston, USA. Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University, New York, USA. ### Contributors - [Dr. Brian Slack](https://www.concordia.ca/faculty/brian-slack.html), Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Geography, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. - [Dr. Claude Comtois](https://geographie.umontreal.ca/repertoire-departement/professeurs/professeur/in/in13697/sg/Claude%20Comtois/), Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Geography, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. - [Dr. William Anderson](https://www.uwindsor.ca/political-science/355/dr-william-p-anderson), Ontario Research Chair in Cross-Border Transportation Policy, Professor, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, Canada. - [Dr. John Bowen](https://www.cwu.edu/academics/geography/directory/john-bowen.php), Professor, Department of Geography, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington, USA. - [Dr. Cesar Ducruet](https://economix.fr/en/membre/ducruet-cesar), Senior Researcher, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, / EconomiX, Paris, France. - [Dr. Theo Notteboom](https://www.law.ugent.be/maritimeinstitute/members/prof-dr-theo-notteboom), Professor, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium. - [Dr. Shih-Lung Shaw](https://geography.utk.edu/people/instructional-faculty/shaw-shih-lung/), Professor, Dept. of Geography, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/about/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/about/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/about/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/about/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Purchasing Managers Index, 1990-2024](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/purchasing-managers-index/) **Published:** August 3, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pmi.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Purchasing Managers Index, 1990-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Purchasing Managers Index 1990 2024*Source: Institute for Supply Management. Note: Relates to the United States.* Economic cycles and events are related to the level of production within an economy and the reported behavior of key actors involved in making purchasing decisions in the manufacturing sector. The Purchasing Managers Index (PMI) is a diffusion index, implying that it reflects a general direction in manufacturing, growth, or decline, from a large group of observations. It is also considered a **leading indicator**. Based on a survey of a large sample of managers in a wide array of sectors, a score ranging from 0 to 100 is calculated. A value of 50 indicates neutrality, as no change is observed, while a value above 50 indicates growth in purchasing. If the index drops below 50, a contraction is observed. The PMI is subject to notable fluctuations and is a good indicator of economic activities and pressures (demand) on supply chains. When PMI increases rapidly, the transport system faces additional demands to carry cargo, a process often associated with increasing rates. Inversely, when PMI drops sharply, the demand for transportation services declines, leading to excess capacity and declining rates. During the financial crisis of 2008-09, the PMI dropped rapidly to a record low, underlining the sudden and highly stressful impacts of mortgage-related defaults in the financial sector. The steady decline of the PMI during 2018 and through 2019 is mainly related to the trade war between the United States and China, which saw a surge in tariffs. Initially, the COVID-19 pandemic incited a sharp drop in the PMI in March and April 2020, but the situation reversed rapidly with a shift in consumption patterns toward more household goods and strong stimulus packages. By March 2021, the PMI reached record levels, which was reflected in substantial port congestion, container capacity shortages, and shipping rate increases. Then, the index returned to normal as the disruptions were abated. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/purchasing-managers-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/purchasing-managers-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/purchasing-managers-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/purchasing-managers-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Port Sites and Functions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-site-functions/) **Published:** November 19, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_sites_functions.png?resize=900%2C569&ssl=1 "Port Sites and Functions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Port Sites and FunctionsPort location is constrained by two physical characteristics of the **[site](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3250)**. The first involves **land access,** and the second concerns **maritime access**. Both must be jointly satisfied as they are crucial for port operations, which rely on a [maritime / land interface](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3178). This interface takes the form of a buffer along the coastline (or a river depending on the port site) that experiences, due to an appropriate site, the accumulation of port infrastructures. The interface can also be subject to environmental and social conflicts. Thus, both land and maritime access can impair port operations and port development since a port benefiting from good land access but poor maritime access will be facing constraints, and a port that has good maritime access but poor land access. However, maritime access is the attribute that can be mitigated the least. Activities such as dredging and the construction of port facilities are very expensive, underlining the enduring importance of a good port site. Such a site conveys the best marginal utility to port infrastructure investments. Ports are a component of freight distribution as they support export and import activities. They are points of **convergence** (collection) of inland and coastal (shot sea) transportation systems, defining a port’s hinterland. This function may be **direct**, as freight reaches a port directly through road transportation, or **indirect**, as freight reaches a port through an inland port or traffic consolidation at a feeder port and shipped by coastal transportation or short sea shipping. Likewise, ports are points of **distribution** for inland and coastal transportation systems. At the local level, every port provides **services to ships** with berths, docks, navigation channels, and repairs (occasionally), and **services to cargo** with cranes, warehouses, and access to inland distribution systems. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-site-functions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-site-functions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-site-functions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-site-functions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/exclusive-economic-zones/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-EEZ-1024x551.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Exclusive Economic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Exclusive Economic Zones*Source: Flanders Marine Institute (2019). Maritime Boundaries Geodatabase: Maritime Boundaries and Exclusive Economic Zones (200 nm), version 11.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Exclusive-Economic-Zones.pdf) The late 20th century saw a period of new definitions and disputes regarding marine boundaries. Traditionally, each coastal state claimed sovereignty over a territorial sea within a relatively short distance of its coastline. Fishing disputes in the 1970s led some states to claim a much larger marine territory. In 1982, the Third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) set a number of territorial definitions that have been broadly adopted. Full sovereignty is extended to a **territorial sea** extending 12 nautical miles (about 19 kilometers) from the coast. In addition, control over marine resources is extended to an **Exclusive Economic Zone** (EEZ) of 200 nautical miles (370 kilometers) beyond the territorial sea of a nation’s coastline (land at lowest tide). Not surprisingly, this has led to a proliferation of disputes since the EEZs of two or more states frequently overlap, especially where states claim sovereignty over small islands. Since many nations, particularly groups of islands, are in proximity, it is common for EEZs to intersect (see the above map). There are three main types of EEZ boundaries. - **Treaty boundaries**. Have been formally recognized by neighboring countries and are thus not contested. - **Median line boundaries**. Calculated when EEZ boundaries are not defined by a treaty or agreement between two or more coastal states. They connect points equidistant from the coastlines of both coastal states. - **Disputed boundaries** (unsettled). While many EEZ boundaries have been recognized by the concerned countries, a few are being disputed. In some cases, disputed boundaries have led to large areas of disputed EEZ, notably the Spratly Islands on the South China Sea, portions of which are being contested by China, Vietnam, Malaysia, and the Philippines. From a transportation perspective, an important distinction is that vessels of other states have the freedom of navigation within the EEZ. While they also have the more restricted right to “innocent passage” through the territorial sea, the coastal state has much greater authority over foreign vessels in that zone. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/exclusive-economic-zones/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/exclusive-economic-zones/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/exclusive-economic-zones/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/exclusive-economic-zones/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World's Major Container Ports, 2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/) **Published:** November 20, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-2020.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "World's Major Container Ports, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Major Container Ports 2020*Source: data collected from port authorities and regional port associations. Only consider ports with traffic above 500,000 TEU in 2020.* The world container port system is characterized by a high level of traffic concentration, with the 25 largest container ports handling more than 49.8% of global traffic in 2020. The world’s largest container ports underline the intricate relationships between export-oriented ports (e.g. Shanghai and Hong Kong), import-oriented ports (e.g. Los Angeles / Long Beach), and intermediary hubs (e.g. Singapore and Dubai). There is also an emerging geography of container ports involving a specialization between container ports acting as **[gateways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1416)** and **[intermediate hubs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3462)**. Gateway ports command access to large manufacturing or market regions and are the spearhead of long-distance corridors. Hong Kong, Los Angeles, and Rotterdam are notable examples of ports that command access to a vast and complex hinterland. Intermediate hub ports (or offshore hubs) act as intermediary locations where containers are transshipped between different segments of the global maritime transport system in a manner similar to hubs in air transportation. Singapore and Dubai are among the most prominent transshipment hubs, each servicing a specific transshipment market (Southeast Asian and the Middle East / South Asia, respectively). The recent changes in containerized traffic reflect the shifting commercial dynamics in the global economy. North American ports have experienced limited changes, partly due to peaking consumption levels, with port demand substantially impacted by the recession of 2008-10. By 2015, container traffic volumes were barely back to their 2008 levels. Japanese ports experienced significant growth in the 1970s and 1980s, supplemented by Korean and Taiwanese ports in the 1990s. The most significant recent growth dynamic took place along the Chinese coast, where during the 2000s, the export-oriented process was in full gear. Ports of the northern European range, mostly Antwerp and Rotterdam, have grown partly due to extensive hinterland accessibility deep inside Europe. There is also a “transshipment belt” ranging from the Strait of Malacca to the Strait of Gibraltar that has experienced notable traffic growth. It particularly concerns Singapore, Dubai, the outlet of the Suez Canal (e.g. Port Said), and the Strait of Gibraltar (Tangier Med, Algeciras, and Valencia). South American ports are also actively growing through economic growth (strengthening of the hinterland) and transshipment (Panama, Cartagena, Callao). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/?share=reddit) - --- ### [6.5 - Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** John Bowen **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. John Bowen and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > An airport is a facility where aircraft can take off and land. They usually consist of hard-surfaced landing strips, a control tower, hangars, and accommodations for passengers and cargo. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Airports: Global Reach, Local Impacts](#1_Airports_Global_Reach_Local_Impacts) - [2. Airport Sites](#2_Airport_Sites) - [3. Keeping Pace: Airports and Delay](#3_Keeping_Pace_Airports_and_Delay) - [4. Airports and Regional Development](#4_Airports_and_Regional_Development) # 1. Airports: Global Reach, Local Impacts The rapid expansion of air passengers and air freight flows fostered by globalization has increased the importance and pressure on the **global system of airports**. That system played a key role in the early spread of COVID-19, and the emptying out of airports in early 2020 was an early signal of the profound impacts of the pandemic on the air transport industry. On the eve of the pandemic, airports were more prominent than ever before in the volumes of traffic they handled, their spatial extent, the distances that separated them from the cities they serve, their costs and economic impacts, their social importance, their environmental externalities, and the political controversies they engendered. Ironically, the global importance of airports has exacerbated the local conflicts they provoke in terms of required land, surrounding commercial and manufacturing developments, ground traffic, and aircraft noise. There is a large variation in the amount of [passenger](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3730 "World’s Largest Passenger Airports") and [freight](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3737 "World’s Largest Freight Airports") traffic handled by airports, underlining a [hierarchy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=24034 "Factors Impacting Airport Traffic") that can be explained by four major factors: - **Demand pattern**. The traffic an airport handles is directly influenced by the population, income, commercial intensity, and the level of touristic activity of the city it serves. The population also influences freight traffic as it consumes goods carried by air cargo. The presence of light manufacturing activities is also a factor associated with the demand for air cargo capabilities. Combining these factors is associated with the demand (generation and attraction) of a substantial amount of air traffic. - **Network connectivity**. The decision made by airlines to select hubs within their network substantially impacts the traffic handled by airports. A connecting flight involves a double count (landing and taking off), boosting airport traffic figures. - **Competing airports**. If a metropolitan area is serviced by more than one airport, traffic gets diluted since users have more choices, and connectivity is more challenging to establish. Therefore, proximity to other airports can impose limitations on traffic growth. - **Physical capacity**. Airports have a physical capacity related to the number and length of their runways and terminals. An airport unable to significantly expand its footprint (additional runways and terminals) will not be able to grow beyond a certain threshold, requiring the construction of a new airport at another location. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/largest_passenger_airports2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World's Largest Passenger Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Largest Passenger Airports![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Passengers-Airports-2018.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Passenger Traffic at the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Passenger Traffic at the Worlds Largest Airports 2018![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/largest_freight_airports2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World's Largest Freight Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Largest Freight Airports![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Freight-AIrports-2018.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Freight Traffic at the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Freight Traffic at the Worlds Largest Airports 2018![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/factors_impacting_airport_traffic.png?resize=900%2C543&ssl=1 "Factors Impacting Airport Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Factors Impacting Airport Traffic![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Passengers-Metropolitan-2018-1.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Airport Passenger Traffic by Metropolitan Area | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Airport Passenger Traffic by Metropolitan Area 2018![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Freight-Metropolitan-2018-1.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Air Cargo Traffic by Metropolitan Area | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Air Cargo Traffic by Metropolitan Area 2018![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/geographical_scales_airport_location.png?resize=900%2C398&ssl=1 "Geographical Scales of Airport Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Geographical Scales of Airport LocationA fundamental feature of airports is the degree to which they are embedded at [several scales](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3724): - **Global.** Airports are key articulation points in the circulatory system of the global economy. They mediate the flows of passengers and freight. The importance of an airport in this regard is a function of its [centrality and its intermediacy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3130). The former refers to a node’s role as an origin and destination gateway to a surrounding region, and the latter refers to the degree to which a node serves as an interchange between different regions. The most important passenger and freight airports enjoy centrality within one of the world’s foremost city regions, intermediacy among key markets, or both. Global outsourcing and offshoring have increased the importance of intermediacy on a global scale. For example, one factor propelling the growth of Dubai as an air transport hub is the fact with ultra-long-range aircraft like the B787 and the A350, almost any two locations on Earth can be linked via a stop at Dubai International Airport. - **Regional / National**. While globe-straddling flights have garnered a lot of attention (e.g., Qantas Airways’ launch of the first nonstop flight between Australia and London in 2018), most flights do not cross international boundaries, and an even higher proportion (about 80 percent) stay within the same region. At this scale, the network of airports helps tie together nations and regions. For instance, the dense intra-regional network of flights through the nearly 300 airports with commercial services in Southeast Asia lace together the economies of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). - **Local**. Airports, especially large ones, are defining features of the communities in which they are set. A large airport generates thousands of jobs directly and more via forward and backward linkages. For Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport, it was estimated that 65,000 people were employed at the airport in 2013. For every person employed directly, about one and a half more were employed in the Greater Amsterdam Area by firms connected to the airport. These connections took the form of forward linkages (i.e. businesses for which the airport is a supplier, such as local tourist attractions and logistics facilities) and backward linkages (i.e. businesses for which the airport is a customer, such as fuel suppliers and construction firms). Airports are not just features of a community’s economic geography, however. An airport the size of Schiphol is a critically important source of noise pollution and other local environmental effects, a large consumer of land, and a signature piece of the built environment. Indeed, the [newest airport terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3755) feature [striking roofs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=14842) and are impressive architectural achievements. The global, regional, and local character of airports cannot be separated. For instance, large corporate headquarters have a pronounced tendency to **cluster in cities with good international air accessibility**. For instance, there is a strong correlation between the [number of headquarters](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3777) and the number of airline passengers in US metropolitan areas. The success of cities such as Dallas (including airport-adjacent suburbs like Irving) in attracting headquarters from other, smaller cities illustrates this idea. There is evidence that air accessibility is also a catalyst for jobs in logistics, knowledge-intensive information economy industries, and high-order producer services (e.g., top advertising agencies). The relationship between jobs and air accessibility works in both directions, but it appears that the second direction (i.e. accessibility catalyzing jobs) is stronger. Similarly, the **negative externalities** associated with aviation, especially noise and air pollution, are locally concentrated around airports but stem from flights whose purpose is to transcend the local scale. A 2015 study estimated that aviation emissions globally cause 16,000 premature deaths (mainly due to particulate matter emissions). Almost a third of those deaths are concentrated within 20 kilometers of a commercial airport. The brunt of noise falls even more heavily on the local vicinity of airports. At London’s Heathrow Airport, for instance, tests found that the noise level beneath the flight path of a departing Airbus A350-1000 (a 330-seat airplane) dropped below 85 decibels (about the same volume as a garbage disposal truck) approximately 6 kilometers from the beginning of the takeoff roll. The Airbus [A350](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=14849) was designed for intercontinental flights (e.g., it was used in sectors such as Hong Kong-Madrid and Houston-Doha in mid-2019), but its noise footprint is small and focused on airports and their environs. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/centrality_intermediacy2.png?resize=900%2C542&ssl=1 "Centrality and Intermediacy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/centrality-intermediacy/centrality_intermediacy2/)Centrality and Intermediacy[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0341.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Modern Airport Terminal, Barajas, Madrid, Spain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-terminal-madrid/img_0341/)Modern Airport Terminal Barajas Madrid Spain[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Marrakech_Menara_Airport.jpg?resize=900%2C254&ssl=1 "Marrakech Menara Airport | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/marrakech-menara-airport/1024px-marrakech_menara_airport_1/)Marrakech Menara Airport[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/headquarters_fortune_airports.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Corporate Headquarters and Metropolitan Population, United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/headquarters-airports/headquarters_fortune_airports/)Corporate Headquarters and Metropolitan Population United States[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/1024px-Airbus_A350-941.jpg?resize=900%2C506&ssl=1 "Airbus A350-941 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airbus-a350-941/1024px-airbus_a350-941_f-wwcf_msn002_ila_berlin_2016_17/)Airbus A350 941[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Europe-Airports-Passengers-Freight-1.png?resize=900%2C388&ssl=1 "Passenger and Freight Traffic at European Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/passenge-freight-airports-europe/map-europe-airports-passengers-freight/)Passenger and Freight Traffic at European Airports 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-North-America-Airports-Passengers-Freight-1.png?resize=900%2C388&ssl=1 "Passenger and Freight Traffic at North American Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/passenger-freight-airports-north-america/map-north-america-airports-passengers-freight-2/)Passenger and Freight Traffic at North American Airports 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-East-Southeast-Asia-Airports-Passengers-Freight-1.png?resize=900%2C388&ssl=1 "Passenger and Freight Traffic at East and Southeast Asian Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/passenger-freight-airports-east-asia/map-east-southeast-asia-airports-passengers-freight-2/)Passenger and Freight Traffic at East and Southeast Asian Airports 2018The articulation of airports across several scales exacerbates the potential for significant conflict between those who benefit most from aviation and those who bear the costs. One of the most frequent causes of conflict is the siting of airports. # 2. Airport Sites Airports require very large sites; they need space for the two main components – [runways and terminal buildings](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3784) – as well as for maintenance hangars, parking, and other facilities. The **runway** remains one of the most vital elements of air transportation as it dictates the system’s capacity. While there are considerable variations in the scale of different airports, minimum sizes above 500 hectares represent enormous commitments of urban land. Thus, airports are sited at the periphery of urban areas because such sites offer a balance between available land costs and accessibility to the urban core. Meanwhile, many airports built in the 1940s and 1950s at the periphery of cities eventually found themselves surrounded by subsequent metropolitan developments. Significantly, there have been few new large-scale airport developments in North America since the 1980s. The examples of Denver (whose new airport opened in 1995 far from the city center) and Montreal (whose distant second airport at Mirabel closed to commercial flights in 2004, just thirty years after it opened) illustrate how [difficult and contentious](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3791) such developments have become. The result has been that most airports must adjust to their existing sites by re-configuring runways and renovating existing terminal facilities. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/aiport_components_terminal_configurations.png?resize=900%2C649&ssl=1 "Airport Components and Terminal Configurations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-terminals-configuration/aiport_components_terminal_configurations/)Airport Components and Terminal Configurations[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_airport_location_factors.png?resize=900%2C503&ssl=1 "Basic Airport Location Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-location-factors/basic_airport_location_factors/)Basic Airport Location Factors[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distribution_airports_altitude.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Distribution of Airports by Altitude | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-altitude/distribution_airports_altitude/)Distribution of Airports by Altitude[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dunhuangairport.jpg?resize=600%2C436&ssl=1 "Dun Huang Airfield, China | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/dun-huang-airport/dunhuangairport/)Dun Huang Airfield China[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0300.JPG?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Phonsavan Airfield, Laos | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/phosavan-airfield-laos/phosavan_laos/)Phonsavan Airfield Laos[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/airport_cornisland.jpg?resize=601%2C376&ssl=1 "Basic Airstrip, Corn Island, Nicaragua | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-corn-island/airport_cornisland/)Basic Airstrip Corn Island Nicaragua**Suburbanization**, in general, is the main factor why building major airports with each passing decade has become more challenging, leading to paradoxes. On the one hand, suburbanization implies that a greater share of the metropolitan population lives in peripheral sites, potentially with better accessibility to airports. On the other hand, the land-use footprint of suburban sprawl leaves fewer options available for airport development. Airport site location involves a wide variety of considerations: - **Air transportation forecast demand**. Forecasted demand strongly affects the number and length of runways, the size of airport terminals, and the physical size of the airport itself. Larger aircraft generally require longer runways. For example, about 3,300 meters (10,000 feet) are required for the largest commercial planes to take off at sea level with a maximum payload and full fuel tanks. - **Runway configuration**. About 30 to 60 movements (landings and takeoffs) per hour are possible on a standard commercial runway, depending on the type of plane and weather conditions. However, where runways intersect, capacity is significantly reduced. Thus, the trend for the largest airports is to have parallel runways permitting simultaneous takeoffs and landings. Parallel runway configurations generally demand more space than crossing runways. Denver International Airport, for instance, has four north-south runways and two east-west runways, none of which intersect, and each has a footprint of 3,000 hectares. On the opposite end of the spectrum, runways can be simple strips, allowing only [small](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-corn-island/ "Basic Airstrip, Corn Island, Nicaragua") or [medium-sized](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/phosavan-airfield-laos/ "Phonsavan Airfield, Laos") propeller places to land. - **Altitude**. At higher [altitudes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-altitude/ "Distribution of Airports by Altitude"), a longer runway is required to achieve the same lift because the air density is lower. Sixty percent of all commercial airports, however, are at an altitude of fewer than 500 feet (150 meters). - **Meteorological conditions**. Local variations in prevailing winds and visibility must be considered. Runways are configured to maximize the probability that aircraft take off, land into the wind, and minimize exposure to crosswinds. For instance, at Heathrow Airport, winds are most likely to come out of the east, so its runways have an east-west configuration. Airport sites also vary in their vulnerability to fog and cloud cover. Oakland’s less fogbound airport has gained some business, for instance, especially from low-cost carriers, at the expense of San Francisco International. - **Topography**. The land upon which runways are built must be flat, with no more than a 1 percent slope. Hilly land can be flattened and swampy landfilled, but at a cost. - **Environmental considerations**. Airports have significant effects on local waterways, wildlife, and air quality. In 2018, for instance, France formally shelved plans to build a new airport for the southwestern city of Nantes after years of protests by environmentalists concerned about the loss of wetlands at the site and the airport’s contribution to global climate change. - **Adjacent land uses**. Concerns about noise and other airport impacts have encouraged setting aside buffer areas much larger than runways, and the supporting terminals, taxiways, and other required infrastructure. For instance, the Denver International Airport, completed in 1995, occupies a parcel of land twice the size of Manhattan. In other cases, such as [Dun Huang in China](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/dun-huang-airport/ "Dun Huang Airfield, China"), specific geographical constraints had to be respected, namely that the airport could not consume scarce agricultural land. - **Local accessibility**. At the same time, however, an airport must be accessible to the communities it serves, making its location relative to highways and passenger rail lines important. Of the world’s twenty busiest airports, only two (Istanbul New Airport and Los Angeles International) do not have direct rail access from an airport terminal, and by 2023, even those airports will be linked. Rail access augments the function of an airport as a pole in its regional economy. - **Obstructions**. Beyond the airport perimeter, the proximity of mountains, hills, and heavily built-up areas (as in the case of Hong Kong’s old airport at Kai Tak) complicates airport operations. If approach corridors pass over residential zones, pressures can emerge to restrict operating hours. - **Other airports**. Nearby airports, especially in the same metropolitan area, may limit the available airspace and constrain new airport operations. This is particularly the case in New York, where the controlled airspace of three major airports – John F. Kennedy International, Newark Liberty International, and LaGuardia – and several smaller ones overlap. Many cities around the world are serviced by [more than one airport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3805), usually within a range of 100 to 150 km. Cities such as London, Moscow, San Francisco, Paris, New York, Seoul, Tokyo, Shanghai, and Washington have more than one airport within commuting range. The **increasing physical size of airports** and the difficulty of fitting in with neighboring land uses have encouraged the development of airports at [increasingly remote locations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3832). Indeed, the more recently an airport was constructed, the more likely it is to be located far from the center of the metropolitan area it services. This often requires providing [transit services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/seattle-light-rail-seatac-airport-station/ "Seattle Light Rail – SeaTac Airport Station") such as light rail to connect the airport to central areas. In the most extreme cases, land has been reclaimed from the sea to make space for airports. [Chek Lap Kok](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3813) (Hong Kong) and Changi (Singapore) were built on reclaimed land. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_cbd_airports.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Distance from CBD and Age of the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-distance-cbd/distance_cbd_airports/)Distance from CBD and Age of the Worlds Largest Airports[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hong_kong_chek_lap_kok_terminal.jpg?resize=768%2C441&ssl=1 "Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/sitehongkongairport/hong_kong_airport_terminal_rs-jpg/)Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Light_Rail_SeaTac_Airport_Station.jpg?resize=900%2C672&ssl=1 "Seattle Light Rail - SeaTac Airport Station | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/seattle-light-rail-seatac-airport-station/link_light_rail_134_at_seatac_airport_station/)Seattle Light Rail SeaTac Airport StationAsia is home to several examples of **“airport terraforming”**. Kansai International Airport, for instance, is located entirely on an artificial island in Japan’s Inland Sea. The island, which was a prime contributor to the stratospheric cost of Kansai, is an extraordinary example of the lengths to which airport builders have had to go to meet the spatial requirements of key hub airports. Indeed, four of the most expensive [new airports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3843) in the world, [Hong Kong International](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3813), Kansai International (Osaka), Chubu Centrair International (Nagoya), and Incheon International (Seoul), share three characteristics: their location in fast-growing Asia, proximity to densely populated metropolitan areas, and construction atop land reclaimed from the sea. The Asian airport building boom has a long way to go as air transport demand in the region continues to increase. In 2021, China had 248 airports with scheduled passenger air services, India had 123, and the United States had 650. The state of Odisha in eastern India, with a population of 46 million people, had just four commercial airports in 2021. On the opposite side of the country, Mumbai was the largest city in the world, served by just one runway (its airport has two intersecting runways, but only one can be used at a time). A planned second airport for the mega-city has been repeatedly delayed by opposition from villagers at the proposed site, environmental concerns, and difficulty attracting qualified bidders. **Similar obstacles** have confronted new airport development in more advanced economies. In the United States, Denver International (1995) and Austin-Bergstrom International (a repurposed military airbase, 1999) are the only large airports to have opened in the past quarter century. In Europe, there are just two such airports: Athens International (2001) and the Istanbul New Airport (2019). Airports are political lightning rods, and examples from around the world (including a new airport for Mexico City that was canceled in 2018) illustrate how difficult and contentious such projects can be, especially in democracies. The result has been that most airports must adjust to their existing sites by re-configuring runways and building new terminals, as in Chicago O’Hare International, New York LaGuardia, and London Heathrow. These projects have hardly been free of controversy, however, and are themselves very expensive; Heathrow’s Terminal 5, which opened in 2008, and associated infrastructure cost more than $8 billion. Terminal 5 was also costly in terms of time, with twenty years elapsing between the first planning studies and airport opening. The **long development time** for new airports or airport expansion projects and the tendency for cost and schedule overruns have made it difficult for the world’s air transport system to keep up with demand. # 3. Keeping Pace: Airports and Delay Like international trade, the growth pattern in air transportation is [cyclical](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2373) and subject to phases of growth and decline. About 8,000 passengers per minute took off from a runway somewhere in the world in 2018, underlining the intense use of the world’s airports. In 2008, the comparable figure was fewer than 5,000. Apart from China, the world’s air transport capacity has expanded relatively little during the same decade. The result has been worsening congestion and delay in some of the most densely trafficked sectors. There are two main types of delays experienced by air transport. There are **runway delays** related to the capacity of flights to take off and land under various weather conditions. The usage of airports is generally characterized by [two to four pulses of activity per day](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6933). During peak hours, airport capacity is strained and may require some inbound flights into a waiting pattern for an available landing slot. There are also **land delays** where planes are impaired by taxiing time and the unavailability of gates. Nevertheless, the expansion of air traffic ensures that the building of new runways, new terminals, and new airports will continue. There are a variety of means other than new runways and terminals to meet the needs of the future, including better use of information technology, such as air traffic control systems. The purpose of an airport terminal is to maximize the efficiency of the [vertical (inbound and outbound), and lateral (transits) flows of passengers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3892). Embarking and disembarking planes can be frequent sources of delays. For instance, due to the propensity of passengers to bring carry-on luggage (in part because of check-in luggage fees), flight boarding times have significantly increased. While in the 1970s, it could take about 15 minutes to board a domestic flight of 140 passengers, this figure increased to 30 to 40 minutes in the 2000s. Airlines are trying to find more effective boarding sequences, but a [jetbridge](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3837) (or sky bridge) and a single boarding door constrain further improvements. Some [low-cost airlines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2459) are opting out of jetbridges and boarding using the front and the back doors of the plane, decreasing the plane turnaround time. Failing to keep pace with demand will mean [worsening congestion ](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3866)and the risk of delay in many parts of the global airline industry, inciting many airlines to adapt their schedule. Expansion projects will help, but the lack of additional capacity in many parts of the system means many chokepoints from which delays can propagate. This has become a particular vulnerability within air transportation, notably in systems actively developed around the [hub-and-spoke structure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3861). Any disruption in a hub can have far-reaching consequences on the whole network. In the United States, just over 20 percent of flights were delayed by more than 15 minutes in 2018. Interestingly, this result was better than in 2008, when 24 percent of flights were delayed, but improvements are somewhat misleading. Under pressure to improve on-time performance, airlines have padded their scheduled flight times. For instance, in the late-1990s, a flight from Boston’s Logan International Airport to New York LaGuardia was scheduled for 60 to 70 minutes from gate to gate; by 2019, airlines operating the route scheduled their flights for a duration of 75 to 80 minutes. Partly due to [schedule padding](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2496) like this, 2012 was the first year in which more flights in the US arrived at least 15 minutes early than at least 15 minutes late. The US distinguishes five causes of airport delays. In order of importance in 2018, these were: 1. Late arriving aircraft delay (6.8% of all flights were delayed for this reason). 2. National aviation system delays (6.1%) include, for instance, heavy traffic volumes and air traffic control. 3. Air carrier delay (5.2%) comprising problems under the airline’s control, including maintenance and crew issues. 4. Extreme weather delay (0.7%). 5. Security delay (0.03%). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hourly_activity_level_airports.png?resize=900%2C553&ssl=1 "Hourly Level of Activity at Selected Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/hourly-level-activity-selected-airports/hourly_activity_level_airports/)Hourly Level of Activity at Selected Airports 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vertical_lateral_passenger_airport.png?resize=900%2C414&ssl=1 "Vertical and Lateral Passenger Flows at an Airport Terminal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/passenger-flows-in-an-airport-terminal/passengers_flows/)Vertical and Lateral Passenger Flows at an Airport Terminal[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/on_time_arrivals_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "On-Time Flight Arrivals in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/on-time-arrivals-united-states/on-time_arrivals_us/)On Time Flight Arrivals in the United States 1995 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/airport_hubbing_level.png?resize=900%2C749&ssl=1 "Airport Hubbing Level | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-hubbing/airport_hubbing_level/)Airport Hubbing Level[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US-Pre-Clearance-Airports.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Customs Pre-Clearance Airports for the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/pre-clearance-airports-united-states/map-us-pre-clearance-airports-png/)Customs Pre Clearance Airports for the United States[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/main_hall_lisbon_airport.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Main Hall of Humberto Delgado Airport, Lisbon | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/main-hall-humberto-delgado-airport-lisbon/2023-10-21-04-26-18/)Main Hall of Humberto Delgado Airport Lisbon[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Mumbai_Airport_Takeoff_Queue.jpg?resize=900%2C600&ssl=1 "Mumbai Airport Takeoff Queue | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/mumbai-airport-takeoff-queue/1024px-mumbai_airport_takeoff_queue/)Mumbai Airport Takeoff Queue[![Jet Bridge Warsaw Airport](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/jet_bridge_warsaw_airport.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Jet Bridge, Warsaw Airport | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/jet-bridge-warsaw/2012-07-01-10-48-43/)Jet Bridge Warsaw AirportThe significance of late-arriving aircraft delay is a testament to the degree to which problems at highly congested hub airports **quickly propagate through the [hub-and-spoke structures](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3861) in which they are at the center**. If a congested hub is forced to shut down for a short period, especially during one of the [connection banks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6933), when activity peaks, delays cascade through the system. Once the airport reopens, the priority is to land the inbound flights that were waiting in standby patterns (and in danger of exhausting their fuel), which delays additional outbound flights. The outbound queue can become so substantial that gate access for inbound flights is hindered, which again exacerbates delays since delayed inbound flights will become delayed (or canceled) outbound flights. Larger or longer weather disruptions, such as a blizzard affecting multiple key hubs, worsen the predicament. Spatial variations in weather help to account for the uneven distribution of aviation delays. In 2018, among the thirty busiest airports in the US, the worst on-time performance was recorded by Newark Liberty International (29.8 percent of flights arrived late), San Francisco International (24.8 percent), and New York LaGuardia (23.4 percent) – busy airports in congested airspace with frequent poor weather. Conversely, Salt Lake City (15.8 percent delayed), one of the locations with the most sunny days in the country, had the best performance among busy airports. Congestion and delays are the most common when an airport runs out of capacity since the advantage of an airport site can be a double-edged sword, as it attracts additional passengers and air services. For instance, the [airport of Lisbon](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/main-hall-humberto-delgado-airport-lisbon/ "Main Hall of Humberto Delgado Airport, Lisbon"), Portugal, is running out of capacity in part because of its proximity to the CBD and being the closest European airport to Central and South America. Unsurprisingly, the problem of airport delays is worse in fast-growing emerging markets. In 2017, the percentage of delayed flights in Jakarta’s Soekarno-Hatta International was 48.1 percent; the soaring success of low-cost carriers (LCCs) in Indonesia has strained infrastructure across the archipelago nation. LCCs are also a key factor in the poor on-time performance of Mumbai’s [Chhatrapati Shivaji International](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=14861) (39.6 percent of flights arrived late). However, the runway limitations (discussed above) in India’s business capital were also a key factor. The problem of aviation delay is not due solely to what happens in airports. The airspace in between is also congested. In the United States, controllers still use slips of paper to exchange information about aircraft being tracked; so digitization could speed things up. In Europe, meanwhile, the fragmentation of the continent into dozens of national airspace systems is a different kind of obstacle that, if overcome, could smooth the movement of air traffic. Technology could help here, too. Yet even as technological change offers some potential solutions, it may deliver new challenges. Numerous startups, some backed by Silicon Valley tech giants, are exploring different ways of bringing urban air mobility – flying cars – to fruition. If such vehicles do take to the skies, they could transform urban landscapes and ways of life, but they would further complicate the challenge of balancing aviation supply and demand on the ground and in the air. # 4. Airports and Regional Development Airports are **substantial engines of economic activity**. The flows of passengers and cargo generate significant wealth, but airports also have attracted economic activities that need the accessibility – increasingly at the global scale – that airports make possible. A growing number of airport regions are planned specifically to encourage these connections, creating a form of metropolitan development called “[aerotropolis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3878)“. Ground transport networks, including highways and transit corridors, weave these elements into a vibrant cluster with the airport at its heart. Four major types of airport-related economic effects can be identified: - **Direct effects**. Include the activities undertaken at the airport itself: services to passengers (check-in, security, boarding), cargo (loading and unloading), and aircraft (refueling, cleaning). This category also includes concessionaires working in airports and selling travelers everything from coffee to Rolex watches. - **Indirect effects**. Comprise the economic activities powered by backward linkages from the airport, such as jet fuel suppliers, electricity producers, and other utilities, and fresh food sold in on-site airport restaurants. An airport needs many different inputs, and the flow of those inputs into the airport generates a counter-flow of money into the economy of the local area and beyond. - **Induced effects.** Comprise the economic activities powered by forward linkages, especially the spending by people who work at the airport and the passengers passing through it. The thousands of people who work at a large hub spend their income on everything from prescriptions at nearby drug stores to new homes. The constellation of restaurants and hotels surrounding many airports also falls in this category. - **Catalytic effects**. Include the activities an airport attracts through lower transportation costs and network accessibility. For instance, the location of Nike’s largest distribution center adjacent to Memphis International Airport (FedEx’s global hub) and Amazon’s decision to place its second headquarters just outside Washington Reagan National Airport and about 45 kilometers from Washington Dulles International Airport are both testaments to the catalytic power of airports. The balance of these effects depends on the size of an airport. Economic activities classified under direct effects generate airport revenues. Airlines pay landing fees, gate charges, parking charges, baggage handling charges, and other fees generally related to the size of the aircraft. For instance, an airline flying a Boeing B777 into Narita Airport near Tokyo would pay about $5,500 in landing fees in 2023; landing an Airbus A320 at the same airport costs about $850. Airports also generate revenue from passenger charges, parking, and rental income from concessionaires. These and other non-aeronautical revenues represent about 40 percent of airport revenues globally and are more important at larger hubs; they represented 53 percent of revenue at Dubai International in 2014. **Non-aeronautical revenue** has grown rapidly over the past few decades as major airports have become retail destinations instead of just places to speed through en route to somewhere else. Still, this key revenue stream is under threat from numerous directions: Uber, Lyft, and other car-sharing services are cutting into parking revenue, and slow security screening has cut into the time available for people to shop in airports. Three other factors complicate retail services within an airport terminal. First, space is usually at a premium, so stores and restaurants cannot maintain a large inventory, limiting options and the ability to accommodate unforeseen demand. Second, all inventory must go through security measures, usually off-hours, so inventory cannot be replenished in real time. Third, customers need to be served quickly due to time constraints, which usually involve more staff to process transactions. Much as the airline industry has been transformed by liberalization in recent decades, the airport business has also been buffeted by its dramatic changes, some of which stem from the airlines. A few decades ago, most major airports and airlines were **state-owned**, run as public utilities, and somewhat insulated from competition. That is no longer the case in either industry. Although the airport business has changed to a lesser degree, as many are still managed by airport authorities, there are important instances of privatization and globalization. For instance, London’s Heathrow Airport is owned by a holding company whose leading investors include a Spanish construction company, Qatar’s sovereign wealth fund, a Quebec pension fund, and other financial firms from the United States, China, and the United Kingdom. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Aerotropolis.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Key Aerotropolis Developments | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/aerotropolis/map-aerotropolis-png/)Key Aerotropolis Developments[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/alternative_airports.png?resize=900%2C466&ssl=1 "Alternative Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/alternative-airports/alternative_airports-png/)Alternative Airports[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Air-Freight-Integrators.png?resize=768%2C373&ssl=1 "Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/hubs-air-freight-integrators/map-air-freight-integrators/)Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/blaise_diagne_airport.jpg?resize=900%2C506&ssl=1 "Blaise Diagne International Airport | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/blaise-diagne-international-airport/dji_0017_65282/)Blaise Diagne International Airport[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/covid_airport_activity.png?resize=900%2C453&ssl=1 "Impacts of COVID-19 on Airport Passenger and Freight Activity, 2019-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/covid-19-passenger-freight-activity/covid_airport_activity/)Impacts of COVID 19 on Passenger and Freight Activity 2019 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Cincinnati-AIr-Hub.png?resize=900%2C617&ssl=1 "Amazon Air Hub at Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/amazon-air-hub-cincinnati/map-cincinnati-air-hub/)Amazon Air Hub at CincinnatiNorthern Kentucky International AirportMore importantly, airports compete more fiercely for business than in the past. In this regard, the rise of **low-cost carriers** (LCCs) is important because one dimension of some LCCs’ business models is service via lower-cost **secondary airports**. In Belgium, Ryanair and other LCCs have made Charleroi South Brussels Airport an alternative gateway to the region surrounding the EU capital. By 2022, Ryanair served 83 regular destinations from Charleroi, with the airport handling about 8.2 million passengers (on Ryanair and other LCCs), while Brussels National handled 18.9 million passengers. The carrier was initially attracted to the airport by a variety of subsidies and other financial incentives from the local and regional governments. While the European Commission later ruled that some of those arrangements violated European competition policy, the stakes are so high in attracting and retaining air services that governments will continue aggressively promoting their airports. The [air cargo business](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3737) is an important component of many airports. The intermodal transfer between air and land transport systems requires parking areas for planes, warehousing, consolidation and deconsolidation space, handling equipment, and cargo-related services. Some airports have **specialized in handling air cargo**. The importance of [Memphis and Louisville](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3760), for instance, in cargo flows, is attributable to the [hubs operated by FedEx and UPS](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=14636), respectively. The benefits to the two cities have been enormous, so the incentives for those cities to keep their hubs and for other cities to try to attract one. Memphis, for example, has become “America’s Distribution Center” as manufacturers and retailers have set up sophisticated warehousing operations there to take advantage of the hub. In Europe, Liege, Belgium, and Leipzig, Germany, have also become freight hubs, partly because they have looser nighttime operations restrictions than larger airports (e.g., Frankfurt). In China, there is a stronger overlap between the top passenger and cargo hubs; Hong Kong and Shanghai rank among the busiest airports for cargo worldwide. Ultimately, an airport, especially a large one, is more than a node in the flow of people and goods. It is a **dynamic space** via which the economy, landscapes, and identity of a place are shaped and can be reshaped. The globe-straddling networks spun from colossal new airports in the Persian Gulf and East Asia, the prominence of showpiece airports in the portfolios of superstar architects, and the significance of the names given to key hubs all underline the importance of facilities that are much more than just infrastructure. To take one final example, in late 2017, after years of delay, Senegal’s new $600 million [Blaise Diagne International Airport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=14868) opened 40 kilometers east of the capital Dakar. Named for a Senegal-born man who, in 1914, became the first black African elected to the French parliament, the airport is intended to strengthen the position of Senegal as a leader in the region’s air transportation. Dakar already has nonstop flights to New York, Washington, Dubai, and cities across Europe and Africa. Still, the new airport – which relieved a severely congested one hemmed in by urban development – was well-situated to mediate connections between Africa’s growing economies and the rest of the world. And so, the new airport carries Senegal’s ambitions for greater global connectivity, larger tourism flows, a key role in African logistics, and an economy diversified beyond agriculture and the primacy of Dakar. Yet large airports are also focal points for controversies, which in this instance included the displacement of 3,000 families from the site of Blaise Diagne International and doubts about the wisdom of placing an airport so far from the main city it serves. The distance of airports from the city they serve and the time many users spend accessing them underline a key question concerning the regional development impact of any airport: which stakeholder benefits the most? Even in an era of low-cost carriers, aviation remains expensive, but rising incomes make it increasingly accessible in developing economies. An airport may be a gateway, much as Senegal hopes its new international airport will be a gateway to and from West Africa. However, access to the gate is subject to several restrictions. The ticket cost remains unaffordable to many, while others lack the documentation required to pass security screens or [visa restrictions for international travel](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9640). A central theme in contemporary geography research on airports concerns the tension between their role as places of possibility, fluidity, and mobility on the one hand and the economic, social, and political disparities in their access on the other. A more immediate question concerning airports and economic development is how demand will **recover from the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic**. The recovery to date has been highly uneven. In 2020, seven of the world’s ten busiest airports ranked by passenger volumes were in China, led by Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport. In 2019, only two of the top ten were Chinese. More generally, large **domestic markets have recovered faster than international travel**, with adverse implications for airports in small countries depending on tourism. Seychelles’ main airport was closed to tourists for more than a year, and in the first six months after reopening in March 2021, it welcomed an average of just 550 visitor arrivals per day, compared to more than 1000 per day before the pandemic. Many airports have seen several direct connections severed, lowering global connectivity. The long-term durability of switching to working from home and replacing face-to-face meetings with virtual meetings remains uncertain. These circumstances are likely to mute the development impact of airports in many parts of the world for some time. The mid-range forecast of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) calls for global passenger-kilometer revenue to return to 2019 levels by 2024. Cargo demand has recovered more quickly, however, and booming e-commerce demand may hasten the shift of some airports towards greater dependence on freight flows. For instance, Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport was once a vitally important hub for Delta Air Lines; however, long before the pandemic, Delta downsized its operation. In 2021, however, [Amazon Air officially opened its largest hub facility in Cincinnati](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/amazon-air-hub-cincinnati/ "Amazon Air Hub at Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport"), with plans for up to 200 daily flights. Other airports may similarly find new paths forward amid aviation’s troubled skies. --- ## Related Topics - [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3009) - [6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3123) - [5.5 – Air Transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1765) - [B.6 – Mega Airport Projects](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7535) ## Bibliography - Appold, S.J. and J.D. Kasarda (2013) “The Airport City Phenomenon: Evidence from Large US Airports”, Urban Studies, Vol. 50, No. 6, pp. 1239-1259. - Bowen, J.T. (2010) The Economic Geography of Air Transportation: Space, Time, and the Freedom of the Sky. London: [Routledge](https://www.routledge.com/The-Economic-Geography-of-Air-Transportation-Space-Time-and-the-Freedom-of-the-Sky/Bowen/p/book/9780415749916). - Bowen, J.T. and J.L. Cidell (2011) “Mega-Airports: The Political, Economic, and Environmental Implications of the World’s Expanding Air Transportation Gateways” in S.D. Brunn (ed) Engineering Earth: The Impacts of Megaengineering Projects, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 867-887. - Caves, R.E. and G.D. Gosling (1999) Strategic Airport Planning, Oxford: Pergamon. - de Neufville, R. and A.R. Odoni (2013) Airport Systems: Planning, Design and Management. Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill. - Dempsey, P.S., A.R. Goetz, and J.S. Szyliowicz (1997) Denver International Airport: Lessons Learned. New York: McGraw Hill. - Derudder, B., L. Devriendt and F. Witlox (2010) “A Spatial Analysis of Multiple Airport Cities”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 18, pp. 345-353. - Fuller, G. and R. Harley (2004) Aviopolis: A Book about Airports, London: Black Dog Publishing. - Hakfoort, J., T. Poot, and P. Rietveld (2001) The regional economic impact of an airport: The case of Amsterdam Schiphol Airport. Regional Studies, 35 (7): 595-604. - International Civil Aviation Organization (2013) Airport Economics Manual, Third Edition, Montreal: International Civil Aviation Organization. - Kasarda, J.D. and G. Lindsay (2011) Aerotropolis: the way we’ll live next, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. - Pearman, H. (2004) Airports: A Century of Architecture. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes (11th and 12th Centuries)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Map Silk Road](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C540&ssl=1 "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes*Source: Trade network adapted from Martin Jan Mansson.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Silk-Road-1.pdf) The Silk Road was the **most enduring trade route in human history**, used for about 1,500 years. Its name is taken from the prized Chinese textile that flowed from Asia to the Middle East and Europe, although many other commodities were traded along the route. The Silk Road consisted of a succession of trails followed by caravans through Central Asia, about 6,400 km in length. The presence of steppes favored travel, although several arid zones had to be bypassed, such as the Gobi and Takla Makan deserts. Economies of scale, harsh conditions, and security considerations required the organization of trade into caravans, slowly trekking from one stage (town or oasis) to the other. Although it is suspected that significant trade occurred for about 1,000 years beforehand, the Silk Road opened around 139 BCE once China was unified under the Han dynasty. It started at Changan (Xian) and ended at Antioch or Constantinople (Istanbul), passing by commercial cities such as Samarkand and Kashgar. Caravans did not travel for the whole distance since the trading system functioned as a chain with merchants shipping goods back and forth from one trade center to the other. In addition to silk, major commodities traded included gold, jade, tea, and spices. Since the transport capacity was limited, over long distances, and often unsafe, **luxury goods** were the only commodities that could be traded. The Silk Road also served as a vector for the diffusion of ideas and religions (initially Buddhism and then Islam), enabling civilizations from Europe, the Middle East, and Asia to interact. The initial use of the sea route linking the Mediterranean basin and India took place during the Roman Era. Between the 1st and 6th centuries, ships sailed between the Red Sea and India, aided by summer monsoon winds. Goods were transshipped at towns along the Red Sea (e.g. Berenike) and moved by camels inland to the Nile. From that point, riverboats moved the goods to Alexandria, from which trade could be undertaken with the Roman Empire. These trade routes have also been instrumental in the spread of diseases and the first pandemics. For instance, the Justinian Plague of 541 (a form of bubonic plague) is believed to have spread to the Mediterranean from its East Asian origins through trade routes. From the 9th century, maritime routes controlled by Arab traders emerged and gradually undermined the importance of the Silk Road. Since ships were much less constraining than caravans in terms of capacity, larger quantities of goods could be traded. The main maritime route started at Guangzhou passed through Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea, and then reached Alexandria. A significant feeder went to the ‘Spice Islands’ (Maluku Islands) in today’s Indonesia. They were named as such because spices such as nutmeg, mace, and cloves could initially only be found there. The Silk Road peaked during the Mongolian Empire (13th century) when China and Central Asia were controlled by Mongol Khans, who were trade proponents but ruthless conquerors. At the same time, relationships between Europe and China were renewed, notably after the voyages of Marco Polo (1271-1292). The diffusion of Islam was also favored through trade, as many rules of ethics and commerce are embedded in the religion. During the Middle Ages, the Venetians and Genovese controlled the bulk of the Mediterranean trade, which connected to the major trading centers of Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria. As European powers developed their maritime technologies in the 15th century, they successfully overthrew the Arab control of this lucrative trade route to replace it. Ships being able to transport commodities faster and cheaper marked the downfall of the Silk Road by the 16th century. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Economic Output of the World's Major Metropolitan Areas, 2012](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-metropolitan-areas/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-GDP-per-Metropolitan-Area.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Economic Output of the World's Major Metropolitan Areas, 2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Economic Output of the Worlds Major Metropolitan Areas 2012*Source: “Global MetroMonitor 2012: Slowdown, Recovery, and Interdependence” (Washington: Brookings Institution).* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_GDP_Metropolitan_Area.pdf) Large metropolitan areas are the foci of [global commercial activity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=511) as well as global economic output. The world’s 300 largest metropolitan areas account for 19% of the global population but for 48% of the global GDP. They tend to dominate national economies, particularly primate cities such as London, Paris, Moscow, Mexico City, Bangkok, Lima, and Tokyo. Compared with their [urban population figures](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4981), the economic weight of metropolitan areas in developing economies is less prevalent. The global economy is thus more a network of interacting cities than of nations trading. A similar rationale applies at the national level, which is composed of a system of cities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-metropolitan-areas/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-metropolitan-areas/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-metropolitan-areas/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-metropolitan-areas/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.12 – Stakeholder Relationships in City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Diana Sanchez and Dr. Thomas O’Brien > Stakeholders are actors articulating city logistics through their decisions and actions. They include the coordinators and distributors of freight at the last mile, the managers of the infrastructure, the regulatory agencies that often control access and the consumers themselves. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Understanding Stakeholder Relationships and Implications](#1_Understanding_Stakeholder_Relationships_and_Implications) - [2. Defining Stakeholder Profiles](#2_Defining_Stakeholder_Profiles) - [3. Freight Demand and Stakeholders](#3_Freight_Demand_and_Stakeholders) # 1. Understanding Stakeholder Relationships and Implications Efficient and sustainable supply chains consist of **stakeholders** that collaborate, share data, and communicate. Collaboration establishes transparency among stakeholders, allowing them to share relevant data and make informed decisions. Stakeholders are impacted when supply chains break down and prevent goods from being transported efficiently or delivered on time. Supply chains face challenges due to **fluctuating consumer preferences** that are a reflection of broader economic trends. However, established and diverse stakeholder relationships can contribute to resilient supply chains that help ensure changing market expectations are fulfilled. A stakeholder is an individual or organization tasked with the responsibility to **ship**, **transport**, **fulfill**, or even **consume** freight and who is motivated to utilize physical infrastructure and personal and professional relationships to realize the objectives of their freight-related activity. Numerous stakeholders convene to determine urban logistic plans in response to changes in the residential and commercial demand for goods. Numerous user motivations and objectives identify and categorize stakeholders into [four primary groups](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/city-logistics-stakeholder-categories/ "City Logistics Stakeholder Categories"): Consumers, infrastructure managers, planners and regulators, and distributors. - **Consumers** consist of stakeholders that create demand for freight within a city. - **Infrastructure managers** are stakeholders concerned with maintaining physical infrastructure and public assets utilized by consumers and distributors who transport goods. - **Planners and Regulators** consist of stakeholders involved with developing regulations and seek to maximize mobility in response to planning concerns and transport externalities. - **Distributors** are stakeholders responsible for the physical movement of freight and utilize urban space and infrastructure to transport goods. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/city_logistics_stakeholder_categories.png?resize=900%2C392&ssl=1 "City Logistics Stakeholder Categories | The Geography of Transport Systems ")City Logistics Stakeholder CategoriesMore important than knowing who stakeholders are is how they define their interests, how they exert influence in the logistics system, and how that influence has been effective. Communication and transparency are critical components of stakeholder interaction in order to maximize urban mobility planning, operations, and efficiency. However, while understanding the role of a diverse set of stakeholders is beneficial to **Urban Transport Systems** (UTS) planning as it reveals **motivations** about behavior, the participation of diverse interest groups also creates challenges because of the complex interaction between them. Stakeholders also exert influence in different ways. For example, business elites, planners, or politicians wield different kinds of power through markets as well as planning and political processes. Stakeholder involvement is critical. However, **asymmetric stakeholder influences** across the supply chain prevent parties from engaging in decision-making procedures. Increasing stakeholder involvement in transportation planning may increase the diversity of problems and solutions considered in UTS design. When diverse stakeholders are involved in decision-making procedures, they bring awareness of a new set of problems and suggestions that were not previously considered. Stakeholder coordination allows for transparent information to guide decisions, improve forecasts, better predict lead times, and anticipate price fluctuations. **Channel integration** is a strategy to enhance stakeholder coordination. It is defined by the set of business processes and activities that incrementally impart economic value to products or services as they move from origin to the final destination. It is created by information tools that serve to reduce uncertainty and variability along the supply chain. For example, in order for a company to make a decision, the presence of a logistics analyst, forecaster, marketer, and distributor may be needed to consider various avenues and definitions of business success. # 2. Defining Stakeholder Profiles Stakeholders have various **objectives and goals**, vary in **market influence**, and play a **unique role in the supply chain**. Despite wide differences, four main stakeholder categories, each broken down into smaller groups, can be identified. ## Consumers The supply chain is initiated by consumers who **create demand for freight**. Freight remains primarily a derived demand. The delivery of freight serves numerous purposes with the principal being commercial and residential demand. Commercial freight demand is created by manufacturing, construction, wholesalers, retail stores, restaurants, schools, and offices, while residential freight demand is created by homes. Commercial freight is generally ordered in bulk and fulfilled utilizing trucks; residential freight is delivered through parcel shipping. However, in certain situations, residential freight may require bulk orders, and commercial freight may require parcel delivery services. Freight activity can be driven by Business-to-Business (B2B) or Business-to-Consumer (B2C) demand and in increasingly complex combinations as in B2B2C activity. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/consumer_stakeholder_source_influence.png?resize=900%2C367&ssl=1 "Consumer Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Consumer Stakeholder Relationships Interests and Different Sources of Influence## Infrastructure managers The physical infrastructure and infrastructure maintenance of a city are critical for the mobilization of goods and residents. Roads, local streets, rails, ports, airports, power infrastructure, and state highways are **physical assets** that comprise urban infrastructure. Infrastructure maintenance can be performed by private companies or government departments, such as waste management, or managed through specific job functions, including infrastructure managers, parking authorities, city planners, and private developers. These managers use enforcement means to ensure infrastructure assets are properly used in support of freight and residential mobility or that negative impacts are mitigated. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/infrastructure_manager_influence.png?resize=900%2C207&ssl=1 "Infrastructure Manager Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Infrastructure Manager Stakeholder Relationships Interests and Different Sources of Influence## Planners and regulators **Regulations** organized at the local, state, and federal levels influence urban freight mobility. Rules and regulations, policies, and standards negotiated through bilateral and multilateral trade agreements may also influence the cost of goods and the ease with which they move through the supply chain. This affects demand as well as the policies of trading partners, which may affect the availability and supply of goods. Different government levels focus on varying concerns, while regulations vary per location according to the needs of a city. **Externalities** associated with an increase in urban freight mobility can be balanced. Regulations may be designed to directly influence the behavior of consumers or distributors and help to ensure the safe movement of goods. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/planner_governance_source_influence.png?resize=900%2C167&ssl=1 "Planner and Governance Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence | The Geography of Transport Systems ") Planner and Governance Stakeholder Relationships Interests and Different Sources of Influence## Distributors Distributors are composed of multiple players that move freight from one location to another for freight to reach its destination. Distributors **work** in response to freight demand, **utilize infrastructure**, and **comply** with government regulations. Distributors mainly include freight consolidators, third-party logistics providers (3PLs), parcel delivery, freight forwarders, drayage trucking, common carriers, private carriers, receivers, and shippers. Workers and the labor they provide allow distributors to fulfill orders. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distributor_stakeholder_influence.png?resize=900%2C388&ssl=1 "Distributor Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Distributor Stakeholder Relationships Interests and Different Sources of Influence# 3. Freight Demand and Stakeholders Freight demand generators directly impact other stakeholders and influence decisions. For example, an increase in consumer demand as a result of an increase in e-commerce leads to increased levels of congestion which may result in: 1. **Calls for government intervention** to regulate congestion on distributors. 2. **Calls for infrastructure maintenance** to ensure adequate conditions of physical infrastructure. Urban infrastructure management is critical for vehicle and pedestrian mobility. For example, daily use of physical infrastructure by consumers may result in the need for infrastructure maintenance. Excessive infrastructure use, such as a congested highway, may call for government involvement to either repair infrastructure or better mitigate traffic and increase utility for consumers and distributors. Maintenance and enforcement are critical to maintaining access to space dedicated for freight and emergency vehicle activity and enforcing consequences for freight operator non-compliance with regulations. For instance, infrastructure management in Southern California has been agile during the 2020-21 pandemic to accommodate business needs, such as [dedicated curb space for outdoor dining](https://globalcitylogistics.org/home/b-issues-and-challenges-of-city-logistics/stakeholders-relationships-city-logistics/changing-number-street-lanes-business-needs/). Government regulation impacts consumers and distributors. For example, the federal regulation Hours of Service limits the number of consecutive hours a truck driver may drive. Using an Electronic Logging Device, truck drivers are able to monitor how long they have been driving before taking a mandatory break to deliver freight. While the goal of the regulation is to improve road safety for all commuters, the tradeoff results in longer delivery times. Distributors fulfill orders demanded by consumers, transport goods utilizing infrastructure, and comply with regulations. Infrastructure management and labor are critical for efficient operations. For example, communities may **restrict trucks** from utilizing certain streets due to weight restrictions, and commercial retail stores may issue designated drop-off zones and times for deliveries. **Increased activity in** e-commerce and online shopping are driving factors in all distribution. One factor contributing to the growth of e-commerce is the Amazon Effect, described as the disruption of physical retail stores and the promotion of online shopping. While Amazon controls a large e-commerce market share, many businesses have incorporated online shopping into their business strategy in an effort to reach a larger market of consumers, provide alternative shopping methods, and compete with competitors. Understanding stakeholder relationships and interactions is critical to better **negotiate challenges** that arise. New technology, policy agendas, and social climates are variables that impact stakeholders, allowing them to influence global supply chains and their local communities. Communities are connected through an ecosystem of stakeholders that collaboratively move goods and information through societies. As a result of stakeholder interactions, forums that engage new stakeholders and understand the roles, responsibilities, and incentives will benefit and help communities respond to future challenges. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/waste_management_truck.jpg?resize=780%2C438&ssl=1 "Waste Management Truck by the Curb | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Waste Management Truck by the Curb![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/changing_street_lanes_business.png?resize=900%2C715&ssl=1 "Changing the Number of Street Lanes to Accommodate Business Needs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Changing the Number of Street Lanes to Accommodate Business Needs![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/time_restricted_curbside_food_pickup.png?resize=900%2C379&ssl=1 "Time Restricted Curb-Side Parking for Food Pickup | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Time Restricted Curb Side Parking for Food Pickup--- ## Bibliography - Conway, A., & Williamson, J. (2018). Complete Streets Considerations for Freight and Emergency Vehicle Operations. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. - Hoel, L.A., G. Guiliano and M.D. Meyer (eds) (2010) Intermodal Transportation: Moving Freight in a Global Economy. Washington, DC: Eno Transportation Foundation. - Ward, D. (2001). Stakeholder involvement in transport planning: Participation and power. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 19(2), 119–130. https://doi.org/10.3152/147154601781767131 ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Mega-Region Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/mega-region-development/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mega_region_development2.png?resize=900%2C389&ssl=1 "Mega-Region Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mega Region DevelopmentThe development of mega-regions is mostly the outcome of three processes that reinforce the spatial extent and the coherence of an urban system. The first is the growth, intensification, and diffusion of economic activities, which require additional urban land. The second is the growing interconnectivity of urban centers, mostly through the setting of multimodal transport corridors. The third is the specialization and interdependency of urban centers and the intense passenger and freight interactions this process creates. It is possible to summarize the development of a mega-region into four stages similar to [corridor development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1451): - **Single Cities** (A). Up to the late 19th century, cities were relatively autonomous and regional transport systems were of limited extent, particularly road systems. Economic activities were mostly localized, but specialized regional and long-distance trade existed. - **Interconnected Cities** (B). By the early 20th century, national urban systems were established, particularly with railways connecting resource-producing, manufacturing, and major markets. This favored the development of regional economies and the functional specialization of urban centers through the principle of regional comparative advantages. This regional mobility was more concerned with freight than passengers, particularly since mobility was time-consuming and costly (relatively [high friction of distance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=462)). - **Metropolitan regions** (C). In the second half of the 20th century, the massive diffusion of the automobile and the setting of highway systems supported a growing mobility of passengers and freight as well as a regionalization of urbanization. Suburbanization resulted in the setting of a new urban space as well as the integration of subcenters into entities that came to be known as metropolitan areas (or metropolitan regions). Global trade was also becoming more significant, implying a growing role of external forces in shaping urbanization, an interaction taking place through [gateways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1416). The metropolitan region was becoming a competitive unit within an emerging global economy. - **Mega Region** (D). By the 1990s, the growing integration and interconnection of metropolitan areas led to the formation of mega-regions, some being nodal (centered around a single large metropolitan area) while others were oriented along a corridor including several large metropolitan areas. Globalization and intermodal integration (through containerization) further reinforced the importance of gateways as articulation nodes regulating passengers and freight flows with transport terminals and logistics zones. Global and regional influences became embedded in the structure of mega regions. Corridor-specific infrastructure, such as high-speed trains and air shuttles, was further developed to support increasing regional interactions. Many mega-regions developed a functional specialization centered around specific manufacturing and service activities. The mega-region is a spatial and structural outcome of urban expansion, exploiting comparative advantages and increasing regional and global interactions. The above representation is synthetic and assumes different time frames in the emergence of mega-regions across the world. For most developed economies, the setting of mega-regions was well underway during the 1960s. For the developing world, the process took place later but at a much faster rate. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/mega-region-development/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/mega-region-development/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/mega-region-development/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/mega-region-development/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon Inbound Cross Dock Facilities Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-inbound-cross-dock-facilities-network/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map_amazon_idx.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon Inbound Cross Dock Facilities Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Inbound Cross Dock Facilities Network*Source: Adapted from Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Distribution Network of Amazon: Analyzing the Footprint of Freight Digitalization”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 88.* As of 2022, Amazon’s network of 36 inbound cross-docking facilities (IXD) was positioned in relation to port gateways and corridors, particularly around New York and Los Angeles, which are major trade gateways. The main goal of IXD facilities is to transload import containers into truckloads bound for e-fulfillment centers. Inland locations correspond to major intermodal terminals in proximity to manufacturing clusters, as IXD facilities also receive domestic procurement. The weighted median location corresponds to an area close to the demographic center of the United States (southern Missouri). No IDX facilities are co-located, underlining that they operate as single entities incompatible with the function and operations of other facilities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-inbound-cross-dock-facilities-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-inbound-cross-dock-facilities-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-inbound-cross-dock-facilities-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-inbound-cross-dock-facilities-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Assembly Line of the Ford T Model, 1913](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/assembly-ford-model-t-1913/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Assembly Line Ford T](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/assembly_line_ford_t.jpg?resize=900%2C694&ssl=1 "Assembly Line of the Ford T Model, 1913 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Assembly Line of the Ford T Model 1913*Source: Detroit Public Library, Item number EB01a026.* Early in the 20th century, the American industrialist Henry Ford massively applied the assembly line principle to produce the first affordable car, the Ford Model T. The first car assembly line appeared in Highland Park, Michigan, in 1913. This marked the beginning of the automobile era. The Model T was produced between 1913 and 1927. Through [mass production](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1257) and competition from other manufacturers, the price of a Model T dropped from $575 to $290, making it affordable to the middle class. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/assembly-ford-model-t-1913/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/assembly-ford-model-t-1913/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/assembly-ford-model-t-1913/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/assembly-ford-model-t-1913/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Largest Countries of Ship Registry, 2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/tonnage-country-registery/) **Published:** November 12, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Countries Ship Registry Tonnage](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/largest_ship_registry.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Largest Countries of Ship Registry | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Largest Countries of Ship Registry 2020*Source: Office of Maritime Administration, US Department of Transportation.* A ship is considered an extension of the sovereignty of a nation to which it is registered. The share of open registry ships operated under a “flag of convenience” grew substantially after WWII. They accounted for 5% of [world shipping tonnage](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2275) in 1950, 25% in 1980, 55% in 1995, and 72% in 2021. The usage of a flag of convenience refers to a beneficial national owner choosing to register one or more vessels in another nation in order to avoid higher regulatory and manning costs. This enables three types of advantages for the shipowners: - **Regulation**. Under maritime law, the owner is bound to the rules and regulations of the country of registration, which also involves requisitions in a situation of emergency (war, humanitarian crisis, etc.). Being subject to less stringent regulations commonly confers considerable savings in operating costs. - **Registry costs**. The state offering a flag of convenience is compensated according to the ship’s tonnage. Registry costs are, on average, between 30 to 50% lower than those of North America and Western Europe. - **Operating costs**. Operating costs for open registry ships are 12 to 27% lower than those of traditional registry fleets. Most of the savings come from lower manning expenses. Flags of convenience have lower standards in terms of salary and benefits. The countries with the largest registered fleets offer flags of convenience (Panama, Liberia, Marshall Islands, Greece, Malta, Cyprus, and the Bahamas). The ship registry is a source of additional income for these governments; even the landlocked country of Mongolia offers ship registry services. Still, ship registries have to abide by international standards, which are becoming increasingly more stringent. This is notably the case concerning ship emissions. Therefore, the regulatory arbitrage of registries is becoming less relevant. Many open flag registry countries have developed expertise in the governance of registry regulations, implying an effective oversight of the involved regulations and recognized standards for ships registered under their flag. This commitment has an important impact on international relations since the most prominent registry countries are small and have limited resources to maintain an extensive diplomatic network. For instance, Panama, which is the leading flag country, focuses on providing consuls for countries that have seafarers and build ships. This strategy is mainly based on registry support purposes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/tonnage-country-registery/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/tonnage-country-registery/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/tonnage-country-registery/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/tonnage-country-registery/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Diffusion Cycle of Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/containerization-diffusion-cycles/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/container_diffusion_cycle.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Diffusion Cycle of Containerization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Diffusion Cycle of ContainerizationContainerization is evocative of a [standard diffusion curve](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4276) concerning four major phases: - **Adoption**. In the early 1960s, containerization was an unproven technology with a few competing sizes and latching systems standards. The services offered were specific (point to point) and represented a niche market. Still, containerization demonstrated that it achieved productivity gains through a much more efficient form of transshipment. - **Acceleration**. In the early 1970s, containerization became a recognized and emerging form of transportation. New services and networks were being established, which multiplied transport productivity. Growing volumes and the application of economies of scale underlined the competitive advantages of containerized shipping both at the modes and at the terminals. Inter-range services, which would become the standard network configuration for containerized maritime shipping, were set. - **Peak Growth**. By the 1990s, containerization became the dominant support of global trade and globalization, heading toward its full market potential. Its diffusion was massive, particularly in newly industrializing economies such as China. Network development faced growing complexities, which led to the setting of major intermediate hubs reconciling regional and global shipping networks. - **Maturity**. In a maturity phase, growth is much less related to diffusion but with standard economic cycles and the exploitation of remaining **niches**, such as the containerization of commodities. It remains highly debatable if the global maritime container transport system has reached a phase of maturity, as the financial crisis of 2008-09 represented a paradigm shift in demand patterns. While in many regions, such as Latin America, growth remains significant (peak growth), in markets such as Japan, Western Europe, and North America, there are signs that the growth potential may have peaked. The COVID-19 pandemic represented a turning point as 2020 volumes declined due to shifts in demand associated with lockdowns and disruptions in global supply chains but surged in 2021 due to deferred demand and economic stimulus policies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/containerization-diffusion-cycles/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/containerization-diffusion-cycles/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/containerization-diffusion-cycles/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/containerization-diffusion-cycles/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Share of Product Groups in World Merchandise Trade, 1900-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/product-groups-global-trade/) **Published:** November 26, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/products_world_merchandise_trade.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Product Groups in World Merchandise Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of Product Groups in World Merchandise Trade 1900 2020*Source: adapted from WTO, World Trade Report. Share of merchandise exports. Note: Prior to 1955, fuels and mining products were classified as natural resources.* Before the Second World War, international trade was dominated by agricultural goods and natural resources (mining products and fuels). Manufactured goods accounted for about 40% of global merchandise exports, while agricultural goods accounted for about 60%. National markets tended to impose restrictions on the imports of manufactured goods as the prevailing policy was to support and expand national industries. Commodities, particularly those not readily produced nationally, such as oil or grains, were less restricted. Trade was driven by factors such as scarcity and necessity. After the Second World War, manufactured products started to take a growing share of the value of international trade. While they accounted for 44.7% of all exports in 1955, this share climbed to 74.8% in 2000 and 71.1% in 2020. Technological innovations in the transport sector, namely containerization, enabled fast and efficient handling of manufactured goods, thus lowering transportation costs. Trade became more a matter of convenience. Globalization also impacted the trade of manufactured goods with outsourcing and offshoring. It is relatively common for a part to be traded several times if used to assemble a more complex product, such as a car. In a world where some resources may be scarcer, a distinct possibility exists that agricultural and mineral products would reclaim their former share of global trade, which used to be in the range of 40 to 50%. Further, the automation and robotization of several manufacturing segments are likely to have an impact on the composition of global trade since it becomes possible to locate closer (or next to) markets. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/product-groups-global-trade/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/product-groups-global-trade/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/product-groups-global-trade/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/product-groups-global-trade/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Maritime Cargo](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/types-maritime-cargo/) **Published:** March 27, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_maritime_cargo.png?resize=900%2C502&ssl=1 "Types of Maritime Cargo | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Maritime Cargo*Source: MarineTraffic, 2018. Note: Port time is defined as the difference between the time the ship enters the port limits (excluding anchorages) and the time that the ship exits those limits. Irrespective of whether the ship’s visit is related to cargo operations or other types of operations (e.g. bunkering, repair, maintenance), port time includes the time prior to berthing, the time spent at berth (dwell and working times), and the time spent undocking and transiting out of port limits.* The cargoes carried by maritime transportation come into several categories, each requiring the usage of specialized ships. The two main categories are general and bulk cargo. General cargo is unitized (carried in defined load units), while bulk cargo is loose (carried in any quantity). General cargo, which can be counted, can be subdivided into three categories: - **Break Bulk**. Concerns cargo that is carried in drums, bags, pallets, or boxes. Such ships are typically geared. - **Neo Bulk**. Concerns cargo where each pre-packaged unit is accountable such as lumber (bundles), paper (rolls), steel, and vehicles. - **Containerized**. The growth of container shipping required creating a new general cargo category where the cargo is being carried in container load units. Bulk cargo, which can be weighted, can be divided into two categories: - **Liquid bulk**. The majority of the liquid bulk carried is petroleum LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas), representing an emerging segment. Liquid bulk ships are commonly referred to as tankers. - **Dry Bulk**. Concerns a wide variety of materials such as coal, iron ore, grains, bauxite, and sand. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/types-maritime-cargo/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/types-maritime-cargo/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/types-maritime-cargo/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/types-maritime-cargo/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Oil Spills Since 1967](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/major-oil-spills/) **Published:** November 8, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** **Ship Name****Year****Location****Spill Size (Tons)**Atlantic Empress1979Off Tobago, West Indies287,000ABT Summer1991700 nautical miles off Angola260,000Castillo de Bellver1983Off Saldanha Bay, South Africa252,000Amoco Cadiz1978Off Brittany, France223,000Haven1991Genoa, Italy144,000Odyssey1988700 nautical miles off Nova Scotia, Canada132,000Torrey Canyon1967Scilly Isles, UK119,000Sea Star1972Gulf of Oman115,000Irenes Serenade1980Navarino Bay, Greece100,000Urquiola1976La Coruna, Spain100,000Hawaiian Patriot1977300 nautical miles off Honolulu95,000Independenta1979Bosphorus, Turkey95,000Jakob Maersk1975Oporto, Portugal88,000Braer1993Shetland Islands, UK85,000Khark 51989120 nautical miles off the Atlantic coast of Morocco80,000Aegean Sea1992La Coruna, Spain74,000Sea Empress1996Milford Haven, UK72,000Katina P1992Off Maputo, Mozambique72,000Nova1985Off Kharg Island, Gulf of Iran70,000Prestige2002Off Galicia, Spain63,000Exxon Valdez1989Prince William Sound, Alaska, USA37,000*Source: The International Tankers Owners Pollution Federation.* The size of an oil spill is an indication of its potential environmental impact. Yet, the two most damaging oil spills were not the largest, but they took place near ecologically rich areas, particularly in terms of fishing. The Amoco Cadiz was carrying 223,000 tons of oil when it sank in Portsall Bay, France, on March 17, 1978. Some 400 km of Breton coastlines were affected. Following the incident, not only was the ecological equilibrium greatly disturbed, but the local economy based on fishing was also completely paralyzed. On March 24, 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez hit a reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska, thereby spilling 37,000 tons out of oil of its 180,000 tons load, a spill that affected 1,700 km of coastlines. Even if, compared to other major spills, it was of lower volume, it still carries today the title of the largest animal death toll. The Prestige and Sea Empress oil spills that occurred off the European Atlantic generated a significant amount of pollution that destroyed aquatic species, including algae, mollusks, crustaceans, marine mammals, fish, and invertebrates. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/major-oil-spills/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/major-oil-spills/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/major-oil-spills/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/major-oil-spills/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Maritime Piracy, 1993-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/global-maritime-piracy/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Piracy.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Global Maritime Piracy, 1993-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Maritime Piracy 1993 2020*Source: ICC International Maritime Bureau.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Piracy.pdf) As long as there has been trade, there has been an incentive to plunder the valuable commodities transiting along long-distance maritime trade routes. The conventional response was for ships to travel in convoys, escorted by military ships if the trade was of sizable value, with merchant ships commonly armed. As most navigation was taking place along the coasts, this presented ample opportunities for merchant ships to be boarded by pirates. The evolution of maritime piracy and its hot spots marks the ebbs and flows of global trade. Prior to the 15th century, most piracy was taking place along the routes leading to East and Southeast Asia from the Middle East. The colonial era, with the Spanish conquest of Latin America and the repatriation of the wealth of the colonies, incited piracy in the Caribbean from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The emergence of Great Britain as a global maritime power led to a substantial decline in piracy as the global interests of the British Empire were being actively protected by its navy. By the 20th century, piracy became a marginal activity as ships became bigger and faster (more difficult to board), most of the commercial navigation took place on the high seas (more difficult to spot and intercept), and as the cargo being carried shifted to bulk or break bulk, which could no longer be easily hauled away. The surge in global trade in the second half of the 20th century created an environment where piracy saw a resurgence. Shipping lines are forced to pass through constrained areas, chokepoints, namely straits such as Malacca and Bab el Mandab, along the heavily used Asia-Europe maritime routes, which makes the interception of ships more feasible within a delimited area. Poverty and political instability are also linked with piracy as, on one side, piracy becomes a source of revenue. On the other, there are limited national institutions and means available to deter piracy. In such a vacuum, loose but well-organized piracy activities have emerged. Somalia and Yemen can be considered dysfunctional states that are unfortunately located on both sides of the Gulf of Aden, where the world’s most important shipping routes converge on their way to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal. As the above map underlines, they represent the largest concentration of piracy activities in the world, along with the Strait of Malacca, the South China Sea, and the Gulf of Guinea (mostly Nigeria). A troubling pattern that has emerged is the growing distance from the coast. This is particularly the case of the Eastern African coast, which implies the use of larger re-supply ships serving as logistical platforms for high-seas piracy operations. Piracy tends to occur in international waters, creating a problem of jurisdiction. The most common piracy strategies involve boarding the ship to steal from the crew or the passengers, abducting the crew or the ship and asking for a ransom from the shipping company (which is more than often paid), and stealing the cargo (or sometimes even the whole ship) and selling it on the black market. Piracy can also serve political purposes as the purpose is to assault and damage ships not for commercial gain but to interdict access. For instance, in the Fall of 2023, Yemeni rebels initiated a series of drone and missile strikes at ships around the strait of Bab el-Mandheb. This underlines that ship AIS (Automated Identification Systems) can be used as a tool to identify and track the location of potential targets. Piracy is well known to take place on the high seas, but a significant share of the acts considered piracy take place while a ship is docked at a port, where there is an easier opportunity to board. This occurs at terminals in developing countries where security is laxer or where port security officials can be bribed. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/global-maritime-piracy/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/global-maritime-piracy/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/global-maritime-piracy/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/global-maritime-piracy/?share=reddit) - --- ### [E-Commerce Retail Sales as a Percent of Total Sales, United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/e-commerce-retail-sales-united-states/) **Published:** March 13, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ecommerce_sales_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "E-Commerce Retail Sales as a Percent of Total Sales, United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")E Commerce Retail Sales as a Percent of Total Sales United States*Source: Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.* E-commerce retail sales in the United States are illustrative of the diffusion of e-commerce, either as a complement or a substitution to conventional retail sales. From a negligible share of less than 1% in early 2000, it steadily grew until around 2015, when the trend accelerated. E-commerce became mainstream with well-known online retail platforms, with 10% of total retail sales in 2019. Most of this growth was associated with a shift in consumer behavior, resulting in a substitution from store sales to online sales. By the mid-2010s, distributional capabilities and e-commerce logistics were well-established, making home deliveries reliable. The lockdowns associated with the COVID-19 pandemic in the first half of 2020 had a substantial impact on e-commerce activity, which surged in 2020 to 16% of total retail sales. E-commerce represented an alternative to accessing retail goods, creating a sudden spike in demand. Once the lockdowns ended, the share declined to 15%. In the following quarters, the share declined slightly, reflecting a readjustment of retail activity with more normalized activities. This endured until the middle of 2022, when the share of online retail sales resumed its upward trend. The transitory effect of the pandemic on e-commerce is apparent and lasted about two years. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/e-commerce-retail-sales-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/e-commerce-retail-sales-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/e-commerce-retail-sales-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/e-commerce-retail-sales-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Steel Wires in a Warehouse, Port of Halifax](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/steel-wire-halifax/) **Published:** November 26, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Steel Wires Warehouse Port Halifax](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/steel_wires_warehouse_port_halifax.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Steel Wires in a Warehouse, Port of Halifax | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Steel Wires in a Warehouse Port of Halifax*Source: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2008* Steel is a commodity that is used for a wide variety of purposes. In the above photo, rolls of steel wire are waiting in a general cargo warehouse (breakbulk) in the port of Halifax, Nova Scotia (Canada). They were manufactured by the Brazilian conglomerate Belgo Mineira, one of Latin America’s largest steel producers. Its main shareholder is the European conglomerate Arcelor Group (a merger of French, Spanish, and Luxembourg steel companies), which is the world’s largest steel producer. This shipment was purchased by the global tire manufacturer Michelin, which has three factories in Nova Scotia and is the province’s fourth-largest employer. The wires will mainly be used to manufacture heavy machinery tires, which will then be shipped to Latin American assembly plants. Thus, in this case, warehousing involves European conglomerates procuring for their North and Latin American supply chains. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/steel-wire-halifax/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/steel-wire-halifax/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/steel-wire-halifax/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/steel-wire-halifax/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Clipper Ships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/clipper-ship/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/clippersc.jpg?resize=600%2C363&ssl=1 "Clipper Ship "Prinz Albert", 1897 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Clipper Ships*Source: “The Prinz Albert” (1897) painted by Antonio Jacobsen (1850-1921).* Clipper ships were so named because they were fast sailors, a term derived from to “clip”, which is getting as much propulsion as possible from the available wind. They represented the utmost evolution and refinement in the design of sailships. The name was adopted by the 1830s for a fast seagoing, cargo-carrying vessel. Up to 20 nautical mph speeds have been recorded but with limited cargo-carrying capacity (long and thin design with large sail surface). Because of this advantage, they were able to fill a valuable niche of “express” cargo and passenger services, much similar to what long-distance airliners assumed from the 1960s. They usually carried crews of about 25 to 50 sailors. Their impact on trade was very significant, as before their introduction, it could take between 12 and 15 months to sail from South Asia to England. By 1850, this journey was halved. For instance, the clipper ship “Oriental” could sail from Hong Kong to London in 97 days. The absolute one-day distance record made by a clipper involved 436 nautical miles. Clipper ships were fast, but no specific rig type was standard. By 1845, the term was used in conjunction with a name indicating the cargo carried, or area served by a fast-sailing vessel, and a specific rig type was usually indicated. For instance, the **California clipper**, the **China clipper,** and the **tea clipper** were all ship-rigged vessels with sharp bows and were designed for speed. As hinted, the growth of the China trade in the second half of the 19th century created the most substantial impetus for the usage of clippers. Tea was a particularly time-sensitive commodity since its quality deteriorated with time and thus commercially benefited from fast clipper services. The clipper era ended when reduced freight rates made possible the introduction of steamships that offered the double benefit of faster speeds as well as using direct paths. The economies of scale they conferred undermined the [competitiveness](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/steam-sail-breakeven/ "Break-Even Distance between Sail and Steam, 1850-1890") of sailships over increasingly longer distances. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 also favored the usage of steamships in long-distance trade between Europe and Asia by reducing travel distances and undermining the niche advantage that clipper ships had over such distances. By the early 20th century, clipper ships were no longer competitive and disappeared from global shipping lanes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/clipper-ship/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/clipper-ship/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/clipper-ship/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/clipper-ship/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Geographical Space of Maritime Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/maritime-transportation-geography-components/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-World-Passages-Simplified-1.png?resize=900%2C457&ssl=1 "The Geographical Space of Maritime Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Geographical Space of Maritime Transportation[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Passages-Simplified-1.pdf) The geographical space of maritime transportation is primarily defined by its absolute barriers. 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water, dominantly oceanic masses, but the profile of continental masses seriously constrains maritime access to different parts of the world. The maritime system can be summarized by four major oceans representing centers of gravity between elements of the world system (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Mediterranean) and seven [interoceanic passages](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/) representing intermediate locations between these oceanic masses. They are all strategic locations within the maritime space, particularly the bottlenecks at the nexus of major interoceanic passages. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/maritime-transportation-geography-components/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/maritime-transportation-geography-components/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/maritime-transportation-geography-components/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/maritime-transportation-geography-components/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Submarine Cable Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-submarine-cable-network/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Oceanic-Cables.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Global Submarine Cable Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Submarine Cable Network*Source: Dataset encoded by Greg Mahlknecht.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_World_Oceanic_Cables.pdf) The setting of the first submarine cables took place in the second half of the 19th century, notably with the laying of the first successful transatlantic cable in 1866. By 1900, a global telegraphic cable network was established, and transpacific connections were completed in 1902. By 1956, the telegraphic system had switched to telephonic cables, and the first transatlantic telephone line had been installed (TAT-1). However, since their inception, submarine cables have been facing a bandwidth problem, making transoceanic communication expensive and mostly used for business or government transactions. As was the case in the 19th century, submarine cables are laid by ships and thus capital-intensive projects. The development of **fiber optic transmission technology** provided a substantial impetus in setting up a global telecommunication network since it permitted significantly higher bandwidth and less signal degradation. Throughput of hundreds of gigabytes of information per second became possible. The first transatlantic fiber-optic cable (TAT-8) was laid in 1988. Over the years, fiber optic cables were laid worldwide, connecting economies and societies increasingly dependent on telecommunications (see the above map). The internet could not have existed otherwise. While initial submarine cables were laid on a point-to-point basis, technical advances permitted branching so that one cable could service a sequence of hubs (e.g. Africa and Latin America). The global network is designed for redundancy. Several cables are laid in parallel for major connections (transatlantic and transpacific), implying that a failure in one cable can be mitigated by rerouting traffic to the others. In recent years, Pacific Asia has seen significant submarine cable laying activities supporting its economic development. In 2012, a new route for submarine cable was established, with the first Arctic cables connecting London and Tokyo through the Northwest Passage. Besides, it shaves about 60 milliseconds in the connection speed to provide additional redundancy to the global telecommunication network. Lower latency (delay) levels improve bandwidth-intensive telecommunications between Europe and Pacific Asia, such as financial transactions and videoconferencing. Another trend concerns setting up large **data centers** in northern areas, namely Scandinavian countries. They benefit from cooler temperatures, which confers savings as data centers generate a lot of heat. Because of hydroelectric potential, Nordic countries generally have lower electricity costs. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-submarine-cable-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-submarine-cable-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-submarine-cable-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-submarine-cable-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Travel Time between London and the Rest of the World, 1914](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/travel-time-between-london-world-1914/) **Published:** January 30, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Travel Time London World 1914](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/travel_time_london_world_1914.jpg?resize=900%2C609&ssl=1 "Travel Time between London and the Rest of the World, 1914 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Travel Time between London and the Rest of the World 1914*Source: Map by John G. Bartholomew, An Atlas of Economic Geography (1914), London: Oxford University Press.* By the early 20th century, a global system of maritime and rail routes had been established, but the connectivity and accessibility it provided were far from being uniform. This lack of uniformity reflected economic and political imperatives. At that time, the British Empire was dominant, with an extensive network of maritime shipping services. Therefore, London could be considered the most connected and accessible location in the world. The above map provides isochronic distances from London, which are classified by the number of travel days. These distances are reflective of existing services and inland transport infrastructures. For instance, the Suez Canal provided improved accessibility to South Asia, while the effects of the Panama Canal (completed the same year) were not yet apparent. Continental differences are notable as North America, with its extensive rail network, is well connected, with a spatial reach unavailable in South America and Africa. Also apparent is the trans-Siberian railway, which provides significant accessibility benefits in central Asia. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/travel-time-between-london-world-1914/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/travel-time-between-london-world-1914/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/travel-time-between-london-world-1914/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/travel-time-between-london-world-1914/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Maritime Trade Routes, 1912](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/world-trade-routes-1912/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Maritime-Trade-Routes-1912.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "World Trade Routes, 1912 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Trade Routes 1912*Source: U.S. Hydrographic Chart #1262, 1912. W.S. Morison.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_World_Maritime_Trade_Routes_1912.pdf) By the early 20th century, a global trade network supported by steamships was well established. Still, the range of steamships had limitations as the fuel used was coal. Refueling stages were required for long-distance trade, such as Cape Town, Pernambuco, Valparaiso, Honolulu, or Singapore. The Suez Canal was opened in 1868, implying that the main trade route between Europe and the Far East was a linear sequence of intermediate locations; Port Said, Aden, Colombo, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Once the Panama Canal opened in 1914, transatlantic and transpacific routes were simplified. By 1912, commercial sailship services were on the verge of disappearing. The only cost-effective routes were extremely long distances, such as New York – San Francisco (via Cape Horn) or Liverpool – Melbourne (via Cape of Good Hope). While steamship routes were direct and followed, when possible, the great circle distance, sailship routes were configured to take advantage of dominant wind patterns. For instance, the Liverpool – Sydney sail route is shaped to take advantage of the “trade winds” (Westerlies). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/world-trade-routes-1912/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/world-trade-routes-1912/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/world-trade-routes-1912/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/world-trade-routes-1912/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Impacts of Maury's Navigation Charts on Sailing Time, 1850s](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/maury-navigation-sailing-1850/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Maury-Trade-Routes-1858.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Impacts of Maury's Navigation Charts on Sailing Time, 1850s | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of Maurys Navigation Charts on Sailing Time 1850s*Source: Leighly, J. (ed) (1963) The Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteorology by Matthew Fontaine Maury, 8th Edition, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. Cited by Knowles, R.D. (2006) “Transport shaping space: the differential collapse of time/space”, Journal of Transport Geography, 14(6), pp. 407-425.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Maury_Trade_Routes_1858.pdf) The navigator Matthew Fontaine Maury collected between 1842 and 1861 an extensive array of ship logs, enabling him to chart prevailing winds and sea currents, as well as their seasonal variations. While mariners were well aware of specific regional conditions, such as the Gulf Stream, Maury was the first to comprehensively tally oceanographic conditions at the global level. Much of this information appeared in “The Physical Geography of the Sea”, published in 1855, considered the first significant oceanography textbook. Such knowledge allowed the shortening of sailing time, especially over long distances. For instance, a journey from New York to Rio de Janeiro was reduced by 32 days, without any technical improvements on the ship, but by simply taking better advantage of prevailing winds and sea currents. Maury also demonstrated that the longer eastbound sailing route rounding Cape Horn to sail from Australia to Europe or North America was faster than the shorter westbound sailing route rounding the Cape of Good Hope. The outcome was the creation of relatively well-defined navigation routes that followed dominant wind patterns. It represented a near-optimal use of routing for sailing, which would remain until [replaced by steamships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1179) in the late 19th century. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/maury-navigation-sailing-1850/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/maury-navigation-sailing-1850/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/maury-navigation-sailing-1850/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/maury-navigation-sailing-1850/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Spanish and Portuguese Empires (1581-1640)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/spanish-portuguese-empires-17th-century/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Spanish-and-Portuguese-Empires.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "Spanish and Portuguese Empires (1581-1640) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Spanish and Portuguese Empires 1581 1640*Source: adapted from Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1911. The Age of Discovery, 1340-1600. University of Texas at Austin.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Spanish-Portuguese-Empires-16-17c.pdf) Spain and Portugal were the first European nations to establish trade empires spanning the world. By treaty (Tordesillas, 1494 and Zaragoza, 1529) most of the Americas were claimed by Spain, with the exception of Brazil, while several coastal territories of Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Pacific Asia were claimed by Portugal, except for the Philippines that Spain claimed before the Treaty of Zaragoza was ratified. The setting of these empires was supported by trade routes bringing the newfound wealth of the claimed territories. One important source of commodities was the “Spice Islands” of Southeast Asia, where the Portuguese collected from Timor and Malacca, and the Spanish collected from Manila. The Spanish trade route then crossed the Pacific to be transited through the American land bridge linking ports such as Acapulco and Veracruz. The wealth collected from the west coast of South America also transited through the isthmus of Panama through Colon. A substantial amount of wealth was thus transiting through the Caribbean on its way to Europe. For the Portuguese, the trade route did not require a land bridge but had to round the Cape of Good Hope. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/spanish-portuguese-empires-17th-century/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/spanish-portuguese-empires-17th-century/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/spanish-portuguese-empires-17th-century/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/spanish-portuguese-empires-17th-century/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Dawn of Containerization: 1970](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/dawn-containerization/) **Published:** December 10, 2021 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-1970.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "The Dawn of Containerization: 1970 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Dawn of Containerization 1970*Source: Containerization International.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-1970-1.pdf) The first containerized shipping services were established in the United States in the late 1950s and early 1960s. There were no specific container size standards, with the most prevalent form being the 35-foot container. By 1968, a standard was reached, defining 20-foot and 40-foot containers as the norm. This allowed the construction of single-purpose ships and specialized terminal facilities. Still, the uncertainty and capital-intensiveness of containerization implied a particular diffusion pattern focused on the United States. It was not until 1970 that a global system of container ports and shipping services started to emerge, and ports started reporting traffic in TEU (Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit), a standard that was set just two years earlier. Early container shipping activity was highly clustered and involved economies with a strong relationship with the United States. This is reflective of the importance of existing trade relations along which the innovation could diffuse and capture market opportunities. - The first cluster involved **domestic services** between the continental United States, Alaska, and Hawaii on the West Coast and Puerto Rico on the East Coast. Initially, container shipping was developed to service the American domestic market, particularly between the East, Gulf, and West coasts, as well as the Caribbean. - The second cluster concerned **Western European ports** in the British Isles and the northern range (France, Belgium, Netherlands, and West Germany). The first transatlantic container shipping services began in 1966 between New York and Rotterdam. Initially, shippers were skeptical about the potential of long distance container shipping which was perceived to be more suitable for short distance and domestic markets. By 1970, the advantages of container shipping became apparent. - The third cluster was **Japan**, which was becoming an export-oriented economy with the United States as the principal partner at the time. Asian containerized shipping routes began in 1967 as a by-product of American military activities in Vietnam. From 1968, return stops were made in Japan to pick up cargo on the way back to the United States. At that time, Japan was becoming an export-oriented economy, which began to set transpacific container flow patterns. - The fourth cluster was **Australia**, for which containerization offered a strong incentive for cost reduction for long-distance break bulk trade with Western Europe and the United States. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/dawn-containerization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/dawn-containerization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/dawn-containerization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/dawn-containerization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Comparison between a Contemporary and a Second World War Tanker](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/tanker-size-second-world-war-ulcc/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/t2_vlcc2.png?resize=900%2C289&ssl=1 "Comparison between a Contemporary and a Second World War Tanker | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Comparison between a Contemporary and a Second World War TankerShips became increasingly **larger and specialized** in the second half of the 20th century. This led to the development of general cargo ships, tankers, grain carriers, barges, mineral carriers, bulk carriers, methane carriers, and container ships. Tankers, which were built to carry the enormous petroleum traffic of the post-World War II era, are extremely simple in design. Machinery is concentrated at the stern, and virtually all the remaining space is devoted to compartments for liquid cargo. The growth in ship size is usually a [stepwise process](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2161). In 1959, the 100,000 dwt barrier was breached with the delivery of the Universe Apollo. By 1975, a VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier) was more than 300 meters long, twice the length of a 1942 T2 tanker of 150 meters. The T2 tanker could carry about 141,200 barrels (5,930,000 gallons) and had a deadweight tonnage of about 16,000 tons. VLCCs introduced in the 1970s had a deadweight tonnage between 150,000 and 300,000 tons and could carry between 800,000 and 2 million barrels. Physical limits have, however, been reached in 1980 with the ULCC Seawise Giant, having a dwt of 564,739 and a draft of 24.6 meters. No larger tanker ship has since then been built. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/tanker-size-second-world-war-ulcc/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/tanker-size-second-world-war-ulcc/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/tanker-size-second-world-war-ulcc/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/tanker-size-second-world-war-ulcc/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Grand Canal System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/grand-canal-china/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/China_grand_canal.png?resize=734%2C913&ssl=1 "Grand Canal System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Grand Canal System*Source: adapted from Delfs, R. (1990) “Arteries of the Empire”, Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 March 1990, pp. 28-29.* The Grand Canal system (or Da Yun He) represents a remarkable imperial Chinese hydraulic engineering achievement. At its peak during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 AD), the system totaled about 2,500 kilometers, with Beijing at its northernmost extension, Hangzhou at its southernmost point, and Luoyang at its easternmost point. It connected the political center of the empire in the north (especially from the Song dynasty; 960 AD) with the economic and agricultural centers of central and southern China. This was mainly achieved by linking two of China’s most important river basins, the Yellow River (Huang He) and the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). The canal must ascend a gradual slope to an elevation of more than 40 meters north of the Yangtze. A system of locks (the Chinese are attributed to the first lock ever built in 983), feeder lakes, and lateral canals were constructed to ensure safe circulation. Under such circumstances, the control of a unified China became a possibility. The Grand Canal is acknowledged as a significant element in imperial China’s economic and political stability, mainly through grain distribution. The canal has a long history of engineering projects that have controlled river systems and provided irrigation. Due to its hydrography, movements were easier on its East-West axis, while North-South communications were more arduous. The initial course of the canal, completed around 605 AD by the Sui dynasty (581 – 618 AD), provided a much-needed North-South axis by connecting several sections constructed at earlier times, starting from the Wu Kingdom era (486 BC). The initial goal of canal construction, which would change little over time, was shipping agricultural commodities through the empire, notably to the capitals. For the Sui dynasty, the goal was to link their western capital, Luoyang, to the rich agricultural regions of the lower Yangtze. The capital of the Tang dynasty (618 – 907 AD), Chang’an (Xi’an), was further west along a tributary of the Yellow River but linked to the Grand Canal. For the Yuan / Mongol (1279 – 1368 AD) and Ming dynasties, the Grand Canal linked the Northern Capital (Beijing) to southern China, enabling rice grown in southern China to supply the wheat-growing regions of the north. To promote trade and the use of the canal, the Imperial government issued an edict in 1415 forbidding the northward shipment of grain by sea. This had the unintended consequence of reducing the need to maintain a shipping fleet and prevented China from becoming a maritime power. The density of the canal system was the highest south of the Yangtze Delta. Along the Yangzhou – Suzhou – Hangzhou trunk line, every town of importance was linked to a complex system of canals, creating a unique economic and social system where a large amount of wealth was derived from canal trade. At its peak during the 15th and 16th centuries, about 400,000 tons of grain transited on the canal each year. However, during the Qing dynasty (1644 – 1911), the canal gradually fell into disrepair, and some sections were abandoned. A major change in the course of the Yellow River in 1855 cut the Grand Canal into two sections. By the first half of the 20th century, the canal was no longer functioning coherently. Today, the canal is about 1,700 kilometers long and is still heavily used in the Yangtze Delta. About 100,000 river vessels transit on the canal each year, carrying about 260 million tons, mostly construction material. Thus, the canal offers an alternative to move ponderous goods that otherwise could not be handled effectively by China’s transport system. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/grand-canal-china/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/grand-canal-china/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/grand-canal-china/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/grand-canal-china/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Tokaido Corridor](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/tokyo-osaka-corridor-tokaido/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tokaido-megalopolis.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "The Tokaido Megalopolis | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Tokaido Corridor[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Tokaido-Megalopolis.pdf) Tokaido (also labeled the Taiheiyo Belt) represents a considerable accumulation of infrastructures and productive forces along the Tokyo-Osaka corridor, which is its core. The term refers to the imperial road that linked Edo (Tokyo) to Kyoto but now refers to an urban region accounting for more than 83 million people; 70% of the Japanese population. The most important agglomerations are the extended metropolitan region of Tokyo, with a population of 35 million, Nagoya and Osaka, with respective populations of 8 and 17 million. There are also several cities with over 1 million inhabitants (Kobe, Kyoto, and Yokohama). The corridor is strongly influenced by geographical constraints with a mountainous inland Japan and three major coastal plains around bays (Bays of Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka). The cohesion of the corridor is assumed by massive transport infrastructures, including ports, airports, highways, and especially a high-speed train network ([Shinkansen](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/shinkansen-high-speed-rail-network/ "The Shinkansen High Speed Rail Network")). The first rail connection in the corridor was built in the 1880s. In 1930, an express train on the Tokaido Line took an average of eight hours and 20 minutes between Tokyo and Osaka. The high-speed train system reduced that time to 4 hours by the 1960s, and new generations of trains further reduced this trip to two hours and thirty minutes by 2000. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/tokyo-osaka-corridor-tokaido/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/tokyo-osaka-corridor-tokaido/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/tokyo-osaka-corridor-tokaido/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/tokyo-osaka-corridor-tokaido/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.5 – Urban Freight Distribution Channels](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/) **Published:** February 26, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue & Dr. Laetitia Dablanc > Freight distribution in urban areas involves consumer-related and producer-related channels. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Dualism of Urban Freight Distribution](#1_The_Dualism_of_Urban_Freight_Distribution) - [2. Consumer-Related Distribution](#2_Consumer-Related_Distribution) - [3. Producer-Related Distribution](#3_Producer-Related_Distribution) # 1. The Dualism of Urban Freight Distribution All urban freight distribution systems involve a wide array of supply chains, each of varying importance depending on the urban setting and the level of development, but coming into two main functional classes and associated with [specific freight flows](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/types-urban-freight-flows/ "Types of Urban Freight Flows"); consumer-related and producer-related distribution. Two actors, private and common carriers, are handling commercial freight transportation. **Private carriers** are beneficial cargo owners (manufacturers or retailers) using their transportation assets (fleet and workforce). They can also subcontract this function to an independent carrier. **Common carriers** service any customer on a contractual basis, leading to the opportunity to consolidate cargo and deliveries. The share of private carriers is dominant for urban freight distribution in developing countries, while in developed countries, common carriers account for about half of urban deliveries. The issue of **dualism** remains prevalent in urban freight distribution as it underlines different modes of operation between distribution systems that are integrated into globally oriented supply chains and distribution systems linked with informal activities that are more related to the local or regional economy. This is best represented by owner-drivers, or small independent truckers acting as sub-contractors to large carriers for the final distribution of goods in urban areas. Therefore, dualism is illustrative of the co-existence of modern and traditional means of freight distribution within the same metropolitan area. Another aspect of dualism is related to an active informal transportation sector that supplies the needs of lower-income segments of the population, a very important component of city logistics services in developing countries. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_urban_freight_flows.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Types of Urban Freight Flows | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Urban Freight Flows# 2. Consumer-Related Distribution Consumer-related distribution mainly involves the [retail sector](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/forms-urban-retail-goods-movements/ "Main Forms of Urban Retail Goods Movements") and the distribution of goods to the final consumer. They tend to be the main freight attractors. - **Independent retailing**. Urban areas have a notable variety of retailing activities, many of which define the commercial and social character of neighborhoods. They are often small single-owner stores, and in developing countries, these retailing activities are often complemented by informal street markets and stalls. This form of retailing usually relies on a variety of suppliers that tend to rely on their own account delivery vehicles. - **Chain retailing**. In the contemporary commercial landscape, chain retailing (stores directly affiliated with a common brand or franchised by this brand) has become an important element. Like independent retailing, chain retailing covers an extensive array of goods supplied by manufacturers that have extensively relied on global sourcing. Chain retail outlets are located in central areas (and are a defining element of urban centrality) as well as in suburban and peri-urban areas (such as “Big-box” stores). Shopping malls, many quite large, are set on the principle of economies of agglomeration and the provision of ample parking space. Chain retailing tends to rely on the expertise of third-party logistics services providers to mitigate urban freight distribution challenges, but mostly to organize complex multinational sourcing strategies for mass retailers. Large stores are commonly accessed through dedicated delivery bays, where they are resupplied on a daily basis through their regional warehousing facilities. - **Food deliveries**. Since most food products are perishable, a specialized form of urban distribution has been set to supply outlets such as grocery stores and restaurants. A large grocery store can receive 15 to 30 deliveries per day from different suppliers using specialized delivery facilities. Smaller grocery stores have fewer capabilities, which can result in alternative forms of delivery, such as [using the sidewalk](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/curbside-delivery-grocery-store/ "Curbside Delivery at a Grocery Store"). The outdoor market (central markets offer enclosed facilities) also plays an important role in supplying urban populations with perishables, particularly in developing countries. This may be linked with informal forms of distribution where food producers deliver their products to urban markets. Limited information is available about urban food consumption levels, but high levels of spoilage are observed in the range of 50% of all the food consumed. Since food deliveries commonly involve perishable goods, the reliable transport of refrigerated goods (often referred to as cold chain logistics) is an important component in improving this relatively poor performance. - **Parcel and home deliveries**. Globalization and the setting of advanced services such as insurance, finance, or corporate management (head or regional offices) are linked with a growth in the movement of parcels and the creation of [parcel delivery markets](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/courier-express-parcel-markets/ "The Courier, Express and Parcel Markets"). While some are serviced by local companies, large parcel carriers have established services covering the majority of the world’s leading commercial cities. They maintain a network of strategically located distribution centers where shipments are consolidated or deconsolidated. International shipments are often taken care of by parent companies, namely air freight integrators. However, the main growth in parcel deliveries is associated with e-commerce and its home deliveries for retail goods, including niche markets such as groceries. The emergence of [distribution-based consumption](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/distribution-based-consumption/ "Distribution-Based Consumption") (personal consumption contingent upon physical distribution within a set time frame) supported by e-commerce is an important driver of [home deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4478). This requires significant logistical capabilities with many large e-commerce retailers owning a network of distribution centers and even delivery vehicles, all of which are supported by information systems for orders, inventory management, and tracking. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/forms_retail_goods_movements.png?resize=900%2C252&ssl=1 "Main Forms of Urban Retail Goods Movements | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Forms of Urban Retail Goods Movements![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2020-09-18-155533.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Curbside Delivery at a Grocery Store | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Curbside Delivery at a Grocery Store![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2018-05-31-144112.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Delivery Truck at a Suburban Retail Store | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Delivery Truck at a Suburban Retail Store![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/courier_express_parcel_markets.png?resize=900%2C476&ssl=1 "The Courier, Express and Parcel Markets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Courier Express and Parcel Markets![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distribution_based_consumption.png?resize=900%2C676&ssl=1 "Distribution-Based Consumption | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Distribution Based Consumption# 3. Producer-Related Distribution Producer-related distribution mainly involves the manufacturing sector and related activities such as transportation terminals. They are the main generators of freight. - **Industrial haulage**. Cities are zones of production as well as gateways for the circulation of goods. Manufacturing activities thus generate substantial freight movements that tend to be proportional to the material intensity of their production and the synchronicity of their supply chains. For instance, a cement factory will generate heavy trucking flows of aggregates (sand, silicate) while a car assembly plant will generate numerous movements of parts. - **Terminal haulage**. Large transportation terminals such as ports, airports, and railyards are dominant elements of the urban landscape, including logistics zones where freight is distributed to extensive markets. Transport terminals and logistics zones are also generators of goods movements that may impact urban circulation (the last mile). Gate access at large intermodal terminals such as ports can lead to congestion (queuing) and local disruptions. - **Construction sites**. Urban infrastructures, from roads and residences to offices and retail spaces, are constantly being constructed, renovated, repaired, and, in some cases, destroyed to make room for new developments. Such activities are intensive in material use and must be supplied on an irregular basis, both in terms of the time and location of the deliveries. Thus, they can be very disruptive. - **Waste collection and disposal**. Urban activities generate large quantities of waste, namely paper, paperboard, food, plastics, metals, and glass. These materials must be collected and carried to recycling or disposal sites. In particular, recycling has become an important activity taking place in urban areas and involves specialized vehicles and dedicated pick-up tours. As standards of living are increasing across the world, the amount of waste generated by cities has grown accordingly. --- ## Bibliography ITF (2024) Urban Logistics Hubs: Summary and Conclusions, ITF Roundtable Reports, No. 195, OECD Publishing, Paris. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.1 – What is City Logistics?](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/) **Published:** December 26, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Laetitia Dablanc > **City logistics** is the means enabling freight distribution in urban areas and the strategies that can improve its efficiency while mitigating externalities such as congestion and emissions. It involves managing the movement of urban goods and providing innovative responses to customer demands. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Defining City Logistics](#1_Defining_City_Logistics) - [2. Main Driving Factors](#2_Main_Driving_Factors) - [3. Emerging Concerns](#3_Emerging_Concerns) # 1. Defining City Logistics City logistics is inherently **interdisciplinary**, trying to reconcile several domains of inquiry and analysis. Freight movements are a function of economic activities and their spatial organization, which are within the domains of urban geography and economics. They are also a function of consumer demand, which is within the domains of economics, and sociology. Freight mobility is managed by competing transportation and logistics service providers constantly seeking new efficiencies, which is within the logistics domain. This mobility is also a function of sourcing, procurement production, and distribution, the domain of supply chain management. Finally, freight mobility is affected by the provision, quantity, and quality of infrastructure and public policies, the domains of urban planning, and engineering. The complexity of urban freight distribution and potential conflicts between key [stakeholders](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/stakeholders-urban-freight-distribution/ "Main Stakeholders in Urban Freight Distribution") requires a comprehensive approach. These stakeholders are each able to influence and shape city logistics: - **Cargo owners**. Need freight moved as part of their commercial or manufacturing activities. They are mainly concerned with the cost, capacity, and reliability of deliveries. - **Residents**. The main recipients of urban deliveries. Residents expect easy access to consumer goods and the prompt removal of refuse. They also expect not to be affected by truck traffic, noise, and pollution. - **Retailers**. Need to receive products and have refuse removed. They are mainly concerned with consistent and reliable deliveries that minimize inventory costs. - **Distributors**. Carriers move the goods and try to implement strategies to improve efficiency and reliability. They are concerned by factors impacting their operations, particularly congestion and parking difficulties. - **Planners and regulators**. Implement policies to mitigate the negative impacts of city logistics. They are trying to reconcile the often-conflicting interests of the many stakeholders within their jurisdiction. Freight distribution maintains a set of [core relations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/core-relations-freight-urban-areas/ "Core Relations Between Freight and Urban Areas") with urban areas in terms of the footprint of freight activities and the strategies put in place to ensure its efficiency. City Logistics enables urban freight mobility by transporting goods by or for commercial entities in an urban area. It is a strategy ensuring efficient freight movements and innovative responses to urban customer and business demands. As an emerging field of investigation, it was brought by the challenges of the commodification and massification of production and consumption. Still, city logistics and supply chain management are distinct processes focusing on [separate issues](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/conceptual-differences-supply-chain-city-logistics/ "Conceptual Differences between Supply Chain Management and City Logistics"). Store inventory levels have shrunk, and businesses are increasingly supplied on a **just-in-time basis**. The number of different products sold has increased considerably, and inventories change several times a year. With the rise of the service economy, the demand for express transport and courier services is also soaring. These factors have made urban economies more dependent on transportation systems, with more frequent and customized deliveries. The above incites a higher intensity and frequency of urban freight distribution and improved [forms, organization, and management](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/city-functions-urban-distribution/ "City Functions and Urban Distribution"). Accurate figures are difficult to come by, but urban goods movements account for 20 to 30% of all vehicle kilometers within a metropolitan area. There is a complex relationship between the [spatial and functional structure of city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/spatial-functional-structure-urban-logistics/ "The Spatial and Functional Structure of Urban Logistics"), where the organization and density of land use interact with various forms of transport infrastructure to influence the location of logistics activities. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/stakeholders_urban_freight_distribution.png?resize=900%2C533&ssl=1 "Main Stakeholders in Urban Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Stakeholders in Urban Freight Distribution![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relations_freight_urban_area.png?resize=900%2C438&ssl=1 "Core Relations Between Freight and Urban Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Core Relations Between Freight and Urban Areas![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/conceptual_differences_scm_city_logistics.png?resize=900%2C474&ssl=1 "Conceptual Differences between Supply Chain Management and City Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Conceptual Differences between Supply Chain Management and City Logistics![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/city_functions_urban_distributions.png?resize=900%2C608&ssl=1 "City Functions and Urban Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")City Functions and Urban Distribution![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/spatial_functional_urban_logistics.png?resize=900%2C387&ssl=1 "The Spatial and Functional Structure of Urban Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Spatial and Functional Structure of Urban Logistics# 2. Main Driving Factors Although city logistics appears to be an issue taking place at the local (metropolitan) level, a comprehensive understanding of its [drivers and dynamics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/driving-factors-city-logistics/ "Main Driving Factors for City Logistics") requires the consideration of core driving factors, many of which are external to the city itself. They impact the scale and scope of city logistics. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/driving_factors_city_logistics.png?resize=900%2C498&ssl=1 "Main Driving Factors for City Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Driving Factors for City Logistics![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/typology_criteria_city_logistics.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "Typological Criteria for City Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Typological Criteria for City Logistics## Urbanization Cities present a variety of [forms and levels of density](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/typological-criteria-city-logistics/ "Typological Criteria for City Logistics"), each associated with specific city logistics patterns. Since the mid-20th century, the world’s urban population has more than doubled and now accounts for more than half the world’s population. This transition is expected to go on well into the second half of the 21st century, a trend reflected in the growing size of cities and the increasing proportion of the urbanized population. By 2050, 70% of the global population is expected to live in cities, underlining the growing importance of the urban market as a point of distribution. Global urbanization is compounding the challenges of city logistics since the share and the level of concentration of the global population living in cities is increasing. Further, the setting or urban regions imply a variety of contexts in which city logistics is taking place; from high-density central areas to low-density suburbs. In less developed countries, rural migration and population growth have led to rapid urbanization, while the public supply of infrastructure and transport services has lagged, impairing the efficiency of urban deliveries. Historically, the generation and attraction of freight have dominantly taken place in cities, but with the Industrial Revolution and subsequently, with globalization, this share has increased. Cities dominate the national economic output as they account for the bulk of the production, distribution, and consumption. ## Changes in consumption patterns Socioeconomic factors, such as rising income, the declining relative price of goods, and consumer preferences, should also not be neglected. The global rise in average income and living standards supports the growth of a material economy based on providing goods and services. For example, in the 20th century, food affordability as measured in the equivalent number of hours worked, increased on average between 2% and 2.5% per year. The growth of the urban population and changing consumption patterns create a multiplying effect on the demand for freight circulating in urban areas. This incites the development of retail facilities and the supporting infrastructure of distribution centers. Many developing economies have reached middle-income levels after which consumption is becoming increasingly diversified and sophisticated. In addition to basic items such as food, discretionary consumption implies a range of retail goods, which drive additional urban freight volumes. Further, the growth of e-commerce in advanced economies has opened an entirely new system of consumption with online purchases resulting in home deliveries and deliveries at alternative locations such as offices or locker banks. This new paradigm is driving a new system of urban freight distribution, which is also permeating in developing economies. ## Global supply chains Global processes of procurement and manufacturing are imposing local forms of adaptation to ensure that freight is delivered in a timely and reliable fashion. Outsourcing and offshoring have contributed to the setting of global supply chains where freight distribution activities taking place within an urban area cannot be effectively explained by the regional economic structure. Supply chains go beyond a single city. Metropolitan areas have become distribution nodes for global supply chains. Since the distances involved in supporting global supply chains have increased, the function of distribution has taken a new significance, particularly with the setting of large terminal facilities such as ports, airports, rail yards, and distribution centers. They are handling movements originating from, bound to, or simply passing through a metropolitan area; an interface for global freight distribution. With containerization as a tool supporting the bulk of international trade, intermodal terminals have become a notable element of the urban landscape. With the growth of valuable cargo carried over long distances, airports are also active nodes interacting with urban freight distribution. Along with their attached freight distribution facilities (e.g. transloading facilities and warehouses), large terminals form a fundamental element of the interface between global distribution and city logistics. Further, pressure to have supply chains being more efficient, timely, and responsive is impacting urban freight distribution. Customers such as retail stores or individuals for home deliveries are expecting their orders to be fulfilled within a shorter lead time and with a high level of reliability. Urban areas have been associated with novel approaches to freight distribution to improve its performance. # 3. Emerging Concerns Most of the early applications of city logistics were undertaken in Japan and Western Europe as these cities were more constrained by the lack of available land and had an established tradition pertaining to urban planning. Up to the 21st century, the consideration of urban freight distribution within the planning discipline remained **limited**. This implies that urban planning generally does not pay much attention to issues related to urban freight distribution. Urban planning usually deals with activities where the public sector is actively involved in terms of ownership and operations, such as public transit and land use zoning. Freight distribution is dominantly a private endeavor where public actors are not directly involved outside the regulatory framework. Yet these issues are linked with externalities and growing concerns by private and public interests to address them: - **Private concerns.** Actors directly involved in urban freight distribution are mainly concerned by its constraints, such as congestion, since it imposes additional costs and delays in their operations. Also, restrictions on street access by trucks, as well as for pickups and deliveries, provide additional challenges. Urban logistics becomes a competitive factor that needs to be addressed since it impairs the cost and efficiency of the last mile (or first) of global supply chains. For parcel deliveries, the last mile usually accounts for about 50% of distribution costs. - **Public concerns**. Actors involved in the oversight of urban freight distribution as well as urban residents, in general, are concerned by its externalities. Congestion and noise impact residents, particularly their commuting and social interactions, as well as the general livability of a city. Therefore, passengers and freight flows are subject to conflicts. Environmental concerns such as air pollution are recurrent in many cities. City logistics is becoming a salient urban sustainability issue. Urban governments have responded to these concerns with a variety of regulations trying to enforce existing traffic and parking ordinances, imposing tolls and fees on vehicles, particularly trucks, and restricting deliveries during peak hours and in congested areas. --- ## Related Topics ## Bibliography - Behrens, S., M. Lindholm and J. Woxenius (2008) “The Impact of Urban Freight Transport: A Definition of Sustainability from an Actor’s Perspective”, Transportation Planning and Technology, Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 693-713. - Browne, M., S. Behrens, J. Woxenius, G. Giuliano and J. Holguin-Veras (eds) (2019) Urban Logistics: Management, Policy and Innovation in a Rapidly Changing Environment. London: Kogan-Page. - Dablanc, L. (2009) Freight Transport, A Key for the New Urban Economy. World Bank, Freight Transport for Development: A Policy Toolkit, July. - Dablanc, L. and A. Fremont (eds) (2015) La métropole logistique: le transport de marchandises et le territoire des grandes villes, Paris : Armand Colin. - Giuliano, G., T. O’Brien, L. Dablanc and K. Holliday (2013) NCFRP Project 36(05) Synthesis of Freight Research in Urban Transportation Planning, Washington D.C.: National Cooperative Freight Research Program. - Gonzalez-Feliu, J., F. Semet and J-L Routhier (eds) (2014) Sustainable Urban Logistics: Concepts, Methods and Information Systems, Heidelberg: Springer. - Hesse, M. (1995) “Urban Space and Logistics: On the Road to Sustainability?”, World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 39-45. - Hesse, M. (2008) The City as a Terminal: The Urban Context of Logistics and Freight Transport, Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate. - ITF (2024) Urban Logistics Hubs: Summary and Conclusions, ITF Roundtable Reports, No. 195, OECD Publishing, Paris. - Maccharis, C. and S. Melo (2010) City Distribution and Urban Freight Transport: Multiple Perspectives. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. - Rodrigue, J-P (2013) “Urban Goods Transport”, in “Planning and Design for Sustainable Urban Mobility: Global Report on Human Settlements 2013“, United Nations Human Settlements Programme, London: Earthscan. - Whiteing, T., M. Browne and J. Allen (2003) “City logistics: the continuing search for sustainable solutions”, in D. Waters (ed) Global Logistics and Distribution Planning, London: Kogan Page, pp. 308-320. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [7.3 - Freight Transportation and Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/) **Published:** November 24, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > A value chain is a functionally integrated network of production, trade, and service activities covering stages from the transformation of raw materials, manufacturing to the delivery of finished goods to a market. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Contemporary Production Systems](#1_Contemporary_Production_Systems) - [2. Defining Value Chains](#2_Defining_Value_Chains) - [3. Integration in Value Chains](#3_Integration_in_Value_Chains) - [4. Freight Transport and Value Chains](#4_Freight_Transport_and_Value_Chains) # 1. Contemporary Production Systems As the [fourth industrial revolution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1363) unfolds, production and consumption are two [core components of economic systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4224) and are interrelated through the conventional supply/demand relationship. Basic economic theory underlines that what is being consumed must be produced, and what is being produced must be consumed. Any **disequilibrium** between supply and demand can be considered a market failure. On one side, insufficient production involves shortages and price increases, while on the other, overproduction and overcapacity involve waste, storage of excess inventory, and price volatility. Economic cycles are the outcome of the continuously shifting balance between supply and demand, with recessions usually taking place when supply exceeds demand for a period. It is mainly through **corporations** and their perception of market opportunities that decisions are made about allocating scarce resources and reconciling production (supply) and consumption (demand). While end markets are composed of individuals, production requires the organization and management of resources by hierarchical decision-making structures. The complexity and scale of contemporary manufacturing lean on an ecosystem of corporations of various sizes characterized by a small number of large corporations and a large number of small and medium-sized enterprises. This ecosystem generates freight flows within a complex distribution system that includes modes and terminals but also facilities consolidating, storing, and deconsolidating these flows. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fourth_industrial_revolution.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "The Four Industrial Revolutions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/four-industrial-revolutions/fourth_industrial_revolution/)The Four Industrial Revolutions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/elements_economic_system.png?resize=900%2C620&ssl=1 "Elements of an Economic System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/economic-system/elements_economic_system/)Elements of an Economic System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/manufacturing-_cost_structure.png?resize=900%2C656&ssl=1 "Manufacturing Cost Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/manufacturing-cost-structure/manufacturing-_cost_structure/)Manufacturing Cost StructureManufacturing is a core economic function as it produces tangible goods fulfilling various needs using processes that can be manual (using tools), mechanical (using machines and automation), chemical (reactions), and even biological (such as fermentation). It has a [cost structure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4353) composed of **direct costs**, such as materials and wages, and **indirect costs**, such as distribution, which are often location-specific. Producing the same output at different locations can be associated with a different cost structure because input costs such as labor, land, and energy will vary. Contemporary manufacturing systems are constantly adapting to significant changes in production factors, distribution, and production networks: - **Production factors**. In the past, the three dominant factors of production, land, labor, and capital, could not be effectively used globally. For instance, a corporation located in one country had difficulties taking advantage of cheaper inputs (e.g. labor and land) in another country, notably because regulations would not permit full (or majority) ownership of a manufacturing facility by foreign interests. Economic integration and trade agreements have gradually allowed various forms of foreign ownership, such as direct ownership and joint ventures. For instance, the European Union established a structure facilitating the mobility of production factors, which enabled better use of the comparative productivity of the European territory. Similar processes are occurring in North America (NAFTA/USMCA), South America (Mercosur), and Pacific-Asia (ASEAN). Facing integration processes and massive movements of capital coordinated by [global financial centers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/ "Global Financial Centers, 2021"), factors of production have extended mobility, which can be global in some instances. To reduce their production costs, especially labor costs, many firms have relocated segments (sometimes the entire process) of their manufacturing activities to new locations. - **Distribution**. In the past, the difficulties of overcoming distances were related to constraints in physical distribution as well as telecommunications. Distribution systems had limited capabilities to transport goods between different parts of the world, and it was difficult to manage fragmented production systems due to inefficient communication systems. In such a situation, freight alone could cross borders, while capital flows, especially investment capital, had more limited options. The tendency was to trade finished goods since it was more complex to trade intermediate goods. Trade could be international, but production systems were dominantly regional and mainly built through regional agglomeration economies with **[industrial clusters](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/industrial-agglomeration-transportation/ "Industrial Agglomeration and Transportation")**. With improvements in transportation and logistics, the efficiency of distribution has reached a point where it is possible to manage large-scale production and distribution networks. - **Production networks**. In the past, most relationships between elements of the production system took place between autonomous entities, which tended to be smaller. As such, those production networks tended to be rather uncoordinated. The emergence of [multinational corporations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/largest-corporations-revenue/ "World’s 20 Largest Corporations by Revenue, 2021") underlines a higher level of linkages within production systems. Many activities that previously took place over several entities are now occurring within the same corporate entity. While in the 1950s, the share of the global economic output attributable to multinational corporations was in the 2% to 4% range, by the early 21st century, this share has surged to a range between 25% and 50%. About 30% of all global trade occurs within elements of the same corporation, with this share climbing to 50% for trade concerning advanced economies. Competing and complementary transnational production networks are thus being established. [![Map Financial Centers World](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Financial-Centers-2021.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Global Financial Centers, 2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/map-global-financial-centers-2021/)Global Financial Centers 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/industrial_agglomeration_transportation.png?resize=900%2C415&ssl=1 "Industrial Agglomeration and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/industrial-agglomeration-transportation/industrial_agglomeration_transportation/)Industrial Agglomeration and Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/corporations_largest.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "The World's 20 Largest Corporations by Revenue | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/largest-corporations-revenue/corporations_largest/)The Worlds 20 Largest Corporations by Revenue 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/corporation_unit.png?resize=900%2C374&ssl=1 "The Corporation as a Decision, Management and Planning Unit | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/corporation-decision-management-planning-unit/corporation_unit/)The Corporation as a Decision Management and Planning UnitProducts are getting increasingly sophisticated, requiring a vast array of components and skills for fabrication. Such complex processes incite corporations to grow in scale and scope and [make complex decisions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=23532 "The Corporation as a Decision, Management and Planning Unit") to manage their operations and improve their [competitive advantages](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=23676 "Competitive Advantages of Multinational Corporations"). One key issue is the array of [corporate expansion strategies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/corporation-expansion/ "The Corporation and its Expansion") available in a global economy, including **horizontal and vertical integration**, as well as **[outsourcing](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/rationale-outsourcing/ "Rationale for Outsourcing")**. The latter concerns transferring functions such as manufacturing, research, management, or distribution to be performed by a third party. This transfer can occur within the same country, but it often takes place in an external country, which is defined as [**offshoring**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=23357 "Offshoring, Nearshoring and Farshoring"). The term can be further nuanced with the concepts of **nearshoring** and **farshoring** involving a level of proximity. The [expansion strategy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=23398 "Types of Corporations by Multinational Expansion Strategy") of large corporations can be justified from the perspectives of seeking new resources and markets, looking for lower-cost locations, or getting access to new technologies. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/competitive_advantages_mnc.png?resize=900%2C330&ssl=1 "Competitive Advantages of Multinational Corporations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Competitive Advantages of Multinational Corporations![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/corporation_expansions-1.png?resize=900%2C374&ssl=1 "The Corporation and its Expansion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Corporation and its Expansion![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rationale_outsourcing.png?resize=900%2C481&ssl=1 "Rationale for Outsourcing | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Rationale for Outsourcing![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/outsourcing_offshoring.png?resize=900%2C345&ssl=1 "Offshoring, Nearshoring and Farshoring | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Offshoring Nearshoring and Farshoring![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/multinational_expansion_strategy.png?resize=900%2C310&ssl=1 "Types of Corporations by Multinational Expansion Strategy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Corporations by Multinational Expansion StrategyIn many cases, “[platform companies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4244)” have become new paradigms where the function of manufacturing has been removed from the core of corporate activities. Corporations following this strategy, particularly mass retailers, have been active in taking advantage of the “[China effect](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/china-manufacturing-price-reduction/ "Major Components to Price Reductions by the Chinese Manufacturing Sector, 2005")” in several manufacturing activities in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. This has been associated with massive offshoring of manufacturing. Yet, this advantage is being eroded with rising input costs and protectionist measures, inciting re-shoring where offshored activities are brought back from locations they were initially offshored from. This underlines that **locational decisions are continually being reassessed,** considering changes in global input costs, regulations, and geopolitics. Additionally, the attention of public policy is shifting from the promotion of competitiveness to the [development of capabilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4253 "The Transition Towards Manufacturing Capabilities"). The primary rationale is that competitiveness tends to focus on decreasing input costs, while capabilities focus on **increasing the added value** provided by the manufacturing sector. The development of global transportation and telecommunication networks, ubiquitous information technologies, the liberalization of trade, and multinational corporations are all factors that have substantially impacted production systems. The analysis of any **supply chain** reveals the actors and processes that contribute to the origination of a product consumed by a market, such as raw materials, food, or consumption goods. Thus, a supply chain includes a **sequence of operations** ranging from the extraction of raw materials, and the assembly of intermediate goods, to the distribution to consumption markets. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/platform_corporation2.png?resize=900%2C520&ssl=1 "Disconnection of Global Production and Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Disconnection of Global Production and Distribution![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/components_manufacturing_china_price_reductions.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Major Components to Price Reductions by the Chinese Manufacturing Sector, 2005 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Components to Price Reductions by the Chinese Manufacturing Sector 2005![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/capabilities_transition.png?resize=900%2C583&ssl=1 "The Transition Towards Manufacturing Capabilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Transition Towards Manufacturing Capabilities# 2. Defining Value Chains Global production systems are highly integrated, interdependent, and linked through **value chains**. > [**Value Chain**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4260). A functionally integrated network of production, trade, and service activities that covers all the stages in a supply chain, from the transformation of raw materials, through intermediate manufacturing stages, to the delivery of finished goods to a market. The chain is conceptualized as a series of nodes, linked by various types of transactions, such as sales and intra firm transfers. Each successive node within a value chain involves the acquisition or organization of inputs for [added value](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4265). Value chains take commodities through a series of **stages**, transform them into higher-value products, and make them available in markets. A value chain is said to be global when several stages occur in different countries. This process can be backward or forward-looking: - **Backward participation**. When a stage in a value chain produces outputs created by prior stages. This usually takes place in the later stages of a value chain, particularly in the assembly and distribution of a final good composed of parts manufactured by other suppliers. - **Forward participation**. When a stage in a value chain produces outputs that will be used in further stages to create a final good. This usually takes place in the earlier stages of a value through the processing of resources and the creation of parts and components for further assembly. **Commodities** are resources that can be consumed for a purpose and are usually part of the earlier stages of value chains. They can be accumulated for a period of time as some are perishable, while others can be stored for centuries. They can be exchanged as part of transactions or purchased on specific markets such as futures markets. Some commodities are locationally fixed, implying that they cannot be transferred, except for their title. This includes land, mining, logging, and fishing rights. In this context, the value of a locationally fixed commodity is derived from its utility, expected reserves, and potential extraction rate. Bulk commodities can be transferred through a market transaction, with the most traded commodities including crude oil, steel, copper, coffee, natural gas, gold, sugar, corn, wheat, and cotton. Their value is derived from utility, supply, and demand, which is established through major **commodity markets** involving a constant price discovery mechanism that can fluctuate daily. A transaction (forward contract) on a commodity market is a promise to deliver a good at a stated time and location. It is the responsibility of the producer or trader to ensure that the delivery takes place, irrespective of its origin or if the price has changed after a forward contract was set. Value chains are thus a sequential process used by corporations within a production system to **gather** resources, **transform** them into parts and products and, finally, **distribute** manufactured goods to markets. Each sequence is unique and depends on the type of product and where added value activities are performed along the supply chain. Value chains enable the sequencing of inputs and outputs between a range of suppliers and customers, mainly from a [producer and buyer-driven standpoint](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/producer-buyer-value-chains/ "Producer and Buyer-driven Value Chains"). **Producer-driven** value chains tend to involve large manufacturers (e.g. automotive, mining, energy) that coordinate their mass-produced output with the demand and distribution capabilities of the market. **Demand-driven** value chains involve smaller manufacturers (e.g. garments, shoes, toys) that are responsive to the procurement orders of large traders and wholesalers, coordinating the orders of retailers and distributors. Value chains must adapt to changing conditions, namely adjusting production to face **changes in price, quantity, and even product specification**. They are synchronized with [product life cycles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4276 "Product Life Cycle") with introduction, growth, maturity, and obsolescence phases that permeate value chains. Value chains in the early phases of a product life cycle tend to focus on innovation and gear up production capabilities to face demand. As the product matures, it can transform into value chains seeking mass production and low input costs. This means that value chains are continuously [upgraded](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4288 "Upgrading the Value Chain") to fit technological, costs, and market changes. This upgrade can take place **upstream** to capture activities related to research and development or **downstream** to capture activities related to marketing and distribution. The flexibility of production and distribution becomes particularly important, reducing production, transaction, and distribution costs as the logical outcome. As such, the value chain remains a **paradoxical concept** since technological and regulatory improvements could lessen transportation and transactional costs, implying that some actors would capture less value. This value would thus be transferred to other actors, mainly the end consumer, since they receive similar goods at a lower price. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_chain2.png?resize=900%2C448&ssl=1 "The Value Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/sequences-value-chain/value_chain/)The Value Chain or Commodity Chain[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_chain_added_value-1.png?resize=900%2C418&ssl=1 "Commodity Chains and Added Value | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chains-added-value/value_chain_added_value/)Commodity Chains and Added Value[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/producer_buyer_driven_value_chains.png?resize=900%2C727&ssl=1 "Producer and Buyer-driven Value Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/producer-buyer-value-chains/producer_buyer_gvc/)Producer and Buyer driven Value Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/product_life_cycle.png?resize=900%2C497&ssl=1 "Product Life Cycle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/product-life-cycle/product_live_cycle/)Product Life Cycle[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/upgrading_value_chain-1.png?resize=900%2C548&ssl=1 "Upgrading the Value Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/value-chain-upgrading/upgrading_value_chain/)Upgrading the Value Chain[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/added_value_supply_chains_transport.png?resize=900%2C466&ssl=1 "Added Value, Supply Chains and Transport Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/supply-chains-added-value/added_value_supply_chains_transport_chains/)Supply Chains Transport Chains and Added ValueValue chains have a [distinct configuration](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=23905 "The Configuration of Value Chains") reflecting the size, the level of concentration, and the market power of the suppliers and customers. From these configurations, [three major types of value chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4293) can be observed: - **Raw materials**. The origin of these goods is linked to environmental (agricultural products) or geological (ores and fossil fuels) conditions. The configuration of the supply chains is often “one-to-one” since they involve large suppliers benefiting from economies of scale and large purchasers. The flows of raw materials (particularly ores and crude oil) used to be dominated by a pattern where less developed economies exported to more developed economies. Transport terminals in the former specialized in loading, while those in the latter unload raw materials and often include transformation activities next to port sites. Industrialization in several developing economies has modified this standard pattern with new energy and raw materials flows. The major shift involves China, which has become a [dominant consumer](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4360 "Share of the World Commodity Consumption, China and United States, c2009/10") and importer of raw materials. - **Semi-finished products**. These goods already had some transformation performed, conferring an added value. They involve metals, textiles, construction materials, and parts used to make other goods. Depending on the labor intensiveness and comparative advantages, segments of the manufacturing process have been offshored. The pattern of exchanges is varied in this domain. For heavy parts, it is dominated by regional transport systems integrated into regional production systems. For lighter and high-value parts, a global system of suppliers tends to prevail with a reliance on air cargo operations. In all cases and configurations, there is a [propensity to cluster](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1565 "Types of Manufacturing Clusters") as a tool to build economies of agglomeration and reduce transportation costs. - **Manufactured goods**. These include goods shipped toward large consumption markets and require a high organizational level to fulfill the demand. The configuration of the value chains is commonly around the “one-to-many” paradigm, as large wholesalers, distributors, and retailers use their distribution networks to access markets. Most flows concern developed economies, but a significant share is related to developing economies, especially those specializing in export-oriented manufacturing. Containerization has been the dominant transport paradigm for manufactured goods, with production systems organized around terminals and distribution centers. More recently, e-commerce has replicated the “one-to-many” paradigm with networks of distribution centers shipping online orders. Based on the composition of the above configurations, each economy has a [level of participation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/participation-global-value-chains/ "Participation Level in Global Value Chains") in global supply chains. The [analysis of such a complex chain of agents and processes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12810) considers several perspectives: - **Transactional perspective**: Identification of the flows and transactions that create them. This particularly concerns the decision-making process in establishing and managing value chains. - **Comparative perspective:** Assess the relative competitiveness of the elements of the value chains in terms of added value. - **Functional perspective**: Identify the physical processes involved in the circulation of goods, including the capacity constraints in distribution, namely modal, intermodal, and terminal effectiveness. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/configuration_value_chains.png?resize=900%2C693&ssl=1 "The Configuration of Value Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/configuration-value-chains/configuration_value_chains/)The Configuration of Value Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Value-Chains-2015.png?resize=900%2C452&ssl=1 "Participation Level in Global Value Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/participation-global-value-chains/map-global-value-chains-2015/)Participation Level in Global Value Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_chains_freight_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C445&ssl=1 "Value Chains and Freight Transport Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/freight-transport-value-chains/value_chains_transport_systems/)Commodity Chains and Transport Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_manufacturing_clusters.png?resize=900%2C531&ssl=1 "Types of Manufacturing Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/cluster-manufacturing-types/types_manufacturing_clusters/)Types of Manufacturing Clusters[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_commodity_consumption_china_unted_states.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Commodity Consumption by China and United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/usa-china-commodity-consumption/world_commodity_consumption/)World Commodity Consumption by China and United States[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_chain_analysis2.png?resize=900%2C405&ssl=1 "Supply Chain Analysis | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chain-analysis/supply_chain_analysis/)Supply Chain Analysis# 3. Integration in Value Chains Transport chains are being **integrated into production systems**. As manufacturers are spreading their production facilities and assembly plants around the globe to take advantage of local factors of production, transportation becomes more important. The integrated transport chain is integrated into the production and distribution processes. Transport can no longer be considered a separate service required only as a response to supply and demand conditions. It is being built into the entire supply chain, from multi-source procurement to processing, assembly, and final distribution. **Supply Chain Management** (SCM) has become an essential facet of international transportation, with the container becoming a [transport, production, and distribution unit](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2686). A significant trend has been [growing embeddedness](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4300) among production, distribution, and market demand. Since interdependencies have replaced relative autonomy and self-sufficiency as the foundation of the economic life of regions and firms, high levels of freight mobility have become a necessity. The presence of an efficient distribution system supporting global value chains, alternatively called [global production networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4306), is sustained by: - **Functional integration**. Its purpose is to link the elements of the supply chain into a cohesive system of suppliers and customers. A [functional complementarity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4311) is then achieved through supply/demand relationships, implying freight, capital, and information flows. Functional integration relies on distribution across geographies where “just-in-time” and “door-to-door” strategies are relevant examples of interdependencies created by freight management strategies. Intermodal activities tend to create heavily used transshipment points and corridors between them, where logistical management is more efficient. - **Geographical integration**. Underlines a reliance on supply sources that are often distant, because of necessity (e.g. raw materials) or convenience (e.g. lower costs). The need to overcome space is fundamental to economic development, and the development of modern transport systems has increased the level of integration of geographically separated regions with better [geographical complementarity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4311). With transportation improvements, geographical separation has become less relevant as comparative advantages are exploited in terms of the distribution capacity of networks and production costs. Production and consumption can be more spatially separated without diminishing economies of scale, even if agglomeration economies are less evident. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/embeddedness_value_chains.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "Level of Embeddedness of Value Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/value-chains-embeddedness/embeddedness_value_chain/)Level of Embeddedness of Production and Distribution[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_production_networks2.png?resize=900%2C348&ssl=1 "Global Production Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/global-production-networks/global_production_networks/)Global Production Networks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/functional_geographical_integration_value_chains.png?resize=900%2C503&ssl=1 "The Functional and Geographical Integration of Value Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/functional-geographical-integration/functional_geographical_value_chains/)Geographical and Functional Integration in Value Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_production_networks_location.png?resize=900%2C320&ssl=1 "Global Production Networks and Location Strategies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/location-strategies-global-production-networks/global_production_networks_location/)Global Production Networks and Location StrategiesDepending on the complexity of the product, a range of [location strategies within global production networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4367) take shape, ranging from **multidomestic production**, where each market is serviced independently, to **globally integrated production**, where a transnational assembly sequence is established. The level of product customization can also indicate how value chains are integrated. For products requiring a high level of customization (or differentiation), the preference is usually to locate added-value components relatively close to the final market. For products that can be mass-produced and that require limited customization, the preference leans on locating where input costs (e.g. labor) are the lowest. # 4. Freight Transport and Value Chains As the range of production expanded, transport systems adapted to the new operational realities of local, regional, and international freight distribution. Freight transportation offers a whole [spectrum of services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5537) catering to cost, time, and reliability priorities and has consequently taken an increasingly important role within value chains. Improvements in freight transportation are associated with more efficient value chains, which transcribes into [benefits](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/benefits-freight-value-chains/ "Benefits of Improved Freight Transportation on Value Chains"). Among the most significant improvements: - Improvements in transport efficiency incited an **expanded territorial range to value chains**, which has expanded the range of procurement and market options. - The development of [information technologies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4322) enables corporations to establish **better control over their value chains**. The coordination of flows within value chains has improved, particularly their reliability and timeliness. - Technical improvements, notably for intermodal transportation, enabled more efficient **connectivity** between different transport modes, especially land and maritime connectivity, and thus within value chains. The outcomes have been an improved [velocity of freight](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4328), a decrease in the friction of distance, and a spatial division of production. This process is strongly embedded with the capacity and efficiency of international and regional transportation systems. The production stages of a good occur at multiple locations in a complex web of relations and flow along supply chains. Consequently, the **geography of value chains is integrated into the geography of transport systems**. Among the main sectors of integration between transportation and value chains are: - **Agricultural**. A sequence of fertilizers and equipment as inputs and grains, vegetables, and animals as outputs. Several specialized transportation modes are used for this production system, including grain railcars, trucks, and grain ships. Since many food products are perishable, modes often [have to be adapted](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2659) to these specific constraints with refrigerated transportation. Agricultural shipments tend to be highly seasonal with regional harvest periods. Ports play an essential role as points of warehousing and transshipment of agricultural commodities. A growing share of international grain transportation is getting containerized, in the range of 10 to 15%. - **Energy**. The transport of fuels (oil, coal, natural gas, etc.) from where they are extracted to where they are transformed and finally consumed (see, for instance, International oil transportation). They are linked to massive flows of bulk raw materials supported by railways, maritime shipping, and pipelines. Energy value chains tend to be massive, stable, and consistent since a constant supply of energy is required with some seasonal variations. - **Metals**. Similar to energy commodity chains, these systems include in their initial sequence the transport of minerals from extraction sites to where they are transformed. In the second sequence, processed metals are transported toward the [industrial sectors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4333) using them, such as shipbuilding, car making, machinery, and construction. There is no end market of significance for metal products, implying that metal goods are consumed in the intermediate stages of supply chains. - **Chemicals**. This value chain includes several branches, such as petrochemicals and fertilizers. It has linkages with the energy and agricultural sectors since it simultaneously serves as a customer and a supplier. - **Wood and paper**. Collecting wood products over vast forest zones, namely Canada, Northern Europe, South America, and Southeast Asia, towards pulp and paper production centers and then to consumers. Wood remains a significant input for the construction sector. - **Construction**. It implies movements of heavy materials such as cement, sand, rebars, bricks, and lumber, many of which are produced and consumed locally because of their high transport intensiveness. - **Manufacturing**. Involves diversified flows of finished and semi-finished goods, which are sector-specific. These movements will be related to the level of functional and geographical specialization of each manufacturing sector. Such flows have massively been containerized. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_transport_service_spectrum.png?resize=900%2C392&ssl=1 "Freight Transportation Service Spectrum | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-transport-service-spectrum/freight_service_spectrum/)Freight Transportation Service Spectrum[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/benefits_freight_transport_value_chains.png?resize=900%2C417&ssl=1 "Benefits of Improved Freight Transportation on Value Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/benefits-freight-value-chains/benefits_improved_freight/)Benefits of Improved Freight Transportation on Value Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/velocity_freight2.png?resize=900%2C654&ssl=1 "The Velocity of Freight | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/velocity-freight/velocity_freight/)The Velocity of Freight[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/temperature_integrity.png?resize=900%2C303&ssl=1 "Maintaining Temperature Integrity along a Cold Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/cold-chain-integrity/temperature_integrity/)Maintaining Temperature Integrity along a Cold Chain[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fordist_post_fordist_production.png?resize=900%2C417&ssl=1 "Fordist and a Post-Fordist Production System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/fordism-post-fordism/fordist_post_fordist_systems/)Flows in a Fordist and a Post Fordist Production System[![Steel Wires Warehouse Port Halifax](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/steel_wires_warehouse_port_halifax.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Steel Wires in a Warehouse, Port of Halifax | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/steel-wire-halifax/img_1860/)Steel Wires in a Warehouse Port of HalifaxMost value chains are linked to regional transport systems, but with globalization, international transportation accounts for a growing share of flows within production systems. The usage of resources, parts, and semi-finished goods by value chains indicates the [type of freight being transported](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4293). Consequently, transport systems must adapt to the needs of value chains, which incites a diversification of the services offered. Within a value chain, [freight transport services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4337) can be categorized by: - **Management of shipments**. Cargo transported by the owner, the manufacturer, or a third party. The tendency has been for corporations to subcontract their freight operations to specialized carriers that provide more efficient and cost-effective services. - **Geographical coverage**. It implies a wide variety of scales ranging from intercontinental, within economic blocs, national, regional, or local. Each of these scales often involves specific modes of transport services and the use of specific terminals. - **Time constraint**. Freight services can have a time element ranging from express, where time is essential, to the lowest cost possible, where time is secondary. There is also a direct relationship between transport time and the inventory level that must be maintained in the supply chain. The shorter the lead time, the lower the inventory level, which can result in significant savings. - **Consignment size**. Depending on the nature of production, consignments can be carried in full loads, partial loads ([less than truckload; LTL](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1904)), as general cargo, container loads, or parcels. - **Cargo type**. Unitized cargo (containers, boxes, or pallets) or bulk cargo requires dedicated vehicles, vessels and transshipment, and storage infrastructures. - **Mode**. Cargo can be carried on a single mode (sea, rail, road, or air) or in a combination of modes through intermodal transportation. - **Cold chain**. A temperature-controlled supply chain is linked to the material, equipment, and procedures used to maintain specific cargo shipments within an appropriate temperature range. Commonly relates to the distribution of food and pharmaceutical products. Globalization is also concurrent to an environment where **just-in-time** (JIT) and [synchronized flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4348) have become the norm in production and distribution systems. International transportation is shifting to meet the increasing needs of organizing and managing its flows through logistics. Despite the diversity of transport services supporting various value chains, containerization is adaptable enough to cope with a variety of cargo and time constraints. --- ## Related Topics - [7.4 – Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3928) - [7.2 – Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3919) - [B.14 – The Logistics of Global Food Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12791) - [B.13 – The Containerization of Commodities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8394) - [B.9 – The Cold Chain and its Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6585) - [5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1768) - [B.9 – Petroleum: A Transportation Resource](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6757) - [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481) ## Bibliography - Cattaneo. O., G. Gereffi, S. Miroudot and D. Taglioni (2013) Joining, Upgrading and Being Competitive in Global Value Chains: A Strategic Framework, The World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper #6406. - Ponte, S., G. Gereffi and G. Raj-Reichert (eds) (2019) Handbook on Global Value Chains, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. - World Bank (2020) World Development Report 2020: Trading for Development in the Age of Global Value Chains, Washington: World Bank. - World Economic Forum (2012) The Shifting Geography of Global Value Chains: Implications for Developing Countries and Trade Policy, Global Agenda Council on the Global Trade System. - World Economic Forum (2017) Impact of the Fourth Industrial Revolution on Supply Chains, Geneva. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/?share=reddit) - --- ### [North American Containerized Trade with Asia, 1995-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/north-america-asia-container-trade/) **Published:** November 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/na_containerized_trade_asia.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "North American Containerized Trade with Asia | The Geography of Transport Systems ")North American Containerized Trade with Asia 1995 2020*Source: UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport, various years.* North American trade (particularly the United States) with several countries of the Pacific is systematically imbalanced, notably with China, Japan, and South Korea. These imbalances emerged during the 1990s. From an import/export ratio of close to 1 in 1995, this ratio surged to 2.8 in 2006 (2.8 times more loaded containers traded between Asia in the United States than between the United States and Asia). This trend has important implications for the movements of containers as well as for transport costs. The Asian financial crisis of 1997 was a factor contributing to the growth of transpacific container imbalances, mostly due to the debasement of several Asian currencies. China also maintained through that period a [fixed exchange rate](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4114) with the US dollar as part of its export-oriented strategy. Due to economies of scale in maritime shipping, the costs of moving a container from East Asia to the United States dropped by a factor of 50% during the 1990s. However, trade imbalances force Asian exporters to pay, on average, 50% more in [container shipping costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5582) than their American counterparts. However, economic and political events can impact imbalances, particularly after the financial crisis of 2008-2009. While the import/export ratio reached 2.7 in 2006, it corrected sharply to reach 1.7 in 2009. Afterward, the ratio gradually recovered to values above 2.5. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a surge of imports from China, pushing the import/export ratio to historical heights (2.9). It remains to be seen what impact future political, economic, and technological changes will have on the balance of containerized trade. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/north-america-asia-container-trade/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/north-america-asia-container-trade/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/north-america-asia-container-trade/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/north-america-asia-container-trade/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Integration between Port and Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/port-airport-integration/) **Published:** November 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_airport_integration.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Integration between Port and Airport Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Integration between Port and Airport TerminalsConventionally, ports and airports are not considered to be integrated since they serve different supply chains, namely high-value goods for air transport and bulk commodities for maritime transport. Maritime and air cargo were typically incompatible, implying that port and airport operations were planned separately. Their location only coincided because they both service large metropolitan markets and need to be well connected to road transport systems. While this assertion is still valid, several changes have taken place in recent years with the emergence of a level of integration between port and airport terminals and their transport chains. Globalization involved the offshoring of activities over a wide economic landscape, including high-value goods. Containerization substantially improved the time performance, frequency, and flexibility of maritime transportation, enabling it to support global supply chains. This implies that maritime transport can compete more effectively with air transport, but also that both transport systems can reach a level of integration. The integration of port and airport terminals takes place over two dimensions; substitution, where either a maritime or an air transport segment is substituted for the other, and complementarity, where they jointly support new forms of distribution: - **Substitution**. Can take place either when maritime transport is used for the first transport segment and air transport for the second segment, or vice versa. It involves a change in the rhythm of the supply chain from days (or weeks) in maritime shipping to hours for air cargo operations (or vice-versa). Air cargo operations is an exact science since each cargo unit is weighted because of its direct relationship with air freight rates. For container transportation, weighting and quantities transported can be inaccurate, leaving air cargo freight forwarders with the challenge of accommodating different volumes than expected. Using maritime transport for the first transport segment can occur if air cargo costs are high because of capacity issues and if the cargo is generated close to port facilities. Shippers could also be benefiting from low maritime cargo rates because of an abundant capacity and in light of growing competition inciting them to look at more cost-effective shipping options. Since maritime services are often organized as a sequence of port calls, they offer opportunities to collect cargo from a large number of markets that be brought to an air cargo hub. Containers bound for an air transport leg are often top-loaded so that they can be unloaded quickly. The use of air transport for the final segment gives the possibility to cover an extensive market base (a region or a continent) quickly, by breaking single container shipments into several loads; each could be bound to a different market. The transloading of cargo is required between maritime and air cargo containers, including a road transport leg to a stuffing facility. Using air transportation for any segment could imply that the cargo is coming or bound to an inland location that is difficult to reach otherwise (e.g. too many delays to the port). Military and humanitarian cargo can be forwarded by air transport after being brought to a hub by maritime transport. The only relevant example of sea / air substitution for passenger transportation concerns cruises. The turn ports of cruise itineraries are dominantly major airports because the first transport segment of a cruise typically involves air travel. - **Complementarity**. Can take place when maritime and air cargo operations are jointly used in supply chain management. For instance, a retail distributor could use a location well serviced by maritime and air cargo to be able to import a range of goods according to the most effective forms of transportation. While the affordability of containerized maritime transport is usually preferred, a distributor has the alternative to use air services for specific cargoes (e.g. high value) or specific circumstances (e.g. urgency, disruptions in maritime transport). This could also lead to new forms of manufacturing where low-value components are imported by maritime transportation, and high-value components are imported by air transportation. The same rationale applies if a firm is exporting a range of components (or parts) of different levels of added value and transportability. Thus, the complementarity between ports and airports confers options (arbitrage), flexibility, and also redundancy in supply chain management and helps reconcile different global distribution systems. However, limited evidence is yet available about how such logistical interactions occur. The usage of substitution and complementarity in maritime and air transport could lead to new forms of coordination between ports and airports, including the planning of corridors of circulation and joint logistics zones. Locations at the convergence of maritime shipping networks and acting as air transport hubs, such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Dubai, and Panama, are thus well placed to benefit from this form of integration. High levels of maritime and air connectivity are very important to support the emergence of sea / air logistics as well as the coordination of customs procedures related to such movements. Because of its intermediary location, Dubai has emerged in recent years as the world’s leading hub for sea / air cargo logistics. Of the 3 million tons of cargo that Dubai’s airports (Dubai International Airport and Al Maktoum International, which opened in 2010) handled in 2015, 10% was related to sea / air logistics. Since Dubai is the world’s 3rd busiest airport in terms of passengers (70.1 million handled in 2014), it is highly connected to the global air transport network, particularly in European and American markets that represent a large share of air cargo demand. The emergence of Emirate Airlines as a major cargo carrier (3rd largest in the world), particularly through its fleet of wide-body long-range aircraft, is illustrative of the setting of Dubai as a major air cargo logistics platform. On an Asia/Europe trade route, the average transit time is about one week if air cargo is used and four weeks if the cargo is carried on regular container shipping services. This transit time reflects the delays resulting from bringing and consolidating the cargo at an airport and booking available bellyhold carrying capacity. Sea/air services using Dubai can connect Asia to Europe in about two weeks, representing a value proposition for time-sensitive, intermediate value goods such as fashion products, electronics, and car parts. Heavy cargo, such as those related to the oil industry, can also be airlifted to difficult-to-reach places in the Middle East and Africa. Within Dubai, the sea-to-air transit can be done in about 8 hours, but the goal is to reduce this time to 4 hours by improving customs procedures. In particular, the transfer between a shipping manifest and an air cargo manifest can be problematic since both industries rely extensively on paper documentation. Although there is efficient sea-to-air connectivity, this connectivity is not yet seamless. An important challenge to sea/air logistics concerns the transit of cargo between bounded areas at port and airport terminals using local roads and highways; cargo has to clear customs for entry and exit. Dubai came up with an original strategy to deal with this issue. In 2015, a virtual freight and logistics corridor was established to link the port and airport terminals as well as the adjacent free zones (e.g. Dubai World Central). This corridor enables simplified customs procedures for the bounded cargo transiting between customs entities (ports and airports), which helps support the logistics requirement of sea / air movements. Still, the setting of sea / air logistics is not without competitive challenges. Cargo owners and carriers could prefer to solely use air transportation or maritime shipping depending on the cost structure. Further, the Eurasian land bridge is starting to be a competitor with sea / air logistics since it offers a similar transit time of about two weeks between China and Europe. Sea / air logistics certainly offer opportunities by combining the respective benefits of air and maritime shipping, but it remains to be seen which supply chains are the most suitable to offer a stable demand for its use. The case of Dubai underlines that such a service is possible under very specific circumstances and how replicable the connectivity of sea / air logistics is for other hubs is uncertain. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/port-airport-integration/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/port-airport-integration/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/port-airport-integration/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/port-airport-integration/?share=reddit) - --- ### [1.5 - Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Commercial geography looks at trade and transactions in terms of what they involve, how they are generated, and their outcomes. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Trade and Commercial Geography](#1_Trade_and_Commercial_Geography) - [2. Contemporary Commercial Trends](#2_Contemporary_Commercial_Trends) - [3. Transportation and Competitiveness](#3_Transportation_and_Competitiveness) - [4. Logistics and Supply Chains](#4_Logistics_and_Supply_Chains) # 1. Trade and Commercial Geography Trade, the exchange of goods and services over long distances, and commercial activities, the exchange of products and services at specific markets, are core components of the economy. Trade and commerce have evolved in space and time, from low volume and limited extent before the industrial revolution, to the extensive flows and transactions that characterize the contemporary global economy. Historically, wealth was dominantly related to agricultural output implying that the [largest economies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=492) were those with the largest populations, but these populations were mainly rural and with low income. As such, trade and commerce were **marginal activities**. The industrial revolution irremediably changed trade and commerce with **mechanization and its multiplying effects on production and consumption**. Economic systems remain based on trade and transactions despite substantial growth in production capabilities since specialization and efficiency require interdependency. People trade their labor for a wage, often commuting in the process, while corporations trade their output for capital, having to access markets. Trade is the transmission of ownership in return for a counterpart, generally money, often defined as a medium of exchange. This exchange involves a transaction and its associated capital flows, information, commodities, parts, or finished products. All these activities define [commercial geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=500). > **Commercial geography** investigates the spatial characteristics of trade and transactions in terms of their nature, causes, and consequences. It leans on the analysis of transactions, from a simple commercial transaction involving an individual purchasing a product at a store, to the complex network of transactions maintained between a multinational corporation and its suppliers. The scale and scope of commercial geography vary significantly. Commercial geography can be considered a component of economic geography similar to transport geography. Still, it is relevant to see commercial geography as distinct, which allows the sphere of locations investigated by economic geography to interact with the sphere of circulation investigated by transport geography. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/world_gdp_evolution.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of the World's GDP, 1CE - 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-historical/world_gdp_evolution/)Share of the Worlds GDP 1AD 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/economic_transport_commercial_geogaphy.png?resize=900%2C479&ssl=1 "The Commercialization of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/economic-transport-commercial-geography/economic_transport_commercial_geogaphy/)Economic, Transport and Commercial Geography [![Map Financial Centers World](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Financial-Centers-2021.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global Financial Centers, 2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/map-global-financial-centers-2021/)Global Financial Centers 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/letters_of_credit.png?resize=900%2C662&ssl=1 "Letters of Credit and Bills of Lading in Commercial Transactions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/letters-credit-bill-lading/letter_credit_bill_lading/)Letters of Credit and Bills of Lading in Commercial Transactions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/incoterms2.png?resize=900%2C494&ssl=1 "Selected International Commercial Terms (Incoterms) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/incoterms-commercial/incoterms2/)Selected International Commercial Terms Incoterms[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/corporations_largest.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "The World's 20 Largest Corporations by Revenue | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/largest-corporations-revenue/corporations_largest2/)The Worlds 20 Largest Corporations by Revenue 2021Trade, in terms of its origins and destinations, has a **spatial logic**. It not only reflects the economic, social, and industrial structure of the concerned markets but also implies other factors such as transport costs, distance, trade agreements, exchange rates, and the reciprocal economic advantages proponents get from trade. For trade to occur, several fundamental conditions must be met: - **Availability**. Commodities, from coal to computer chips, must be **available for trade,** and there must be a demand for these commodities. In other terms, a **surplus** must exist at one location and a **demand** in another, which implies reciprocity. A surplus can often be a simple matter of investment in production capabilities, such as building an assembly plant, or can be constrained by complex geological and environmental factors like the availability of resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, and agricultural products. - **Transferability**. Transport infrastructures, in allowing goods to be moved from their origins to their destinations, support the transferability of goods. There are three major impediments to transferability, namely regulatory barriers (tariffs, custom inspections, quotas), geographical barriers (time, distance), and transportation barriers (the simple capacity to move the outcome of a transaction). Distance often plays an important role in trade, as does the capacity of infrastructures to route and transship goods. - **Transactional capacity**. It must be **legally possible** to make a transaction. This implies the recognition of currency for trading and legislation that defines the environment in which commercial transactions occur, such as taxation and litigation. In the context of a global economy, the transactional environment is very complex but is important in facilitating trade at the regional, national, and international levels. The fundamental elements of a commercial transaction involving the transportation of a good are the [letter of credit and the bill of lading](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7214). The transport terms have been regulated since 1936 by [international commercial terms](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5614) (Incoterms), which define the respective responsibilities and risks of the actors involved. Such terms are regularly updated and revised to reflect commercial and regulatory changes in global markets. Once these conditions are met, trade is possible, and the outcome of a transaction results in mobility (or interaction). Three issues are related to the concept of flow: - **Value**. Flows have a negotiated value and are settled in a common currency. The American dollar, the main global currency, is used to settle and measure many international transactions. Further, nations must maintain reserves of foreign currencies to settle their transactions. The relationship between the inbound and outbound flows of capital is known as the balance of payments. Although nations try to maintain a stable balance of payments, this is rarely the case; flows are commonly imbalanced. - **Volume**. Flows have a physical characteristic, mainly involving a mass. The weight of flows is a significant variable when the trade involves raw materials such as petroleum or minerals. However, in the case of consumption goods, the weight has little significance relative to the value of the commodities being traded. With containerization, a new unit of volume has been introduced; the TEU (Twenty-Foot Equivalent Unit), which can be used to assess trade flows. - **Scale**. Flows have a range that varies significantly based on the nature of a transaction. While retailing transactions tend to occur at a local scale, transactions related to the operations of a [multinational corporation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/largest-corporations-revenue/ "multinational corporation") are global in scale. Cities are the world’s major commercial centers. Still, the commercial importance of a city is relative to a [number of factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=511) such as financial flows, ease of doing business, and transport infrastructure. Traditionally, commercial activities tended to develop where there was a physical break along transport chains. Cargo needed to be transferred from one mode to another, and a new actor took over its ownership or custody. Physical breaks have imposed transactions, an important reason why most of the world’s most [important financial centers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/ "important financial centers") tend to be port cities or major load break centers in the hinterland. # 2. Contemporary Commercial Trends The contemporary commercial setting is marked by increasing **free trade** and **profound technological, industrial, and geopolitical changes**. This process is generically known as globalization and has been [driven](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=22188 "The Drivers of Trade and Globalization") by economic integration, global supply chains, expanded forms of transportation, and transactions. As confirmed by the implementation of the World Trade Organization, trade liberalization has given a strong impetus to the growth rate of global trade and industrial production. This has led to **competitive pressures** and [shifting competitive advantages](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=520) between regions, which [drives added value](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11401). Even if regulatory agencies would not be required in a true free trade environment, despite deregulation attempts, transactions, and trade are prone to disputes, litigation, and perceived imbalances concerning who benefits the most. Although these issues mainly apply to international trade, there are also situations where trade is constrained between jurisdictions (provinces, states) of a nation. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/drivers_trade_globalization.png?resize=900%2C425&ssl=1 "The Drivers of Trade and Globalization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/drivers-trade-globalization/drivers_globalization/)The Drivers of Trade and Globalization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/types_competitive_advantages.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Types of Competitive Advantages | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/competitive-advantages-types/competitive_advantages-png/)Types of Competitive Advantages[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/globalization_driver_added_value.png?resize=900%2C460&ssl=1 "Globalization as a Driver of Added Value | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/globalization-driver-added-value/globalization_driver_added_value/)Globalization as a Driver of Added Value[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/east_asia_world_merchandise.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Asia in the Value of World Merchandise Trade, 1980-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/east-asia-share-global-trade/east_asia_share_trade/)Share of Asia in the Value of World Merchandise TradeAfter decades of globalization and ongoing growth, much trade remains dominantly regional. An overview of world trade flows indicates that trade within regions is more significant than between regions, but long-distance trade has steadily grown. This has been associated with an [increasing share of East Asia](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=528), especially China, in world trade, both in terms of exports and imports. Flows of goods have also been accompanied by substantial growth in [foreign direct investments](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=534). A remarkable reallocation of production capacities has occurred through outsourcing and offshoring following changes in **comparative advantages** worldwide. This trend goes in tandem with [mergers and acquisitions of enterprises](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=543) that are increasingly global in scope. Thus, the analysis of international trade reveals the need to adopt different strategies to adapt to this new trading environment. As production is being relocated through **outsourcing and offshoring**, there is a continuous shift in the structure of exports and imports among nations. The [decline of manufacturing](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=549) in its share of the global GDP is illustrative of the growing complexities that added value brings to the function of production. It masks a manufacturing sector that is embedded with service activities, such as logistics, and which is increasingly dependent on the [generation of added value](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=555). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/global_fdi_inflows-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Inflows of Foreign Direct Investments, 1990-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-foreign-direct-investments-inflows/global_fdi_inflows/)Global Inflows of Foreign Direct Investments[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/worldwide_mergers-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Worldwide Mergers and Acquisitions, 1990-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-mergers-acquisitions/global_mergers_acquisitions/)Worldwide Mergers and Acquisitions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/gdp_manufacturing-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "GDP Share of Manufacturing, Selected Countries, 1970-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-share-manufacturing/gdp_manufacturing-png/)GDP Share of Manufacturing Selected Countries[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/drivers_change_manufacturing.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Drivers of Change in Manufacturing and the Transition Towards Added-Value | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/change-manufacturing-drivers/manufacturing_change_drivers/)Drivers of Change in ManufacturingMajor changes have occurred in the **organization of production** in the [global manufacturing landscape](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-manufacturing/ "Global Manufacturing, 2015"). There is a noticeable increase in the division of labor concerning the design, planning, and assembly in the manufacturing process of the global economy. Interlocking partnerships in the manufacturing structure have increased the trade of parts and the supply of production equipment worldwide. One-third of all trade takes place among parent companies and their foreign affiliates. A part of this dynamism resides in adopting **standards**, a process that began in the late 19th century to promote mass production. It permitted the rapid development of many sectors of activity, including railways (gauge), electricity (wattage), the automobile (safety), and the telecommunication industry (communication protocols and electronic data formats). In the realm of globalization of economic activities, the International Standards Organization developed the ISO norms that serve as a comparison between various enterprises worldwide. These norms apply to the manufacturing and services industries and are a necessary tool for growth. There are also indications that the trends supporting globalization may be receding. The **growth of the service sector**, particularly its share of the GDP, involves economic activities that are more difficult to trade. Due to rising living standards, countries consume a growing share of their manufacturing output, although this does not occur uniformly. As a result, the market size influences commercial geography, the consumption level of an economy (often measured in [GDP per capita](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=562)), and the growth potential of different regions of the world. However, national GDP figures do not reveal regional distributions well, particularly the prominence of a few [large metropolitan areas](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=569) in total economic output. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-GDP-HDI-2015.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global Gross Domestic Product and Human Development Index, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-capita-human-development-index/map-gdp-hdi-2015-png/)Global Gross Domestic Product and Human Development Index 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Manufacturing-2015.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global Manufacturing, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-manufacturing/map-global-manufacturing-2015-png/)Global Manufacturing 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-GDP-per-Metropolitan-Area.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Economic Output of the World's Major Metropolitan Areas, 2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-metropolitan-areas/map-gdp-per-metropolitan-area-png/)The Economic Output of the Worlds Major Metropolitan Areas 2012[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/world_nominal_gdp.png?w=900&ssl=1 "World Nominal GDP, 2000-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-nominal-gdp/world_nominal_gdp/)World Nominal GDP 2000 21[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_sales_inventory_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Monthly Retail Sales and Inventories, United States, 1992-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/monthly-retail-sales-united-states/monthly_retail_sales_united_states/)Monthly Retail Sales and Inventories United States 1992 2022At the global level, the bulk of the consumption occurs in a limited number of countries, with the G7 countries alone accounting for [two-thirds of the global Gross Domestic Product](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=577). Economic growth in East and Southeast Asia has been one of the most significant forces shaping changes in the contemporary commercial environment through the multiplying effects of increasing domestic consumption and expanded trade. The commodification of the economy has led to significant [growth in retail and wholesale](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7506) and the [associated movements of freight](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=584). As wages increase across the world, wage differences and the derived comparative advantages are less significant, implying that cheap labor becomes less relevant for competitiveness. While technical advances have benefited transportation, they also support the automation of production. This implies that locational decisions for production increasingly tend to be **more market servicing** than related to factors of production. # 3. Transportation and Competitiveness It is commonly assumed that regions compete over factors such as resources, labor, and governance to provide the most suitable economic advantages. Transportation is a key factor for competitiveness since it provides **access to markets, labor, and resources**. In particular, the mobility costs of workers and freight are the two most important factors of spatial competitiveness. However, the true extent of how transportation can improve competitiveness is often unclear since transportation is embedded in many economic and social processes. Trade liberalization was accompanied by a growth of transportation activities since transactions involved the mobility of freight, capital, people, and information. Developments in the transport sector are matched by **global and regional interdependence and competition**. Like commodities, goods, and services, transportation is traded, sometimes openly and subject to full market forces, but more often subject to public control (regulation) or ownership. The core component of a transport-related transaction involves costs that either have to be negotiated between the provider of the service and the user or are subject to some arbitrary decree (price-setting such as public transit). Since transportation can be perceived as a service, its [commercialization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=590) (how it is brought to the market) is an important dimension of its dynamics. This commercialization takes place over a landscape composed of [actors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/commercial-actors-freight-distribution/ "actors") involved in modes, terminals, and related supply chains. Most [transport firms compete](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/forms-competitiveness-transportation/ "Main Forms of Competitiveness in Transportation") over **cost** (ability to offer a similar service at a lower price), **differentiation** (offering different transport services in terms of nature or quality), or **focus** (highly involved in a specific region or mode). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/commercialization_transportation2.png?resize=900%2C467&ssl=1 "The Commercialization of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/commercialization-transportation/commercialization_transportation2/)The Commercialization of Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/commercial_actors_freight_distribution.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Major Commercial Actors in Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/commercial_actors_freight_distribution/)Major Commercial Actors in Freight Distribution[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/forms_transportation_ccompetitiveness.png?resize=900%2C374&ssl=1 "Main Forms of Competitiveness in Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/forms-competitiveness-transportation/forms_transportation_ccompetitiveness/)Main Forms of Competitiveness in Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_logistics_multinationals.png?resize=900%2C391&ssl=1 "Transportation and Logistics Multinationals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/transportation_logistics_multinationals/)Transportation and Logistics Multinationals[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_route_selection.png?resize=900%2C316&ssl=1 "Transport Route Selection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transport-route-selection/transport_route_selection/)Transport Route SelectionThese three factors usually involve different investment and development strategies for transport firms. Transport service providers tend to be private entities, particularly in the [global freight transport sector](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=594). Local passenger transportation providers (transit) tend to be publicly owned. While transport companies have no specific location as modes are allocated to fulfill demand, transportation assets have a deep spatial and locational imprint. [Transportation and logistics multinationals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transportation-logistics-multinationals/ "Transportation and logistics multinationals") have emerged, improving global transportation systems and the competitiveness of regions. One important component of the competitiveness of transportation concerns ****investments** in infrastructure, modes, and terminals**, as well as their marketing and financing. Financial activities have seen a concentration among major [global financial centers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4229). Investments are performed to **expand the market area and the capacity of a transport system or to maintain and improve its operating conditions**. The public and private sectors have contributed to the funding of transport investments depending on economic, social, and strategic interests. For obvious reasons, the private sector seeks transport investments that promise economic returns, while the public sector often invests for social and strategic purposes. In many cases, private transport providers have difficulties formulating and implementing their transport investments independently. Transport firms often lobby various levels of government for financial and regulatory assistance in projects that are presented as of public interest and benefit. The consolidation of regional markets and the resulting increase in transborder traffic has led transport firms to seek global alliances and greater market liberalization in the transport and communication sector to attract investments and improve their productivity. ****Deregulation** and **divestiture** policies** have also substantially changed the competitive environment in the transport industry. Governments have withdrawn from the management, operations, and ownership of national carriers, ports, and airports. This has led to a major reorganization of the international and national transport sectors, with the emergence of transnational transport corporations governing the global flow of air, maritime, and land trade and the management of airports, ports, and railyards. Competitiveness is not always a rational endeavor, and behavioral issues could impact the choice of modes, [routes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transport-route-selection/ "Transport Route Selection"), and terminals. There are several reasons behind this: - First, decision-makers could have **incomplete or even inaccurate information** about routing options. The range of options is bounded, resulting in options that are not optimal. - Second, **existing relations** between actors in a transport chain are commonly associated with informal commitments that may not be optimal. - Third, there is **inertia in commercial decisions** where actors opt for the status quo since changing existing structures would require an effort and a level of risk. # 4. Logistics and Supply Chains The development of logistics and the setting of global supply chains substantially impact commercial geography. The key difference between transportation and logistics is that while transportation deals with the mobility of passengers and freight, **logistics focuses on organizing the different components of this mobility**, such as the booking of transportation services, and the packaging and storage of goods. A global economy with an acute division between production and consumption underlines the relevance of logistics as a commercial and spatial strategy to improve efficiency and reduce costs. Private interests have commonly managed freight, particularly in the maritime shipping segment. Similarly, the logistics industry is prone to private commercial interests that own modes, terminals, distribution facilities, and management services. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/relevance_logistics-scaled.png?resize=900%2C349&ssl=1 "The Relevance of Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/relevance-logistics/relevance_logistics_list/)The Relevance of Logistics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/international_trade_transport_chains_logistics.png?resize=900%2C718&ssl=1 "International Trade, Transportation Chains and Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/trade-transport-chains-logistics/trade_transportation_flows/)International Trade Transportation Chains and LogisticsThe ownership and operations of supply chains are intensive in [transactions, flows, and information exchange](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3942). Logistics is the spatial and temporal management of freight flows, which are extensive and complex with globalization. As a commercial activity, logistics involves a range of tasks, from labor-intensive (loading, packaging, unloading) to information management-intensive (order processing, booking, routing). Still, the context in which logistics services are offered and managed has changed. Freight transport services are increasingly being **outsourced** as many companies realized that transportation and warehousing were not part of their core business. They are reducing the number of transportation suppliers to cut costs and improve services. The development of the logistics industry has enabled many transport companies to take control of larger segments of the supply chain. With an increasing level of functional integration, many intermediate steps in the transport chain have been removed. Mergers and acquisitions have permitted the emergence of large logistics operators that control many segments of the supply chain. They are often labeled as third-party logistics providers since they almost exclusively take care of the management and operation of logistics on behalf of their customers. Technology has also played a role in this process, namely information technology (control of the process) and intermodal integration (control of the flows). [Freight distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=606) promotes regional competitiveness and integration into global supply chains and thus changes the commercial geography of a region. **Logistical capabilities** are often equated with competitiveness over segments of the supply chain, ranging from resource extraction to manufacturing and retailing. Public and private interests now consider various infrastructure, logistics, and supply chain management activities as high-priority national investment and economic development projects. This often involves **logistics zones** linked to intermodal terminal facilities, such as ports, rail yards, and barge terminals. Logistics is also linked with changes brought about by e-commerce. For instance, the growth of online purchases is linked with a decline in the retail commercial footprint, but with an increase in warehousing and distribution. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/nature_supply_chain-scaled.png?resize=900%2C387&ssl=1 "The Nature of a Supply Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/supply-chain-nature/supply_chain_overview/)The Nature of a Supply Chain[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-LPI-2023.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Logistics Performance Index, 2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-performance-index/map-lpi-2010-2016/)Logistics Performance Index 2010 2016[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/footprint_retail_distribution_based-scaled.png?resize=900%2C544&ssl=1 "Footprint of Retail-Based and Distribution-Based Commercial Activities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/commercial-retail-footprint-distribution/footprint_retail_distribution/)Footprint of Retail Based and Distribution Based Commercial Activities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/factors_empty_transport_flows.png?resize=900%2C617&ssl=1 "Factors behind Empty Transport Flows | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/empty-back-haul-factors/factors_empty_flows2/)Factors behind Empty Transport FlowsAn important geographical, commercial, and logistical aspect of transportation is the issue of **empty movements**. Irrespective of the mode involved, the conveyance usually has to return to its location of origin. If part of the transport is done empty (without carrying goods or passengers), then the costs of these empty movements must be assumed one way or the other, directly by the carrier or indirectly by the customer. The main [factors inducing empty movements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=617) are related to imbalanced flows (such as international trade), specialized transport equipment being able to carry only specific types of goods, short-range movements preventing a range of backhaul options, and regulatory restrictions such as cabotage laws or the jurisdiction of operators. --- ## Related Topics - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260) - [3.3 – Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5268) - [3.4 – Transport Supply and Demand](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5277) - [7.2 – Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3919) - [1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=995) - [1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1000) - [B.16 – The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8689) ## Bibliography - Coe, N.M, P.F. Kelly and H.W.C. Yeung (2019) Economic Geography: A Contemporary Introduction, 3rd Edition, New York: Wiley. - Dawson, J.A. (ed) (2013) Retail Geography, London: Routledge. - Hugill, P.J. (1995) World Trade since 1431, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. - Kiel, J., R. Smith and B. Ubbels (2014) “The Impact of Transport Investments on Competitiveness”, Transportation Research Procedia Vol. 1, pp. 77-88. - Lundgren, N.G. (1996) “Bulk trade and maritime transport costs: The evolution of global markets”, Resources Policy, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 5-32. - MacKinnon, D. and A. Cumbers (2019) An Introduction to Economic Geography: Globalisation, Uneven Development and Place, 3rd Edition, New York: Routledge. - Redway, J.W. (1907) Commercial Geography, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. - Vance, J.E. (1970) The Merchant’s World: The Geography of Wholesaling, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. - Vigarié A. (1968) Géographie de la circulation, Paris: Génin. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Route Selection](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transport-route-selection/) **Published:** May 26, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_route_selection.png?resize=900%2C316&ssl=1 "Transport Route Selection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Route SelectionThe selection of a transport route can be made by three actors: - **Type I**. The users of passenger transport or the owners of the cargo select the route. This is common for private transport, where each driver selects a route, which can be modified in real time. Own-account freight transport also involves route selection by the cargo owner through its transport assets. Routing is the outcome of a large number of individual decisions seeking to optimize their own path considering the current capacity and congestion level of the network. - **Type II**. An actor acting on behalf of passengers or cargo owners is responsible for allocating transport resources and finding a route satisfying their requirements. For instance, a taxi will select a route on behalf of its customers and a chartered flight can be booked on behalf of a tour company. A trucking company could carry cargo through routes assigned by a freight forwarder or any agent acting on behalf of the cargo owner. - **Type III**. The carrier designs a service network that tries to maximize the use of its transport assets and make available this capacity on the market. This is particularly the case for air and maritime transportation where routes are set by carriers, subsequently booking passengers and cargo on these routes. Public transit systems and railways are also operating in such a fashion but with less flexibility as routes are bound to fixed assets. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transport-route-selection/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transport-route-selection/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transport-route-selection/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/transport-route-selection/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Technological Innovations of the Industrial Revolution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/industrial-revolution-technological-innovations/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/technological_innovations_industrial_revolution.png?resize=900%2C338&ssl=1 "Major Technological Innovations of the Industrial Revolution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Technological Innovations of the Industrial RevolutionThe Industrial Revolution involved the diffusion of several technological innovations in four main sectors: - **Power generation**. Enabled to perform larger quantities of work through the usage of thermal energy. The first application concerned mining, allowing to access greater quantities of ore. - **Textiles**. Development of the first mass market for consumer goods by substantially reducing the costs for clothing. Sequential improvements were made in the process of spinning and weaving. - **Metallurgy**. Low-cost metals used to manufacture equipment and infrastructure, including shipbuilding, rails, construction, and machines. - **Transportation**. Mass conveyances and telecommunication systems with railroads offering the first extensive classification on inland transportation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/industrial-revolution-technological-innovations/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/industrial-revolution-technological-innovations/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/industrial-revolution-technological-innovations/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/industrial-revolution-technological-innovations/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Inflows of Foreign Direct Investments, 1990-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-foreign-direct-investments-inflows/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/global_fdi_inflows.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Inflows of Foreign Direct Investments, 1990-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Inflows of Foreign Direct Investments 1990 2022*Source: UNCTAD.* Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) involve direct investments in productive assets by a corporation incorporated in a foreign country. FDIs are correlated with international trade since the additional production capacity brought to bear is often used to increase exports (or imports). A corporation investing in a foreign country is more likely to be involved in trade than a national corporation investing in the domestic economy. FDIs can accumulate in a variety of economic sectors, such as manufacturing, commercial, and distribution activities. If FDIs are made in the commercial sector (e.g. retail), the outcome is likely to be a growth in imports. If they are made in resources or manufacturing, then exports are more likely to increase. FDIs tend to be cyclical, particularly since they involve financial transactions and the risk of over-accumulation they entail. The above graph depicts four general cycles of boom and bust since 1990. - The first relates to the 1993-2000 period, when globalization became a dominant strategy, particularly between developed countries. - The second cycle relates to the 2004-2007 period, which saw a growing share of FDIs going to developing economies. When the global economy is slowing down, often after a phase of over-accumulation of investments (and the resulting overcapacity), FDIs are substantially cut back. This is well reflected in the recessionary cycles of 2001-2003 and 2008-2010. - The third cycle of 2014-2017 reflects mainly the surge of Chinese investments, many of which took place in developing economies such as Central Asia and Africa. - The fourth cycle from 2018 onward reflects trade restrictions between the United States and China, which are associated with a decline in FDI in developing economies. Further, the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a steep decline in FDI, particularly in developing economies, as trade and financial transactions were curtailed. While FDIs used to predominantly occur in developed economies, after a surge involving developing economies, they are now more balanced. They remain a reflection of available economic opportunities in a variety of economic sectors. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-foreign-direct-investments-inflows/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-foreign-direct-investments-inflows/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-foreign-direct-investments-inflows/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-foreign-direct-investments-inflows/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Worldwide Mergers and Acquisitions, 1990-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-mergers-acquisitions/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/global_mergers_acquisitions.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Worldwide Mergers and Acquisitions, 1990-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worldwide Mergers and Acquisitions 1985 2016 in millions of current USD*Source: UNCTAD. (in millions of current USD)* Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) are a strategy used by firms to expand globally. Since M&A are also financial transactions requiring large amounts of capital, they are linked with boom and bust phases that commonly characterize the financial sector. After a phase of quick expansion lasting about 5 years, there is a retrenchment phase as the profitability of the accumulated investments is assessed. Fast growth in capital investment is commonly associated with misallocations in projects and assets with limited or no profitability. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-mergers-acquisitions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-mergers-acquisitions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-mergers-acquisitions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-mergers-acquisitions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Forms of Competitiveness in Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/forms-competitiveness-transportation/) **Published:** May 23, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/forms_transportation_ccompetitiveness.png?resize=900%2C374&ssl=1 "Main Forms of Competitiveness in Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Forms of Competitiveness in TransportationTransport service providers, such as carriers and terminal operators, can compete over a series of fundamental dimensions: - **Costs**. The standard competitive mechanism where providers try to offer comparative low costs depending on the existing pricing structure. The need is simply to be able to offer a cost that is lower than what is comparatively available while keeping other parameters constant. Lowering or comparatively keeping input costs constant, such as energy, labor, and assets, enables this form of competitiveness. Another challenge can be to make customers aware of the cost structure, which involves marketing. - **Differentiation**. Offering existing or new transportation services and performance metrics that are different from those offered by other transport service providers. It can also involve being able to offer more transport capacity than a counterpart. This implies that customers are less likely to find an alternative. - **Focus**. Able to offer transportation services in a specific mode or market area, implying high know-how and reliability that is difficult to replicate. Ownership or control over regional transportation assets and infrastructures allows for a competitive operating focus. This is a major factor behind transnational investments in transport terminals. Another approach concerns focusing on a specific customer base with specialized requirements. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/forms-competitiveness-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/forms-competitiveness-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/forms-competitiveness-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/forms-competitiveness-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Key Dimensions of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/key-dimensions-transportation/) **Published:** May 21, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/key_dimensions_transportation2.png?resize=900%2C481&ssl=1 "Key Dimensions of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Key Dimensions of Transportation### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/key-dimensions-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/key-dimensions-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/key-dimensions-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/key-dimensions-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Parking in a Public Park, Brussels](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-brussels/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0561.JPG?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Parking in a Public Park, Brussels | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Parking in a Public Park Brussels*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2003.* Many cities are facing acute difficulties in providing parking space, especially in central areas. This problem is also prevalent in Western Europe. In North American cities, suburbanization has often resulted in the abandonment of buildings in central areas. Many of these facilities have been torn down and converted into parking spaces (either as vacant lots or as dedicated multistoried facilities) while awaiting better use. Parking has become a substantial source of public and private revenue. This process did not take place in Western Europe, where the real estate of most central areas has remained relatively unchanged and includes the real estate of historical and architectural significance. To provide parking space, many European cities have been forced to build underground facilities that are expensive and rarely able to provide for the demand. The above photo was taken in downtown Brussels, where motorists desperate for parking space have parked their vehicles along a walkway in a public space, which has been severely degraded. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-brussels/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-brussels/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-brussels/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-brussels/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Bicycle Pool, Paris, France](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/paris-bicycle-pool/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Bicycle Pool Paris](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bicycle_pool_paris.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Bicycle Pool, Paris, France | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Bicycle Pool Paris France*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2008.* The pooling of vehicles for short-term rent is an option that is increasingly being considered and applied to support urban mobility. The above photo shows the “Velib” (Velo Libre) initiative in Paris, France, where bicycles are offered for rental for less than 24 hours, and ideally for less than 2 hours. As of 2016, the system was composed of 1400 bicycle rental stations that had an average separation of 300 meters with a pool of 18,200 bicycles. It turned out to be a very popular pooling system but also had some problems, notably a high level of vandalism and the need to reposition bicycles between stations every night because of commuting patterns. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/paris-bicycle-pool/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/paris-bicycle-pool/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/paris-bicycle-pool/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/paris-bicycle-pool/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Environmental, Social and Governance Criteria](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/environmental-social-governance-criteria/) **Published:** June 1, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/esg_criteria.png?resize=900%2C308&ssl=1 "Environmental, Social and Governance Criteria | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Environmental Social and Governance Criteria*Source: Adapted from World Economic Forum (2020) Measuring Stakeholder Capitalism: Towards Common Metrics and Consistent Reporting of Sustainable Value Creation.* Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria have been advocated by the World Economic Forum as a **stakeholder capitalism** approach trying to define corporate standards that can be used for investment purposes. Several terms have previously been used for such a purpose, including socially responsible investing and sustainable investing. ESG, as its name states, is oriented along three major criteria. The first, **environmental**, reports how a corporation has strategies for safeguarding the environment, such as reducing its carbon emissions and impacts on ecosystems. The second, **social**, is a proxy for corporate relations with a variety of stakeholders such as employees, suppliers, and customers, which is expanded to include communities in which it is located. The last, **governance**, covers issues such as compensation (leadership and workers), the composition of the workforce, and ethical behavior. These criteria have been articulated around a series of indicators that can be used to assess to what extent a corporation meets stated ESG goals by a variety of rating agencies that have developed ESG indices, particularly those involved in market capitalization. The best known are Bloomberg, Standard and Poors, and Dow Jones. Still, the usage ESG is subject to [controversy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/issues-environmental-social-governance/ "Issues with Environmental Social Governance") as it can derail investment and strategies toward actions that may not be in the best interest of the corporation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/environmental-social-governance-criteria/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/environmental-social-governance-criteria/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/environmental-social-governance-criteria/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/environmental-social-governance-criteria/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Issues with Environmental Social Governance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/issues-environmental-social-governance/) **Published:** May 19, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/issues_esg.png?resize=900%2C558&ssl=1 "Issues with Environmental Social Governance | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Issues with Environmental Social GovernanceEnvironmental Social Governance (ESG) is subject to controversy since it exposes a corporation to external compliance factors unrelated to its real role and function; providing goods and services. The most notable issues include: - **Effectiveness**. Are the ESG goals and criteria really reflective of sustainability? The benefits are not necessarily clear and more than often represent ideological judgments of value. Assessments about sustainability and environmental impacts in the past have been spectacularly wrong. - **Loss of focus**. A corporation engaging in ESG is forced to consider a multiplicity of issues by pursuing metrics and meeting standards with unsubstantiated benefits based on inaccurate science, particularly the social and environmental components. By allowing leadership to partake in virtue signaling, ESG can incite a diversion of capital and efforts into activities providing limited value to the corporation and its customers. - **Legitimacy of rating agencies**. ESG is not assigned by market principles but through compliance with rating agencies claiming legitimacy over the evaluation process. These agencies can be subject to ideological capture by advocacy groups and perpetuate their own biases that tend to be inclined toward socialism. This can create a sense of overreach in internal corporate matters by actors having no stakes in the outcome. - **Burden of reporting**. ESG can be highly demanding in terms of metrics requiring resources to collect data. It can also devolve into an exercise of ticking boxes and falsifying or exaggerating outcomes. Further, ESG data is unlikely to be comparable across industries and even across corporations within the same industry. - **Lack of vision**. ESG anchors evaluation perspectives into a mechanistic approach focused on compliance with the risk of overlooking real and transformative opportunities. - **Unfair competition**. ESG can allow large firms to solidify their handhold on markets by preventing smaller or new firms from competing because of the imposed regulatory burden. In this context, ESG becomes a tool for monopolistic or oligopolistic behavior. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/issues-environmental-social-governance/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/issues-environmental-social-governance/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/issues-environmental-social-governance/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/issues-environmental-social-governance/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Sustainable Development Goals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/three-e-development/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sustainable_development_goals.png?resize=900%2C436&ssl=1 "Sustainable Development Goals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Sustainable Development GoalsThe outcome of the 2015 United Nations resolution was to set a series of 17 sustainable development goals, also known as the 2030 Agenda. Each of these goals can be associated with societal, economic, or environmental improvements: - **Society**. These goals prioritize satisfying the diversified needs of the population, such as food, health, and education being among the most basic. Maintaining human capital (knowledge, skills, and capabilities) is mostly the responsibility of educational systems, but corporations also provide substantial training opportunities to their workforce. - **Economy**. These goals promote improvements in the welfare of populations. Key concepts are related to achieving or sustaining economic growth, maximizing profits, increasing competitiveness, and expanding markets. Globalization has given a new dimension to economic development by enabling an extended range of comparative advantages. However, like all economic processes, globalization promotes growth differently as regions and social classes capture their opportunities differently. This has led to inequalities. - **Environment.** These goals concern the footprint of human activities on environmental systems, notably their carrying capacity. The overarching issue of climate change remains salient, particularly over the issue of carbon emissions. Two goals are more general. One considers the institutional setting, particularly the rule of law and the efficiency of government services. The issue of international partnerships is particularly paradoxical. It implies aid mechanisms to help nations cope with temporary disruptions such as droughts. Still, in some cases, it has become a systematic and enduring redistribution mechanism, leaning on international aid and a bureaucracy managing this aid. Although all these issues can be conceptualized, most of them are highly complex in their nature and interrelation, and they cannot be easily quantified, particularly from a comparative perspective. Still, an impressive list of 247 indicators has been proposed to monitor progress. A challenge remains the respective meaning of these indicators and which indicators should be considered of prime importance and which are of lesser importance. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/three-e-development/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/three-e-development/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/three-e-development/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/three-e-development/?share=reddit) - --- ### [E-Book](https://transportgeography.org/media/e-book/) **Published:** August 14, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** The third edition of the Geography of Transport Systems was published in 2013, and the current edition is the sixth (released in 2024). \[wpdm\_package id=’38286′\] ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/media/e-book/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/media/e-book/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/media/e-book/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/media/e-book/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.5 - Transportation and its Bottlenecks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/) **Published:** December 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Bottlenecks impose delays and restrictions in the normal flow of transportation and can be related to infrastructure, regulations or operations. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transport Bottlenecks](#1_Transport_Bottlenecks) - [2. Bottlenecks Across Transport Modes](#2_Bottlenecks_Across_Transport_Modes) - [3. Mitigating Inland Bottlenecks: The Emergence of Landbridges](#3_Mitigating_Inland_Bottlenecks_The_Emergence_of_Landbridges) # 1. Transport Bottlenecks The [formation of bottlenecks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/main-transportation-bottlenecks/ "Main Transportation Bottlenecks") is the outcome of three factors that can be individual or concomitant, for complex bottlenecks: - **Infrastructure**. Represent the most fundamental factor in the creation of bottlenecks at terminals and connectors. While land transportation (road and rail) tends to be more constrained by the capacity of their connectors, air, and maritime transportation are more constrained by terminal capacity. Constructing transport infrastructure must contend with the scarcity of capital, labor, and land, which results in a compromise where capacity is more a function of available resources than potential demand. In areas where resources are limited, this scarcity increases the risk of infrastructure bottlenecks as investments do not match the required capacity. Further, delaying maintenance can potentially lead to infrastructure failure, creating a temporary bottleneck at the point of failure. Transportation relies on conveyances, which can be capital intensive and in limited supply, which is a source of bottlenecks since the number of available vehicles may not match the demand. A series of natural (e.g. storms) and anthropogenic (e.g. accidents) events can create bottlenecks by damaging or disrupting transport infrastructures. - **Operations**. Services provided by carriers and logistical service providers can create bottlenecks if they are not fully available, including their level of performance, which is associated with high costs, delays, and lack of reliability. Each of these performance factors can be a bottleneck on its own along the transport chain. The lack of drivers and operators for conveyances and their level of qualification are also hindrances impacting capacity. - **Regulations**. For international movements, customs clearance can be a notable bottleneck, particularly for freight that can be delayed for several days awaiting inspection and clearance. Cabotage restrictions may impose the usage of specific gateways as some destinations could only be reached by national carriers. In highly regulated environments there could be competition control, preventing actors from entering or exiting the market or providing subsidies or disincentives to specific modes and terminals. These policies have the unintended consequence of creating bottlenecks since they may hinder capacity development, or reduce capacity. If transportation modes are regulated in a manner where coordination between carriers is complex, this may create interoperability bottlenecks. The effects of bottlenecks can be evaluated on three dimensions: - **Impact**. A common and notable bottleneck effect concerns a reduction in capacity, often related to a specific node or connector. Sudden capacity reduction remains a core concern of how bottlenecks impact transport systems. Another form concerns efficiency issues, where a bottleneck causes delays and a decline in transportation reliability. - **Time horizon**. Bottlenecks can be chronic, enduring, and difficult to change without substantial infrastructure investments or regulatory overhaul. Bottlenecks can have a temporary effect when linked to a single and unusual event that reduces capacity and efficiency. For instance, repairing or upgrading transportation infrastructure will create a temporary bottleneck that ceases once completed. - **Extent**. A bottleneck can have a direct and indirect effect on transportation. A direct effect is usually observed at the location of the bottleneck, such as loss of capacity, while an indirect effect may concern other locations or sectors that are impacted by the bottleneck. For instance, if a bottleneck delays the delivery of parts and finished goods, this may delay the related activities. Further, each transportation mode has a [distinct network structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transportation-networks-vulnerabilities/ "Types of Transportation Networks and Vulnerabilities"), which is conducive to the formation of mode-specific bottlenecks. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_bottlenecks.png?resize=900%2C511&ssl=1 "Main Transportation Bottlenecks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Transportation Bottlenecks![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_transportation_network_vulneratilities2.png?resize=900%2C559&ssl=1 "Types of Transportation Networks and Vulnerabilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Transportation Networks and Vulnerabilities# 2. Bottlenecks Across Transport Modes Bottlenecks have a propensity to have specific locations and a distinct geography, which is related to the concerned mode. - **Road bottlenecks**. At the local level, various forms of [traffic disruptions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/causes-road-transportation-bottlenecks/ "Causes of Road Transportation Bottlenecks") are common sources of bottlenecks, which can be chronic (such as an intersection) or temporary (an accident or a storm). Observing traffic conditions over a period of time allows to clearly identify the main bottlenecks of circulation, particularly bridges and tolls. They become particularly salient during commuting cycles that provide recurring traffic surges, commonly above capacity limits. Bottlenecks can also occur for regulatory reasons, such as delays at border crossings or weight inspections for trucks. - **Rail bottleneck**. Rail transportation is notably dependent on terminal capacity, making such facilities the source of bottlenecks. For commuting, central rail stations can become major bottlenecks linking different systems of urban passenger transportation. Similar restrictions apply to rail freight transportation, an issue made more complex by the variety of cargoes (containers, grains, RORO), each often requiring a different type of terminal facility. Still, there is a strong distinction between rail container terminals and other forms of cargo carried by rail. Interconnectivity between rail transport systems can be a source of bottlenecks when [users](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/major-rail-stations-paris-metropolitan/ "Major Rail Stations and Rail Lines in the Paris Metropolitan Area") and [cargoes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/intermodal-rail-yards-chicago-area/ "Intermodal Rail Yards in the Chicago Metropolitan Area") have to switch terminals to access another part of the network. Less common [gauge changes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/major-gauges-rail/ "Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems") can also impair the connectivity of rail transportation. - **Maritime bottlenecks**. The dependence on port terminal capacity is salient in maritime transportation, with constraints such as depth, the core feature defining capacity. Maritime transportation cargoes depend on a variety of specialized terminals that can be bottlenecks since the capacity of one terminal usually cannot be substituted for another. At the global scale, [strategic passages](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/maritime-transportation-geography-components/ "The Geographical Space of Maritime Transportation") are important bottlenecks that articulate the structure of shipping services. Locations such as Suez and Panama are important bottlenecks because of their restrictions on transit capacity. - **Air bottlenecks**. The ultimate capacity of air transportation is defined by airport capacity, particularly runways. Further, airlines may consolidate their operations at specific hub airports, which play a very important role in regional air transport capacity. Some airports have a strong cargo orientation being hubs of an extensive air distribution network, particularly for [parcel carriers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/hubs-air-freight-integrators/ "Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators"). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/causes_road_transport_bottlenecks.png?resize=900%2C834&ssl=1 "Causes of Road Transportation Bottlenecks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Causes of Road Transportation Bottlenecks![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Paris-Metro.png?resize=900%2C623&ssl=1 "Major Rail Stations and Rail Lines in the Paris Metropolitan Area | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Rail Stations and Rail Lines in the Paris Metropolitan Area![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Intermodal-Chicago.png?resize=900%2C617&ssl=1 "Intermodal Rail Yards in the Chicago Metropolitan Area | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Intermodal Rail Yards in the Chicago Metropolitan Area![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Gauge.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-World-Passages-Simplified-1.png?resize=900%2C457&ssl=1 "The Geographical Space of Maritime Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Geographical Space of Maritime Transportation![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Air-Freight-Integrators.png?resize=900%2C437&ssl=1 "Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators# 3. Mitigating Inland Bottlenecks: The Emergence of Landbridges Landbridge movements, the usage of a land segment to ensure the continuity of a maritime segment, have taken place throughout history. They tended to involve short land segments since inland transportation was more costly than maritime transportation, creating bottlenecks. The [Silk Road](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/ "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes (11th and 12th Centuries)") can be considered one of the first significant landbridge and the exception to the short land segment rule. Due to the long distances involved and the difficulties of providing maritime services, land-only routes prevailed well into the 15th century. Even the existing maritime trading routes to Asia, from Antiquity and onward, required a short landbridge from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. This endured until the Suez Canal was completed in 1869. A similar situation applied to the Panama isthmus, which was used as an overland route (as well as other Central American passages) between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans until the Panama Canal opened in 1914. The development of rail networks permitted the change of the conventional short-land segment dynamic of landbridges to long-distance inland services. One of the first modern landbridges was implemented in the 1880s by Canadian Pacific Railway. Its goal was to improve the shipping time of high-value Asian commodities, notably silk and tea, from the Far East to Europe (and also to the US eastern seaboard), using Canada’s transcontinental rail link. The so-called “silk trains” disappeared in the first two decades of the 20th century, and with them, significant landbridge activity. The transport benefits of both the Suez and Panama canals negated the advantages of most overland routes for at least half a century after their construction. It was not until the late 1960s that changes in trade flows, capacity issues, and geopolitics (particularly for the Suez Canal) would lead to renewed interest in overland routes. From a passenger transport perspective, landbridge routes were important across the Americas and Central Asia, but lost their importance with the development of air travel. Such services are now mainly relegated to freight. Although the term landbridge can refer to any inland long-distance connection, it can be nuanced into four major [types of landbridges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7244) depending on the type of inland connectivity. The setting of modern landbridges is strongly associated with developments in intermodal transportation, which was considerably improved by double-stacking trains but also by more efficient port and rail terminals. There are two major characteristics of an intermodal landbridge freight service: - First, the freight forwarder issues a **single bill of lading** that covers the entire intermodal journey. - Second, the **goods remain in the same container** for the entire journey. The [North American landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/north-america-landbridge/ "The North American Landbridge") is the world’s most extensive in terms of capacity. In 1979, American Presidents Line (APL) ran the first dedicated express container TOFC (Trailers On Flat Cars) trains across the United States between Los Angeles and New York via Chicago. In 1985, a revolution was achieved by APL with the introduction of double-stack container rail services (COFC; Containers On Flat Cars) with capacities of up to 600 TEU (about 300 forty-foot containers) in a unit train. Shipping companies were particularly eager to see the emergence of these types of services as using the Panama Canal incurred substantial delays, which could be bypassed by the landbridge. The [Eurasian Landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/ "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge)") is also emerging. In 2004, the first doublestacking rail service in China began, linking Shanghai and Beijing. In 2014, establishing long-distance rail corridors between China and Western Europe became a formal strategy known as the Belt and Road Initiative. This resulted in investments in the development of rail infrastructure in Central Asia and the establishment of intermodal services between selected Chinese and European cities. [![Map Silk Road](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C541&ssl=1 "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/map-silk-road/)The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Types-of-Landbridge-1.png?resize=768%2C760&ssl=1 "Types of Landbridges | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transcontinental-bridges/types-landbridges/map-types-of-landbridge-png/)Types of Landbridges[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA-Landbridge.png?resize=900%2C666&ssl=1 "The North American Landbridge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transcontinental-bridges/north-america-landbridge/map-na-landbridge/)The North American Landbridge[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-New-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/map-new-silk-road/)The Trans Asian Railway Eurasian LandbridgeLandbridges are also being challenged by economies of scale in maritime shipping, which can be perceived as somewhat paradoxical. The initial application of economies of scale in containerized shipping induced the setting of inter-range services that were complemented by landbridge services. In North America, this led to an acute differentiation of maritime services for the East and West coasts and the usage of the landbridge to service East Coast markets from West Coast ports. Yet, new generations of post-Panamax containerships, particularly above 8,000 TEU, and contemporary supply chain management strategies impose capacity and reliability constraints on long-distance rail that are challenging to meet. With the expansion of the Panama Canal in 2016, the North American and the Eurasian landbridges face a new commercial environment and more competitiveness between the East and West coasts. --- ## Related Topics - [Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/) - [Rail Transportation and Pipelines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1759) - [Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3601) - [Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/) - [Inland Ports (Terminals)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/?share=reddit) - --- ### [9.4 - Transportation, Disruptions and Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Natural and anthropogenic disruptive events have effects on transportation systems, which can impact modes, terminals, and infrastructure differently. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transportation and Disruptions](#1_Transportation_and_Disruptions) - [2. Transportation Resilience](#2_Transportation_Resilience) - [3. Natural Disruptions](#3_Natural_Disruptions) - [4. Anthropogenic Disruptions](#4_Anthropogenic_Disruptions) - [5. Planning for Transport Disruptions](#5_Planning_for_Transport_Disruptions) # 1. Transportation and Disruptions > There is often more to learn from failure than success, even if failure is never welcomed. While the factors behind success can, at times, be ambiguous, the reasons for failure are commonly quite clear. The reasons why an airline is having a profitable quarter are more difficult to assess than if one of its planes was to fall off the sky. Transportation systems are designed to operate under **defined conditions** with criteria such as capacity, frequency, or timeliness. Yet, disruptions such as those caused by accidents or storms are rather frequent and well-mitigated. There is a level of tolerance to disruption built into transportation infrastructures and their operations. Carriers are accustomed to mitigating disruptive events, most of which are recurring, even if randomness plays a role. A flight can be delayed or canceled for weather or mechanical reasons, and passengers rebooked to use alternatives such as other connecting flights. On occasion, a disruption takes place at a much larger scale to the extent that the safety or security of a whole region or nation is compromised. Disruptions at a global scale are rare but can be far-reaching in consequences, such as economic crises, wars, and pandemics. While what could be defined as an emergency can be handled by local resources such as local police, healthcare, and emergency response, a disaster requires a broader intervention that could go to the national and even international levels. > A **disaster** involves extensive damage to people and physical infrastructure that is unforeseen in nature, scale, and extent. It is an event going beyond the anticipated capabilities to respond, which implies that their risk of occurrence has not been properly assessed, and a large share of the damage is the outcome of a lack of preparedness. Transportation is often considered a **critical infrastructure** since a disruption in one of its components can significantly impact the economic and social well-being of a region or a nation. An effective way to assess how critical infrastructure is would be to consider the impacts its removal would have on the flows and activities it services. From an economic standpoint, the impacts of disruptions are dependent on three factors: 1. Their nature and level of incidence. 2. The level of exposure of populations and infrastructures. 3. The level of vulnerability of populations and infrastructures. Several drivers have an impact on the threats and risk level of disruptions on transportation systems: - **Increased mobility**. The mobility of passengers (for commuting, tourism, business, and migration) and freight has risen globally, including crossing international boundaries. Air and maritime transportation are particularly illustrative since their growth implies more vehicles and cargo in circulation. Therefore, even if the **risk factors remain similar**, if there is more activity, there will be more disruptions. This trend has also been strengthened by trade agreements and tariff reductions promoted by organizations such as the World Trade Organization. There are more economic opportunities, but some risks, such as infectious diseases, can spread faster and more extensively. - **Infrastructure and economic interdependency**. Transportation and energy infrastructures are particularly interdependent, implying that a disruption in one infrastructure may spread to other infrastructures through propagation and back-propagation mechanisms. This interdependency is also economic, as trade is based upon respective specialization. Some parts and components are provided by a limited number of suppliers, which can be prone to risks in case of disruptions. In several sectors, such as resources and energy, supply chains are relatively rigid, implying that there are limited options for substitution. Resources such as oil require a continuous supply with limited margins to accommodate major disruptions. - **Centralization and concentration of distribution**. The principle of economies of scale often leads to a centralization of network structures and a concentration of economic activities. Most transportation systems are organized as hub-and-spoke networks, particularly for air transportation, but this characteristic is also prevalent in maritime shipping. A small number of airports and ports handle a large share of the traffic. Global trade is articulated by [major gateways](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/ "Global Gateways Index, 2010") where a few control a large share of the commercial flows. At the more basic geographical level, [strategic passages](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/main-maritime-shipping-routes/) impose bottlenecks for global maritime freight circulation. - **Urbanization**. The emergence of large cities has led to acute concentrations of populations, a pattern significantly different than the more dispersed settlements that prevailed in rural societies. The concentration of the population equates with a concentration of risk. Thus, any disruption affecting an urban area is compounding its impacts on par with the population and infrastructure density. It is also worth underlining that many of the [world’s largest cities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-largest-cities/ "World’s Largest Cities, 2015") are located in coastal areas, exposing them to an additional array of risks linked with hurricanes and storm surges. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_air_travel_freight.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried, 1950-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-travel-freight/world_air_travel_freight/)World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried 1950 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/international_seaborne_trade_exports2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "International Seaborne Trade and Exports of Goods, 1955-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/international-seaborne-trade/international_seaborne_trade_exports2/)International Seaborne Trade and Exports of Goods 1955 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Gateways-Index-2018.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Global Gateways Index, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/map-global-gateways-index-2010-png/)Global Gateways Index 2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Cities-2020.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World's Largest Cities, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-largest-cities/map-world-largest-cities/)Worlds Largest Cities 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_transportation_network_vulneratilities2.png?resize=900%2C559&ssl=1 "Types of Transportation Networks and Vulnerabilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transportation-networks-vulnerabilities/types_transportation_network_vulneratilities2/)Types of Transportation Networks and VulnerabilitiesThe transport industry has responded to these drivers with massive investments in infrastructure and facilities that have expanded the capacity and efficiency of transportation systems, both at the domestic and international levels. In turn, added flows and capacities increased demands on managing physical distribution systems, including transportation, transshipment, warehousing, insurance, and retailing. These sectors are strategically important to national economies as they directly or indirectly manage risks by regulating the availability and distribution of goods. Due to their scale and connectivity, the following [transportation networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=13029) are particularly vulnerable: - **Air transportation**. Such networks have a nodal hierarchy vulnerable to disruptions at major hubs, while disruptions at smaller hubs will have more limited consequences. - **Maritime shipping**. These circuitous nodal hierarchy networks have different considerations depending on whether the node is a hub or a gateway. Disruptions at a hub will mostly impact maritime shipping networks, while disruptions at a gateway will mostly impact the hinterland. - **Logistical networks**. These sequential networks are vulnerable to disruptions impacting one element of the supply chain and the connected activities that are upstream and downstream. - **Road networks**. Because of their mesh structure, road networks are not highly vulnerable to disruptions, unless this disruption is at a wide scale. - **Rail networks**. While linear rail networks are vulnerable to disruptions, complex rail and transit networks have a mesh-like structure, making them more resilient. - **Power grids**. These sequential networks are usually highly redundant but are subject to a hierarchical vulnerability where the higher up in the hierarchy, the more extensive the disruption. # 2. Transportation Resilience With the increasing reliance on distribution systems, any failure in transportation, due to intentional or non-intentional causes, can have very disruptive consequences and can even compromise national security over four major issues: - **Transportation supply**. Ensuring that transportation modes, routes, terminals, and information systems can satisfy national security needs such as normal commercial operations, troop deployment, and emergency relief. - **Transportation readiness**. Maintaining the readiness of transportation to face time-sensitive national security needs. - **Transportation vulnerability**. Reducing the vulnerability of transportation modes, terminals, and users to intentional harm, accidents, or disruption from natural events. - **Illegal use of transportation**. Reducing the trade of restricted or illegal goods (e.g. drugs, endangered species), and illegal immigration. Disruptions take place over [complex transportation systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=298) and are consequently difficult to evaluate. Particularly, the non-linearity character of complex systems implies that disruption can have multiplying and feedback effects, many unforeseen and unintended. Disruptions of high severity, such as a crisis or a disaster, are likely to trigger a phase transition where the resulting transport conditions are very different from the initial situation due to adaptation and mitigation. One of the core aspects of mitigating transportation disruptions concerns the **resilience of transport systems**, which is having infrastructures and modes able to withstand and recover from natural and anthropogenic hazards. > The [**resilience** of a transport system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10994) is its capability to resume operations at a level similar to that before a disruption occurred. The less disruption in terms of capacity and fluidity and the faster a system resumes its operations to a normal level, the higher its resilience. The frequency and the [reported type of disruptions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/respondents-reporting-disruptions-incidents/ "Percentage of Respondents Reporting Disruptions to Specific Incidents, 2021") vary as some can be consistent such as weather disruptions. In contrast, others can be sporadic, such as pandemics, while others, such as cyberattacks, are steadily on the rise. Resilience is highly influenced by the [network structure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10473), particularly its flexibility, and redundancy with its capacity to remain connected as some of its parts are disrupted: - **Flexibility**. Concerns the capacity to find alternatives such as new routes, new terminals, or new suppliers. - **Redundancy**. Involves a level of duplication of assets, let them be paths to connect locations or additional inventory within supply chains. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/complex_systems_transportation2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Complex Systems and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/complex-systems-transportation/complex_systems_transportation/)Complex Systems and Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/resilience_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C404&ssl=1 "Resilience of Transportation Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/resilience-transportation-systems/transport_resilience/)Resilience of Transportation Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/BCI_respondents_disruptions.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Percentage of Respondents Reporting Disruptions to Specific Incidents, 2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/respondents-reporting-disruptions-incidents/bci_respondents_disruptions/)Percentage of Respondents Reporting Disruptions to Specific Incidents 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_efficiency_resilience.png?resize=900%2C307&ssl=1 "Transportation Network Efficiency and Resilience | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transportation-network-efficiency-and-resilience/transport_efficiency_resilience/)Transportation Network Efficiency and ResilienceResilience is also related to the nature of the disruptions since each disruption has inherent effects. A simple taxonomy reveals that they are either **natural or anthropogenic** in origin. # 3. Natural Disruptions ## a. Extreme weather events Many weather events, such as storms and blizzards, occur regularly and have minimal impacts on transport systems with delays, partial closures, or diversions. Others, such as floods, cyclones (hurricanes), tornadoes, and droughts, can be of disastrous proportions. Tropical cyclones are particularly harmful since they cover wide areas (a mid-sized cyclone can cover an area of 500 km in diameter), move slowly (25 km/hr), and are associated with high winds and rainfalls. There is a distinct seasonality to hurricanes, with the highest frequency in the [Northern Hemisphere](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/atlantic-tropical-cyclones-by-month/ "Number of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones by Month (1851-2018)") between August and November, with peak activity during September. In the southern Pacific and Indian oceans (no hurricanes in the South Atlantic), the period between November and April shows the highest frequency of occurrences. During a hurricane, regional air transport, and public transit systems are usually shut down, and land transportation can be severely impaired, impacting supply chains. For instance, major floods in Thailand in 2011 were highly disruptive for the electronics sector, particularly hard drives, since they accounted for 25% of global production. Hurricane Sandy, which struck the New York / New Jersey coasts in 2012, incited the preemptive shutdown of all the airports, ports, and public transit systems of the region. Due to flooding and power outages, it took several days for the system to be returned to normal operating conditions, substantially impacting commuting. Concerns are that climate change may be linked with more recurrent extreme weather events. Beyond this debate, the fact remains that extreme weather events will continue to occur, but their frequency and scale are uncertain. ## b. Geophysical Tectonic activity is the source of the most serious geophysical disasters. Earthquakes are salient forms of geophysical threats since they are difficult to predict but focus on areas in the vicinity of boundaries of tectonic plates. Tsunamis are also considered an emerging risk as a growing number of people live in coastal areas. The 2011 Tohoku earthquake in Japan is among the five largest in recorded history. While the damage by the earthquake was significant, it is the associated tsunamis that caused the most extensive damage to the Japanese transport infrastructure. Further, the earthquake significantly impacted global supply chains as Japanese automobile production fell by 50% in the following months, mostly because of disruptions in electronics, semiconductors, and automotive parts suppliers. Although areas of [high earthquake occurrence](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-plate-tectonics/) are readily identified, the specific location and scale of an event remain a probability that is often difficult to conceptualize in transport infrastructure planning. While volcanoes have always been localized and easily identifiable risks, the ash clouds they release have been a concern for air travel. For instance, the ash cloud released by the [2010 eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/iceland-volcanic-ash-atlantic-2010/) forced the shutdown of most of the European and transatlantic air transport system for nearly a week, stranding millions of passengers. Since air transportation is an extremely recent phenomenon in geological times, the probability and extent of ash cloud events remain uncertain. For instance, an event of the scale of the Krakatau 1883 eruption taking place today would have profound ramifications for the global maritime and air transport systems. ## c. Geomagnetic storms They concern disturbances in the earth’s magnetic structure, mostly the outcome of solar activity, where the frequency of [geomagnetic storms](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/probability-geomagnetic-storm/ "Probability of a Geomagnetic Storm with a Field Change Greater than 300 Nanoteslas per Minute (22-year cycle)") varies accordingly. Geomagnetic storms can impair power grids and have a higher probability of occurring around the north and south poles. Still, they are less known and often an underestimated risk. The largest geomagnetic storm in history occurred in 1859 (called a Carrington Event in the name of the British astronomer who documented the flare). Still, at that time, electrical systems were rudimentary, and their impacts on human activities were marginal. Such an event taking place today would have heavy consequences (e.g., hundreds of millions losing electric power) and would qualify as a disaster. Further, it is unknown to what extent geomagnetic storms can disrupt electric vehicles, and even if unaffected, the lack of a power grid would mean their immobilization. ## d. Climate change Historically, sea levels outside standard tides, have rarely been considered for human settlements, implying that many cities and infrastructure are built right above the upper tidal limit. Potential [rising sea levels](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10084) attributed to anthropogenic causes (climate change) have been a recurring concern. There are various scenarios about potential sea level rises, but evidence underlines a rise by one meter by 2100 (compared to a 2000 baseline) as almost a certainty. Irrespective of the timing, sea-level rise places critical transport infrastructure, such as ports and airports, at risk of operational damage and discontinuity. For instance, a port terminal or an airport could not be directly impaired by sea-level rise, but its access roads could compromise its commercial viability. Sea level rise would also amplify the impacts of extreme weather events, namely storm surges. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/atlantic_tropical_cyclones.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones by Month (1851-2018) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/atlantic-tropical-cyclones-by-month/atlantic_cyclones/)Number of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones by Month 1851 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Plate-Tectonics-1.png?resize=768%2C401&ssl=1 "Global Plate Tectonics and Seismic Activity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-plate-tectonics/map-world-plate-tectonics/)Global Plate Tectonics and Seismic Activity[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/icelandvolcanicash2010.jpg?resize=776%2C604&ssl=1 "Volcanic Ash Plume across the North Atlantic, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/iceland-volcanic-ash-atlantic-2010/icelandvolcanicash2010/)Volcanic Ash Plume across the North Atlantic 2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Probability-Geomagnetic-Storm.png?resize=900%2C900&ssl=1 "Probability of a Geomagnetic Storm with a Field Change Greater than 300 Nanoteslas per Minute (22-year cycle) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/probability-geomagnetic-storm/map-probability-geomagnetic-storm/)Probability of a Geomagnetic Storm with a Field Change Greater than 300 Nanoteslas per Minute 22 year cycle[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_mean_sea_level_change2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Mean Sea Level Change, 1880-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-mean-sea-level-change/sea_level_change/)Global Mean Sea Level Change 1880 2019[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Sea-Level-Change.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "Remotely Sensed Sea Level Change, 1992-2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/sea-level-change/map-sea-level-change/)Remotely Sensed Sea Level Change 1992 2012# 4. Anthropogenic Disruptions ## a. Accident and infrastructure failure The outcome of **technical failures or human errors** and where modes, infrastructure, or terminals can be damaged or even destroyed, which includes injuries, the loss of life, and property damage. Small-scale accidents frequently occur, particularly over road transportation systems, creating minor disruptions. Transportation-related accidents are mostly punctual events unrelated to a massive loss of life and damage. There are notable exceptions. An aircraft crash with a complete loss of life can be considered a disaster. Even if planes are larger and more people are flying, improved airline safety has made these events increasingly uncommon, particularly regarding accidents per passenger-km flown. Industrial accidents related to releasing hazardous cargo (particularly fuel and chemicals) in an urban area during transport or at a transport terminal are also an issue of concern. Transportation infrastructure can fail due to a lack of (or deferred) maintenance, improper management, design flaws, or handling more traffic than designed. Bridges and similar structures are particularly vulnerable, especially from a system-wide perspective, where aging (or poorly maintained) infrastructure can impact many components within a similar timeframe. While infrastructure failure tends to be more frequent in developing economies due to a lack of investments and improper maintenance, the aging of infrastructure in advanced economies creates a new challenge. ## b. Conflicts, terrorism and piracy Conflicts such as wars and civil unrest often damage infrastructure, with transportation commonly a voluntary or involuntary target. Due to the importance of global trade and the structure of maritime shipping networks, bottlenecks (strategic passages) are subject to the risk of partial or complete closure. Terrorism has been a disruptive issue that has come to the forefront over the last two decades. For instance, the disruptions caused by the events of September 11, 2001, can be considered a disaster because of their scale and scope. More than 2,700 people were killed on the planes and on the ground, resulting in the closing of the North American air transport system for two days. The surge in global trade in the second half of the 20th century created an environment where piracy became an issue. Shipping lines are forced to pass through constrained areas, chokepoints, namely straits such as Malacca and Bab el Mandab, along the heavily used Asia-Europe maritime routes, making the interception of ships more feasible within a delimited area. The outcome of piracy on global supply chains has been small but not negligible as ships have changed their routing, and insurance surcharges are being levied for cargo transiting through areas prone to piracy. In 2022, the War in Ukraine substantially impacted the global trade of energy and food as transport infrastructure such as ports were targeted, and trade lanes in the Black Sea were restricted. ## c. Economic and political shocks Financial and economic instability will likely play a growing role in the future as most developed nations have accumulated a staggering amount of debt, raising default and inflation risks. These events would be associated with a lack of capital for infrastructure construction, maintenance, and oversight, rendering the transport system more prone to risks, such as accidents and infrastructure failure. Due to inflation, planning large transportation infrastructure projects becomes the subject of cost overruns, undermining long-term investments. ## d. Cybersecurity The diffusion of IT for communication, managerial and operational considerations has pervaded the transport industry. However, the growing digitalization and reliance on information systems have opened opportunities for cyber-related disruptions. The causes of cybersecurity breaches can be intentional or unintentional, such as employee error (e.g. losing a laptop or a storage device retrieved by others). The consequences of such developments are multidimensional and range from data theft to operational disruptions impacting carriers and cargo owners. For instance, in 2021, a cyberattack was able to temporarily shut down the Colonial Pipeline, crossing several southeastern US states. This led to disruptions in the delivery of gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel along a critical segment of the Interstate highway system. [Cyberattacks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/main-sources-cyberattacks/) are undertaken by a variety of agents guided by their motivations and objectives. The core motivation remains financial gains and is increasingly undertaken by specialized criminal groups. The use of ransomware is on the rise. ## e. Sanitary threats A pandemic is an event with potentially profound ramifications at the intersection of natural (biological) and anthropogenic causes (people are vectors, and anthropogenic causes could mutate viruses). Yet, the risk of the event itself is challenging to assess. Although a pandemic would not directly damage transportation systems, transportation is intractably linked with such a disruption as it will act as a vector for its diffusion (particularly air transportation), and shutting down transportation services in the wake of a pandemic would compromise supply chains (food, energy, medical supplies). The COVID-19 pandemic of 2020-2022 underlined how disruptive this biological and epidemiological event was on transportation systems (see [Transportation and Pandemics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8869)). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_transport_fatalities.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-fatalities/air_fatilities/)Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes 1918 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tianjin_explosion_2015.jpg?resize=850%2C685&ssl=1 "Site of the 2015 Tianjin Port Explosions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/tianjin-explosion-2015/tianjin_explosion_2015/)Site of the 2015 Tianjin Port Explosions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gscpi_federal_reserve.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Supply Chain Pressure Index and Major Supply Chain Disruptions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-supply-chain-pressure-index/gscpi_federal_reserve/)Global Supply Chain Pressure Index and Major Supply Chain Disruptions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_supply_chain_resilience.png?resize=900%2C432&ssl=1 "Types of Supply Chain Risks and Their Resilience | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/types-supply-chain-risks-resilience/types_supply_chain_resilience/)Types of Supply Chain Risks and Their Resilience[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sources_cyberattacks.png?resize=900%2C515&ssl=1 "Main Sources of Cyberattacks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/main-sources-cyberattacks/sources_cyberattacks/)Main Sources of Cyberattacks# 5. Planning for Transport Disruptions As freight transportation is increasingly globalized and complex, [supply chain risks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6427) are salient. Developing economies are particularly vulnerable to disruptions because infrastructure, including transportation, tends to be of lower quality and more poorly managed, and thus less resilient to disruptions. In addition to the risk, a fundamental element is who bears the responsibility for disruptions and their costs. Reconstruction and replacement costs of transportation modes and infrastructure can be substantial. [International commercial transactions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5614) underline that the actor assuming the liability depends on the terms of the contract, and the same event may imply a different liability allocation depending if the cargo was damaged or lost during transportation, at a terminal, or in a distribution center. Although a potential disruption can never be effectively planned, and even anticipated in some instances, a series of steps, known as **Risk Management**, can be proactively considered to prepare for an event. It adopts a dynamic and value-driven approach to building resilience, beyond identifying, assessing, and evaluating threats or opportunities. It also enhances organizational resilience by learning from successes and failures. It is based on the five following principles: - **Risk assessment**. The likelihood of an event and its potential impacts should be comprehensively assessed, such as its probability (low to high) over a defined time frame and a specific area (e.g. a city or region). This should provide a prioritization of risks. - **Preparedness**. In light of the potential risks, a level of preparedness should be considered in terms of potential responses. This can involve the warehousing and positioning of relief material, such as fuel, parts, and equipment, and the training of the labor force in emergencies. - **Mitigation**. Concerns the immediate reaction to the event and can involve the shutting down of transport systems (particularly public transit), the evacuation of populations, and the mobilization of first response resources, namely distributing emergency relief (food, medical supplies). The goal is to control and attenuate the disruptions caused by the event. - **Response**. Once the disruption has been mitigated, steps are implemented to restore capacity with existing infrastructure. This is the context in which a series of [viable options can be considered](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/response-options-transport-disruption/ "Response Options to a Transport Disruption"). If a mode has been impaired, alternative modes and infrastructure must be considered. The goal is to maintain the operation of as many elements of the transport system as possible. - **Recovery**. Concerns all the steps necessary to recover the lost transport capacity during the disruption. It can involve repairs, restarting discontinued services, and investments in new and improved infrastructures, modes, and terminals. The goal is to bring back the capacity and level of service to pre-event conditions. With the lessons learned from the disruption, more resilient infrastructure and networks are likely outcomes. The reconstruction time of transportation infrastructure tends to be slower than that of other infrastructure. Evidence from the 1995 Kobe earthquake underlines that electric power and telecommunications were restored in a matter of weeks. Road and rail infrastructure can take several months, while it can be a matter of years for port infrastructure. Transport infrastructure, particularly terminals, is much more capital-intensive than utilities and requires specialized and heavy equipment for repair or construction. Highway and rail services can run at a lower capacity and on alternative routes. If a port is shut down, other ports can generally be used, which applies to air travel. While this is less efficient as it involves longer routes for imports or exports, it remains, in most cases, economically feasible. Managing the resilience of transportation systems opens the door for **public-private partnerships** setting respective roles and capabilities. The private sector has a vast array of resources, including transportation and warehousing assets, that can be brought in during a disruption. For instance, when a large-scale weather event is predicted, such as a snowstorm or even a hurricane, it is common for large retailers to reposition the inventory of critical goods, such as water and power generators, to distribution centers and stores nearby the impacted area. Then, this inventory can be rapidly deployed. However, recovery is contingent upon the availability of capital, equipment, and managerial expertise. Therefore, recovery is usually much faster in advanced economies than in developing economies. As there are geographical differences in the risk and exposure to disruptions, there are also geographical differences in mitigating and recovering from disruptions. Because of differences in infrastructure quality, more stringent building standards, and effective governance, a similar disruption in a developing economy is likely to have more impact than in a developed economy. These differences may even be reflected at the urban level. Depending on their spatial structure, cities may be impacted differently by a similar disruption because of the quality of their infrastructure and their built-in resilience. Irrespective of the disruption, transportation systems can be a vector for the disruption and an important component in the [resilience-building process](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transport-resilience-building-process/ "Transport Resilience Building Process"). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/risks_global_supply_chains2.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Risks in Global Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Risks in Global Supply Chains![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/response_options_transport_disruption.png?resize=900%2C461&ssl=1 "Response Options to a Transport Disruption | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Response Options to a Transport Disruption![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_resilience_process.png?resize=900%2C446&ssl=1 "Transport Resilience Building Process | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Resilience Building Process--- ## Related Topics - [9.3 – Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6289) - [B.18 – Climate Change and the Adaptation of Transport Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9422) - [9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6279) - [9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6284) - [B.19 – Transportation and Pandemics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8869) ## Bibliography - Bell G (2020). The Organizational Resilience Handbook: A Practical Guide to Achieving Greater Resilience. London: Kogan Page. - Chang, S.E (2003) “Transportation Planning for Disasters: An Accessibility Approach”, Environment and Planning A, Vol. 35, pp. 1051 – 1072. - ITF (2024) Transport System Resilience: Summary and Conclusions, ITF Roundtable Reports, No. 194, OECD Publishing, Paris. - Kappenman, J. (2012) “A Perfect Storm of Planetary Proportions”, IEEE Spectrum, February. - Klotzbach P.J., Wood K.M., Schreck III C.J., Bowen S. G., Patricola C.M., & Bell M.M. (2022) “Trends in global tropical cyclone activity: 1990–2021”, Geophysical Research Letters, 49. - Linkov, I. and J.M. Palma-Oliviera (eds) (2017) Risk and Resilience, Amsterdam: Springer. - McKinnon, A. (2014), “Building Supply Chain Resilience: A Review of Challenges and Strategies”, International Transport Forum Discussion Papers, No. 2014/06, OECD Publishing, Paris. - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2014) A Guide to Regional Transportation Planning for Disasters, Emergencies, and Significant Events. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. - OECD (2011) Future Global Shock – Improving Risk Governance, Paris: OECD Publishing. - Scott, D., D.C. Novak, L. Aultman-Hall, and F. Guo (2006) “Network robustness index: A new method for identifying critical links and evaluating the performance of transportation networks”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 14, pp. 215- 227. - UNCTAD (2022) Building Capacity to Manage Risks and Enhance Resilience: A Guidebook for Ports, UNCTAD/TCS/DTL/INF/2022/3. - Weiland, S., A. Strong and B.M. Miller (2019) Incorporating Resilience into Transportation Planning and Assessment. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Transportation Bottlenecks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/main-transportation-bottlenecks/) **Published:** May 5, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_bottlenecks.png?resize=900%2C511&ssl=1 "Main Transportation Bottlenecks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Transportation Bottlenecks### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/main-transportation-bottlenecks/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/main-transportation-bottlenecks/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/main-transportation-bottlenecks/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/main-transportation-bottlenecks/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Weight and Packaging Improvements: iPad 1 versus iPad 2](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packaging-ipad1-ipad2/) **Published:** December 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/package_ipad1_ipad2.jpg?resize=750%2C660&ssl=1 "Weight and Packaging Improvements: iPad 1 versus iPad 2 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Weight and Packaging Improvements iPad 1 versus iPad 2*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2011.* The conventional focus of product development is the improvement of its commercial and competitive attributes such as price, quality, features, and performance. This process is common for electronic goods as each new generation of a product (e.g. computers, phones, televisions) is quantitatively and qualitatively better. For instance, the second generation of the iPad had the same display surface (246 mm diagonal) as the first generation. Still, it was 16% lighter (600 grams versus 712 grams), 33% thinner (8.8 mm versus 13.4 mm), more performing (CPU and graphic display speed), and had more features (e.g., front and back cameras). Products are increasingly being considered from a supply chain perspective, namely their sourcing and distribution. The final assembly of a consumer good, such as an iPad, is performed in Shenzhen, China, and then the finished boxed product is shipped by air to consumers around the world. This implies that air transportation costs are an important component of the total logistics costs of the product. In addition to the weight improvements of the second-generation iPad, efforts have been made to reduce its packaging dimensions. The outcome was a box that was 10% lighter and had 18% less volume, both being important considerations for air shipping. Keeping air transportation costs constant. It was, therefore, possible to ship 11 iPad 2s with the same weight/volume price ratio as 10 iPad 1s. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packaging-ipad1-ipad2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packaging-ipad1-ipad2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packaging-ipad1-ipad2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packaging-ipad1-ipad2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Packed Memory Foam Mattresses](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packed-memory-foam-mattress/) **Published:** December 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Packed Memory Foam Mattresses](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/packed_memory_foam_mattresses.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Packed Memory Foam Mattresses | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Packed Memory Foam Mattresses*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2016.* The global furniture distributor and retailer Ikea commits substantial efforts to design its products. A fundamental design element relates to how each product can be optimally packed in a limited footprint, preferably in a box. This involves the design of the shape of the parts as well as the selection of materials composing them. For instance, the above photo depicts mattresses rolled into vacuum-sealed packs. The growing prevalence of memory foam technology which is replacing standard spring-based designs, is offering a product that can be packed, compressed, and rolled without damaging its properties. This substantially reduces transport and inventory costs in addition to the convenience for customers to carry the product away on their own. In its product design and packing strategy, Ikea faces the conundrum where the greater the number of parts, the easier it is to pack a product efficiently (reducing its transport and warehousing footprint), but the more effort customers must make to assemble them. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packed-memory-foam-mattress/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packed-memory-foam-mattress/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packed-memory-foam-mattress/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/packed-memory-foam-mattress/?share=reddit) - --- ### [5.3 - Rail Transportation and Pipelines](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/) **Published:** November 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Brian Slack > Rail transportation refers to the movement of vehicles on guideways. The most common guideways are rails, but recent technological developments have also made available monorails and magnetic levitation trains. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Rail Transportation and Rail Lines](#1_Rail_Transportation_and_Rail_Lines) - [2. The Spatial Economy of Rail Transportation](#2_The_Spatial_Economy_of_Rail_Transportation) - [3. Rail Transportation in the 21st Century](#3_Rail_Transportation_in_the_21st_Century) - [4. Pipelines](#4_Pipelines) # 1. Rail Transportation and Rail Lines Although primitive rail systems existed by the 17th century to move materials in quarries and mines, it was not until the early 19th century that the first extensive rail transportation systems were set. Rail transportation has been the product of the industrial era, playing a major role in the **economic development** of Western Europe, North America, and Japan, where such systems were first massively implemented. It represented a significant improvement in land transport technology and has introduced significant changes in the mobility of freight and passengers. This was not necessarily because of its capacity to carry heavy loads but because of its higher ubiquity level and speed. Rail transport systems dramatically improved travel time as well as the possibility of offering **reliable and consistent schedules** that could be included in the planning of economic activities such as production and distribution. The coherence of economic activities and social interactions was thus substantially improved. Rail transportation was the first mode that brought scheduling and reliability to transportation systems, as its assets and services needed to be planned and geographically allocated. With the introduction of the steam locomotive in 1829, a mechanized land transport system became available for the first time. However, geography played an important role in the nature and function of the first rail systems. According to the [geographical settings](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1914), rail lines were established differently because of the various strategies to be achieved. These included access to resources (penetration lines), servicing regional economies (regional networks), and achieving territorial control (settlements along transcontinental lines). The first rail lines were **portage segments within canal systems** or routes to complement existing canals and fill their service gaps. Because of its cost and time advantages, rail could supplant canal services in inland transportation to become the main driver of spatial change in industrializing regions of the world. The structure of rail network development reflects and influences the structure of the national urban system. For instance, initial rail network development in the [United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-rail-network-1861/ "American Rail Network, 1861") in the second half of the 19th century reflected differential levels of industrialization to the advantage of the Northeast, leading to rail corridors that prevailed well into the 21st century. For [France](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/french-rail-network-1886/ "French Rail Network, 1886") during the same period, rail development spurred from Paris and created a highly centralized network. For China, rail development came later in the early 20th century and focused on connecting its largest cities. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Network2.png?w=900&ssl=1 "World Rail Network and Rail Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Rail Network and Rail Systems![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US_Rail_1861.png?resize=900%2C788&ssl=1 "American Rail Network, 1861 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")American Rail Network 1861![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/french_rail_network_1886.jpg?resize=900%2C1075&ssl=1 "French Rail Network, 1886 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")French Rail Network 1886The **capital intensiveness** of building and operating rail services required the setting of corporations that grew in size as rail expanded. The first railway companies were mainly point-to-point ventures, with the company often taking the name of the serviced destinations. Several mergers occurred as the rail system expanded, leading to peculiar semantic results. For instance, BNSF Railway (Burlington Northern Santa Fe; the company uses the acronym to avoid confusion), a major rail operator in the western part of the United States, is the outcome of some 390 different railroad lines that merged or were acquired over a period of more than 150 years. Railways were nationalized in other parts of the world, such as Europe, creating a single operator and network manager. There are [substantial differences](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1991) worldwide regarding the organization, the market focus, and the ownership of rail transport systems. Rail systems are characterized by a high level of economic and territorial control since most rail companies operate in a situation of **monopoly**, as in Europe, or **oligopoly**, as in [North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1999), where seven large rail freight carriers control and operate large networks. Operating a rail system involves using regular (scheduled) but rigid services since a limited number of slots on a rail track are available within a time period. Rail transportation, like roads, has an important relationship with space since it is the transport mode the **most constrained by physiography**. These constraints are mainly technical and operational: - **Footprint**. Rail transportation has a low footprint along lines, but its terminals can occupy large portions of real estate, especially in urban areas. This increases operating costs substantially. Still, rail terminals tend to be centrally located and accessible. A major issue concerns the rights of way that represent significant sunk costs for rail, which has fixed the network structure and impeded future developments because of the difficulty of securing rights of way along high-density corridors. This leads to a paradox as passenger rail is well suited to service high-density areas, which also impose high costs for securing rights of way. - **Gradient and turns**. Rail transport is particularly susceptible to the heterogeneity of geography, which imposes constraints such as a gradient and track alignment. Rail transportation can support a gradient of up to 4% (about 40 meters per kilometer), but freight trains rarely tolerate more than 1%. This implies that an operational freight rail line requires 50 kilometers to climb 500 meters. The gradient is also important as it impacts energy consumption, particularly for freight trains traveling long distances. For turns, the minimal curvature radius is 100 meters, but a radius of 1 km for 150 km/hr and 4 km for a speed of 300 km/hr is needed. - **Vehicles**. For traction, locomotion technology ranges from steam (abandoned) to diesel (mainly for freight) and electric (primarily for passengers). Rail transportation is very flexible regarding vehicles, and a wide variety of them fulfill different purposes. Among the most common vehicle assets are open wagons (hopper cars) used for bulk cargo (e.g. minerals), boxcars to carry general and refrigerated goods, and tank cars to carry liquids. Intermodal transportation has also permitted the development of a new class of flat railcars that can carry containers and trailers (less common). The trend has thus been towards a specialization of freight wagons, such as hopper wagons (grain, potash, and fertilizers), triple hopper wagons (sand, gravel, sulfur, and coal), flat wagons (wood, agricultural equipment, manufactured goods, containers), tanker wagons (petrochemical products), box wagons (livestock, paper, manufactured goods, refrigerated goods), car wagons and passengers wagons (first class, second class, third class cabins, sleeper cars, restaurant cars). - **Gauge**. They are heterogeneous across jurisdictions since, because of historical and political reasons, different nations and regions have [adopted different gauges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/major-gauges-rail/ "Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems"). The standard gauge of 1.435 meters has been adopted in many parts of the world, across North America and most of Western Europe. It accounts for about 60% of the tack mileage. But other gauges have been adopted in other areas, such as the broad gauge (1.520 meters) in Russia and Eastern Europe, accounting for about 17% of the mileage. This makes the integration of rail services complex since both freight and passengers are required to change from one railway system to the other. As attempts are being made to extend rail services across continents and regions, this is a significant obstacle, for example, between France and Spain, Eastern and Western Europe, and Russia and China. The potential of the Eurasian land bridge is impaired in part by these gauge differences. - **Vertical integration**. Relates to the ownership of tracks and rolling stock, maximum train length, signaling equipment, maintenance schedule, and traffic mix. A vertically integrated railway involves track ownership and operation by the same operator. These factors will influence the capacity of the rail system, particularly if the infrastructure is shared. When tracks are privately owned, the operator is free to allocate its services without much competitive hindrance. However, if the tracks are publicly owned, they are often reserved for a national rail carrier, and service slots can be leased to private operators through a bidding process. Most of the North American rail network is vertically integrated. In contrast, for most of Europe, there is a vertical separation between the owner of the infrastructure (a public entity) and the operator (a private company). Other factors that inhibit the movement of trains between different countries include **signaling and electrification standards**. These are particular problems for the European Union, where the lack of interoperability of the rail systems between the member states is a factor limiting the broader use of the rail mode. There is also a trend where the passengers and freight markets are being separated. First, it occurs at the management level. The liberalization of the railway system by the European Commission is resulting in the separation of passenger and freight operations. This had already occurred in the UK when British Rail was privatized in the 1980s. Second, the move toward [high-speed passenger rail services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1921) necessitated the construction of separate rights of way. This has tended to move passenger train services from existing tracks, thereby opening up more daytime slots for freight trains. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economic_rationale_rail_transportation.png?resize=900%2C323&ssl=1 "Economic Rationale of Rail Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-transport-economics/economic_rationale_rail_transportation/)Economic Rationale of Rail Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Gauge.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/major-gauges-rail/map-rail-gauge/)Major Gauges of the Global Rail Systems[![Map Rail North America](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Network_Ownership_2021.png?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Ownership of Major North American Rail Lines, 2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-ownership-north-america/map_na_network_ownership_2021/)Ownership of Major North American Rail Lines 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-HSR.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World High Speed Rail Systems, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/map-world-hsr/)World High Speed Rail Systems 2018# 2. The Spatial Economy of Rail Transportation Rail transportation has a [strong economic rationale](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1991), making it a competitive modal option for the mobility of passengers and freight. Still, rail development is capital intensive as rail networks tend to be more a function of economic density than population density. The ability of trains to **[haul large quantities of freight](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-freight/ "World Rail Freight Traffic, 2018")** and significant numbers of passengers over long distances is its primary asset. Overall, [rail transportation is more efficient than road transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1930). However, its main drawback is flexibility, as traffic must follow fixed routes, trains must be assembled, and transshipment must take place at terminals. Once the cars have been assembled, or the passengers have boarded, trains can offer a high-capacity service at a reasonable speed, which is significant when high-speed systems are involved. This feature led to the role of rail in opening the interior of the continents in the 19th century and remained its primary asset. The majority of rail activities have a **strong regional focus**, particularly for the mobility of passengers. Freight flows are over much longer distances, making rail corridors a distinct spatial function for rail. With containerized unit trains, economies of scale can readily be achieved, while roads have limited ability to benefit from this advantage. Each additional container being carried by road involves the same marginal cost increase. At the same time, for rail, there is a **declining marginal cost per additional container** until the unit train size is reached. The same applies to passengers as for road transportation, an additional movement usually involves an additional vehicle, while for rail, there are declining marginal costs as a passenger train gets filled. [Passenger services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-passenger-traffic/ "World Rail Passenger Traffic, 2017") are thus effective where population densities are high. Bulk cargo shipments, particularly agricultural and industrial raw materials, dominate freight traffic. Rail transport has lower energy consumption per unit load per km than road and has comparative advantages in carrying heavy bulk traffic on specific itineraries over long distances. For instance, a 10-car freight train can carry as much cargo as 600 trucks. Besides emphasizing safety and reliability, rail transport favors the fast commuting of suburbanites during peak hours and has become an important mode for passenger movements in large cities. The **initial capital costs of rail are high** because the construction of rail tracks and the provision of rolling stock are expensive. Historically, investments were made by the same source (either governments or the private sector) before any revenues were realized. Rail thus has high entry barriers that tend to limit the number of operators. High capital costs also delay innovation, compared with road transport, since rail rolling stock has a service life of at least twenty years. This can also be advantageous since the rolling stock is more durable and offers better amortization opportunities. Generally, rail companies must invest about 45% of their operating revenues each year in capital and maintenance expenses for their infrastructure and equipment. [Capital expenditures](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1940) alone account for about 15 to 20% of revenue, while this share is around 3 to 4% for manufacturing. One strategy to deal with high capital expenditures has been the setting of equipment pools such as TTX, which account for about 70% of the intermodal railcar assets used by North American rail companies. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/spatial_performance_road_rail.png?resize=900%2C542&ssl=1 "Spatial Performance of Rail and Road Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-road-spatial-performance/spatial_performance_rail_road/)Spatial Performance of Rail and Road Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/capital_expenditures_revenue2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Capital Expenditures as Share of Revenue | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/capital-expenditures-economic-sectors/capital_expenditures_revenue2/)Capital Expenditures as Share of Revenue[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Freight-Ton-km-1.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "World Rail Freight Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-freight/map-rail-freight-ton-km-1/)World Rail Freight Traffic 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Passenger-km-1.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "World Rail Passenger Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-passenger-traffic/map-rail-passenger-km/)World Rail Passenger Traffic 2017[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passenger_to_freight_rail.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Percent of Rail Passenger Traffic to Total Rail Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-passenger-traffic/passenger_to_freight_rail/)Percent of Rail Passenger Traffic to Total Rail Traffic 2000Since the end of the 1950s, railway systems in advanced economies have faced **increasing competition from road transport**. The **breakeven distance**, a threshold above which rail becomes most cost-effective than road transportation, was changed to the advantage of road transport. The more efficient road transport became, the higher its breakeven distance. Currently, the breakeven distance between intermodal rail and truck is between 600 and 800 miles (950 and 1,300 km). Under 500 miles (800 km), drayage costs from the terminal usually account for 70% of total costs. In countries such as China, India, and Japan, rail transportation accounts for the **majority of interurban passenger transportation**. Rail transportation is still significant, mainly for passenger transportation, but has declined over the last decades. There are acute [geographical differences](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1947) in the economic preference for rail transportation among developed economies. High-speed passenger rail networks have been set up, but the competition was mainly on air transportation services rather than road transport. For North America, rail transportation is strictly related to freight, with passengers playing a marginal role only along a few major urban corridors. Passenger trains are even getting delayed because the priority is given to freight, impairing the reliability of the service. Only in the northeastern United States are passenger services running on time since Amtrak (the federally owned passenger rail operator) owns the tracks. Even if rail transportation services were primarily developed for national economies, globalization significantly impacts rail freight systems. These impacts are [scale specific](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2028): - At the **micro scale**, extended metropolitan regions reveal a specialization of rail traffic as well as a transfer of certain types of commodities from the rail network to the fluvial and road network systems. Railways servicing ports increasingly tend to focus on container movements. This strategy followed by rail transport operators allows, on the one hand, an increase in the delivery of goods and, on the other hand, the establishment of door-to-door services through a better distribution of goods among different transport modes. - At the **meso scale**, the railway transportation network is influenced by the growing integration between rail and maritime transport systems, with a concentration of investments in shaping rail corridors. Rail transportation has thus become the extension of maritime supply chains. - At the **macro scale**, new long-distance alternatives are emerging in the form of land bridges in North America and between Europe and Asia. In [North America](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transcontinental-bridges/north-america-landbridge/ "The North American Landbridge"), rail has successfully serviced long-distance intermodal markets, underlining the efficiency of rail over long distances and high-volume flows. In Asia, China has deployed since 2014 a large transnational investment strategy focusing on the development of rail corridors between China and Europe, which has been labeled the **[Belt and Road Initiative](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/ "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge)")**. Rail freight services are also facing the challenge of improving their **reliability**, leading to a fragmentation of the types of services offered. For conventional rail freight markets such as coal, grain, forest products, or chemicals, the priority has consistently been providing high-capacity and low-cost forms of transportation. However, these services were unreliable but could be easily accommodated by stockpiling, a strategy common in the resource sector (e.g. power plants, grain elevators). An emerging freight market for rail mostly concerns intermodal services that require a much higher level of reliability, similar to what is expected in trucking. Commercial changes such as large volumes of retail import containerized cargo, and just-in-time manufacturing require high-reliability levels to support the related supply chains. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_functions_rail_corridors2.png?resize=900%2C434&ssl=1 "Types and Functions of Rail Freight Corridors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-freight-corridor-types/types_functions_rail_corridors/)Types and Functions of Rail Freight Corridors[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_7283.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Grain Elevator Rail Terminal, Regina, Saskatchewan | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/grain-elevator-rail-terminal-regina/grain_rail_regina/)Grain Elevator Rail Terminal Regina Saskatchewan[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA-Landbridge.png?resize=900%2C666&ssl=1 "The North American Landbridge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transcontinental-bridges/north-america-landbridge/map-na-landbridge/)The North American Landbridge[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-New-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/map-new-silk-road/)The Trans Asian Railway Eurasian Landbridge# 3. Rail Transportation in the 21st Century Although railways are a product of the industrial revolution, they have been affected by continuous innovations, and technical, regulatory, and commercial changes, improving their capacity and efficiency. Rail transportation is thus as important in the 21st century as it was in the late 19th century. One innovation relates to the quality of the rail infrastructure, particularly rail tracks (e.g. better steel, concrete ties), which determines the operational characteristics of their use, such as speed, permitted weight, maintenance, and resilience to the environment. Increasing **electrification** and **automation** also improve the efficiency of rail transportation, passenger and freight alike. While the construction of rail lines has abated in developed economies, new developments are mainly occurring in developing economies. Railway speed records have improved continuously with the introduction of high-speed rail systems. For instance, portions of the French high-speed rail system (also known as TGV: Tres Grande Vitesse) can reach commercial speeds up to 320 km/hr. Variable wheel-base axles permit rail transport between different gauges. However, freight trains run at considerably lower speeds, in the range of 30-35 km/hr, and as the rail system gets more used, operational speed may decline because of congestion. Longer and heavier rail, coupled with major engineering achievements such as bridges and tunnels, allow for the suppression of natural obstacles, which enhances **network continuity**. Salient examples include the Seikan tunnel between the islands of Honshu and Hokkaido in Japan, which has a length of 53.8 kilometers, while the Channel Tunnel between France and England reaches 50.5 kilometers. The Gotthard Base Tunnel, which opened in 2016, was built mostly to carry rail freight through the Alps, totaling 57.1 kilometers. One of the most technically challenging rail segments ever built was completed in 2006 in China. The 1,142-kilometer line links Golmud in Qinghai province to Lhasa in Tibet. Some parts go through permafrost and altitudes of 16,000 feet, conferring its status as the world’s highest rail line. The global trend involves the **closure of unprofitable lines** and the elimination of several stops. With the downsizing of rail transportation, while traffic was moving to other modes, rail companies abandoned lines (or sold them to local rail companies), removed excess terminals and warehousing capacity, and sold off some property. The rationalization (deregulation) of the rail network is now completed in several countries, such as the [United States](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1954). This has implied significant labor savings with the reduction of train crews (from 3-4 to 2), more flexible working hours, and the usage of subcontractors for construction and maintenance. In addition to e**nergy efficiency** and lighter equipment, double-stack cars have revolutionized rail transportation with additional fuel efficiency and cost reductions of about 40%. Depending on the service and type of commodity carried, rail can be 1.9 to 5.5 more energy-efficient than trucking. **Unit trains** carrying one commodity type allow scale economies and efficiencies in bulk shipments, and double stacking has greatly promoted the advantages of rail for [container shipments](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2009). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rail_track_mileage_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Rail Track Mileage and Number of Class I Rail Carriers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-track-mileage-united-states/rail_track_mileage_usa/)Rail Track Mileage and Number of Class I Rail Carriers United States 1830 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2012-06-16-101135.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "40-Foot Containers Doublestacked on a Rail Car | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/doublestack-railcar/doublestackrail/)40 Foot Containers Doublestacked on a Rail Car[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/intermodal_rail_traffic_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "American Intermodal Rail Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-traffic-united-states/intermodal_rail_traffic_usa/)American Intermodal Rail Traffic 1988 2021Trends concerning cargo transport using **trailers on flat cars** (TOFC) and **containers on flatcars** (COFC) illustrate the increasing adoption of intermodal transport. Still, TOFC services are being phased down, and COFC now dominates intermodal rail. A market for niche services such as [Roadrailers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3708) mounting truck trailers as train convoys remains. Due to its versatility, the container is highly favored for cargo transport. Loading trailers into rail cars is prone to inefficiencies, particularly because of a much lower load factor than containers. Double-stack rail technology is a major challenge for the rail transport system as it is **effective for long distances** where additional terminal costs are compensated by lower transport costs. North America has a notable advantage over Europe on this issue. A full double-stacked unit train can carry between 400 and 600 TEU (200 to 300 containers) and have a length exceeding 10,000 feet (about 3,000 meters). The average intermodal train length in the United States is around 6,500 feet (about 2,000 meters). European trains are generally limited to 750 meters and can carry 80 TEU of single stacked containers, while some rail segments can accommodate 850 meters. Further, most railroads were constructed early in the 20th century and had an overhead clearance inadequate for double-stack trains. This is notably the case for tunnels and bridges. Even if improving clearance is a significant investment, several rail companies, notably in North America, have invested massively in **double-stacking projects**. The economies and improved capacity of double-stacking have justified investments in raising the clearance from 5.33 meters (17’6″) to 8.1 meters (20’6″) along major long-distance rail corridors. Europe is less advanced in this process because most of its rail facilities were built in the middle of the 19th century. Clearance thus forbids the usage of double-stacking on most European rail corridors. In China, doubles-staking corridors are under development, particularly between major container ports and inland cities, but their use remains limited. Another salient example of a 75-km double-stacked corridor is across the isthmus of Panama, allowing it to support canal operations as a portage option. The emergence of **high-speed rail networks** and increasing rail speed significantly impacted passenger transportation, especially in [China, Europe, and Japan](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1975) (high-speed freight trains are not currently being considered). For instance, the French TGV has an operational speed of about 320 km/h. High-speed passenger trains require special lines but can also use the existing lines at a lower speed. It often permitted a separation between rail passenger traffic rolling at high speed and freight traffic using the conventional rail network. The efficiency of both the passengers and freight rail network was thus improved significantly. Since high-speed trains require some time to accelerate and decelerate, the average distance between stations has increased substantially, [bypassing several centers of less importance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1979). Over average distances, they have proved to [compete effectively with air transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/passenger-rail-market-share-against-air-inter-city/ "Passenger Rail Market Share Against Air for Inter-City Travel"), can [reduce intercity travel times by half](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-travel-time/ "Travel Times before and after the Introduction of a High-Speed Rail Service"), and impact [modal share](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1984). Other strategies include improving the speed of existing passenger services without building a high-speed corridor. This involves upgrading the equipment and improving the infrastructure at specific locations along the corridor. The benefits of offering a passenger rail service above 120 km/h can substantially improve the quality and efficiency of inter-city services in high-density urban regions. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/high_speed_rail_markets.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Development of High Speed Train Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-development/high_speed_rail_markets/)Development of High Speed Train Traffic 1964 2019[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/restructuring_high_speed_rail.png?resize=900%2C598&ssl=1 "Restructuring Effects of High-Speed Rail | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-restructuring/high_speed_rail_stations/)Restructuring Effects of High Speed Rail[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rail_market_share_versus_air.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Passenger Rail Market Share Against Air for Inter-City Travel | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/passenger-rail-market-share-against-air-inter-city/rail_market_share_versus_air/)Passenger Rail Market Share Against Air for Inter City Travel[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/travel_times_high_speed_rail.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Travel Times before and after the Introduction of a High-Speed Rail Service | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-travel-time/high_speed_travel_times/)Travel Times before and after the Introduction of a High Speed Rail Service[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_share_high_speed_rail.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Modal Share before and after the Introduction of a High-Speed Train | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-modal-share/high_speed_travel_times_madrid_paris/)Modal Share before and after the Introduction of a High Speed Train# 4. Pipelines Pipelines are an extremely important and [extensive](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=15969) mode of land transport, although very rarely recognized by the general public, mainly because they are buried underground or under the sea, as in the case of gas pipelines from North Africa to Europe. For example, in the [United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/pipeline-mileage-united-states/ "Oil and Gas Pipelines Mileage in the United States, 1960-2020"), 215,000 miles of pipelines carry 17% of all ton-miles of freight. Two main products dominate pipeline traffic: **oil and gas**. Although local pipelines are significant for the transport of water, and, in some rare cases, for the shipment of dry bulk commodities, such as coal in the form of slurry. Pipelines can even be used to carry small quantities of freight, such as in **pneumatic tubes**, but this use remains marginal and for short distances. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Pipelines.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Major Oil Pipelines | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/major-oil-pipelines/map-pipelines/)Major Oil Pipelines[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/oil_gas_pipelines_mileage.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Oil and Gas Pipelines Mileage in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/pipeline-mileage-united-states/oil_gas_pipelines_mileage/)Oil and Gas Pipelines Mileage in the United States 1960 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Trans_Alaska_Pipeline_Denali_fault_shift.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Trans-Alaska Pipeline | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/trans-alaska-pipeline/trans_alaska_pipeline_denali_fault_shift/)Trans Alaska PipelinePipelines are almost everywhere designed for a **specific purpose** only, to carry one commodity from one location to another. They are built mostly with private capital, and because the system must be in place before any revenues can be generated, they represent a significant capital commitment and sunk costs. They are useful in transporting large quantities of products where no other feasible means of transport (usually maritime) is available. Pipeline routes tend to link isolated production areas to major refining and manufacturing centers in the case of oil, or major populated areas, as in the case of natural gas. To fulfill their role, pipelines have four main functional properties: - **Collecting pipelines**. They aim to move oil and natural gas from extraction fields to processing and storage facilities. The growth in offshore oil and gas extraction facilities has favored the setting of underwater collective pipelines moving products to shore-based facilities. - **Feeder pipelines**. They move products from processing and storage facilities to transmission pipelines. Their purpose is to ensure that a sufficient volume of products is collected to justify the larger diameter of transmission pipelines. - **Transmission pipelines**. Major conduits, mostly transporting crude oil and natural gas over long distances and commonly across international jurisdictions. - **Distribution pipelines**. Small conduits that deliver natural gas to homes, businesses, and industries. This also applies to water distribution pipelines, but the supply systems are usually local in scale. Pipeline construction costs vary according to the **diameter** and increase proportionally with the distance and viscosity of fluids, which requires more pumping stations, particularly in lower temperatures. However, operating costs are very low since pipelines represent a fundamental mode for transporting liquid and gaseous products over long distances. One major disadvantage of pipelines is the inherent inflexibility of the mode. Once built, which is usually at great expense, an expansion of the demand cannot be easily accommodated without adding a second adjacent pipe. There are specific limits to the carrying capacity of pipelines, which require careful consideration. Conversely, a lessening of the fuel supply, or alternatively a decline of the demand, will produce a lowering of revenues that may affect the viability of the system. A pipeline can be profitable only if it operates above a certain throughput threshold from which it derives revenue to cover its operating costs. Unlike modes such as maritime shipping, pipeline capacity cannot be incrementally removed (or added). A further limit arises from geographical shifts in production or consumption, in which a pipeline built from one location to another may not adjust quickly to changes. The routing of pipelines is mostly indifferent to terrain, although environmental concerns frequently delay approval for construction. In arctic/sub-arctic areas, pipes cannot be buried because of permafrost. The impacts on migratory wildlife may be severe and sufficient to deny approval, as was the case of the proposed McKenzie Valley pipeline in Canada in the 1970s. The 1,300 km long [Trans Alaskan pipeline](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1777) was built under challenging conditions and is above the ground for most of its path. Geopolitical factors play a vital role in routing pipelines that cross international boundaries. Pipelines from the Middle East to the Mediterranean have been routed to avoid Israel. New pipelines linking Central Asia with the Mediterranean are being routed in response to the ethnic and religious mosaic of the republics in the Caucasus. Gas pipelines from Russia to Europe began to be laid in the late 1990s after the collapse of the Soviet Union using three main corridors. One through the Baltic Sea and reaching Germany, another through Belarus and reaching Poland, and a third through Ukraine and reaching Slovakia. By 2020, Russia supplied about 40% of European natural gas consumption. The War in Ukraine in 2022 led to the shutdown of pipelines going through Ukraine, which resulted in gas shortages and price surges in Europe. --- ## Related Topics - [6.4 – Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3601) - [B.3 – Gateways and Transport Corridors in North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7652) - [B.4 – High-Speed Rail Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7457) - [B.5 – Transcontinental Bridges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7237) - [B. 22 – Rail Deregulation in the United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/rail-deregulation-united-states/ "Rail Deregulation in the United States") - [Inland Ports (Terminals)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139) ## Bibliography - Albalate, D. and G. Bel (2012) The Economics and Politics of High Speed Rail: Lessons from Experiences Abroad, Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. - DeBoer, D.J. (1992). Piggyback and Containers: A History of Rail Intermodal on America’s Steel Highway, San Marino, CA: Golden West Books. - Comtois, C. (2017) Rail Transport: Freight, The International Encyclopedia of Geography, Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0242 - Dobruszkes, F. and A. Moyano (2021) The Geography of Rail Transport, International Encyclopedia of Transportation, Vol. 5, pp. 427-436. - Feigenbaum, B. (2013) High-Speed Rail in Europe and Asia: Lessons for the United States, Reason Foundation, Policy Study 418. - Givoni, M. (2006) “Development and Impact of the Modern High-speed Train: A Review”, Transport Reviews, Vol. 26, No. 5, pp. 593–611. - Li. L. and B.P.Y. Loo (2017) Rail Transport: Passenger, The International Encyclopedia of Geography, Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0208 - Ryder, A. (2012) “High Speed Rail”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 22, pp. 303-305. - Smith, R.A. (2003) “The Japanese Shinkansen”, *Journal of Transport History*, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 222-237. - Spychalski, J.C. and E. Thomchick (2009) “Drivers of Intermodal Rail Freight Growth in North America”, EJTIR, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 63-82. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Passenger Rail Market Share Against Air for Inter-City Travel](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/passenger-rail-market-share-against-air-inter-city/) **Published:** April 20, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rail_market_share_versus_air.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Passenger Rail Market Share Against Air for Inter-City Travel | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Passenger Rail Market Share Against Air for Inter City Travel*Source: Data compiled by E. Mitchell. https://hotrails.net/2024/04/rails-market-share-against-air-a-global-review/* *Note: The data concerns the market share between city pairs for rail versus air only. It does not consider intercity road movements (cars, buses), which can be substantial. N=132.* Travel time is an important component in the choice between rail versus air for intercity travel. A sample of 132 city pairs having rail services underlines a strong association between travel time and market share. The inflection point is around five hours, below which the market share of rail increases substantially. Below three hours, the market share is usually above 70% to the advantage of rail. The introduction of a high speed rail service between a city pair can result in a decline in travel time and a proportional increase in the market share. For instance, high speed rail services between Paris and Lyon were introduced in the early 1980s, resulting in a drop in rail travel time from 4 hours to 2 hours. Correspondingly, the market share of rail versus air went from 40% to 90%. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/passenger-rail-market-share-against-air-inter-city/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/passenger-rail-market-share-against-air-inter-city/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/passenger-rail-market-share-against-air-inter-city/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/passenger-rail-market-share-against-air-inter-city/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Breakeven Distances between Conventional Rail, High Speed Rail and Air Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/breakeven-distances-rail-air-transport/) **Published:** December 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/breakeven_hsr_air.png?resize=900%2C542&ssl=1 "Breakeven Distances between Conventional Rail, High Speed Rail and Air Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Breakeven Distances between Conventional Rail High Speed Rail and Air Transportation*Source: Adapted from Commission for Integrated Transport, London (2004) High-speed rails: international comparisons, Steer Davies Gleave.* Over many regional transport systems, high-speed rail is competing with air transportation, often considering time and distance factors. Airports are usually located far from city centers, while conventional and high-speed train stations are much closer. For short distances of less than 150 km, conventional rail services are usually more competitive (air transport is almost never flown over these distances) than high speed. This is mainly due to higher frequencies of services for conventional rail, but more frequent stops due to intermediary stations. The main service window for high-speed rail is between 150 and 775 km, a segment over which it generally has a time advantage over air transportation. For distances over 800 km, air transportation is usually more advantageous. However, if there were no high-speed rail services, air transportation would be more advantageous over distances of 350 km. This relationship bears similarities with the [basic transport costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1801) comparison between road, rail, and maritime modes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/breakeven-distances-rail-air-transport/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/breakeven-distances-rail-air-transport/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/breakeven-distances-rail-air-transport/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/high-speed-rail-systems/breakeven-distances-rail-air-transport/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Gateways Index, 2018](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Gateways-Index-2018.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Global Gateways Index, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Gateways Index 2018*Sources: Port TEU figures from port authorities and port associations. Air cargo figures from Airports Council International.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Gateways-Index-2018.pdf) The global gateways index is the weighted sum of the global share of container and air cargo traffic a metropolitan area generates. It considers a sample of 198 cities that are either having significant container or air cargo traffic. The weight attributed to the container and air cargo components is related to their [share of the value of global trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3950) (85% and 15%, respectively). A metropolitan area having a share of 1.5% and 0.8% of the global container and air cargo throughput (as handled by its container ports and airports) will have a global gateways index of 1.395 (1.5 \* 0.85 + 0.8 \* 0.15). The global system of freight circulation is articulated by major [gateways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1411) composed of a cluster of port and airport terminals within a metropolitan area. This does not mean that ports and airports are functionally integrated (they are not) but that the region they service is a major load center serviced by a variety of globally oriented supply chains, some port-centric while others are airport-centric. The global gateways index represents the relative importance of a metropolitan area in the global [container](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3373) and [air cargo](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3750) transport system; two long-distance trade modes. The index does not include crossborder traffic, which would make cities such as Detroit rank much higher. Global gateways show a high concentration level, with the 25 largest gateways accounting for 50% of the containerized and air freight activity and the 50 largest gateways accounting for 65%. Gateway regions are groupings of gateways that are [organized](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7296) along a major corridor. The Yangtze River Delta (Shanghai, Ningbo, Nanjing) is the most important gateway region, with a combined index of 8.9% of the world’s containerized and air cargo freight. Other significant gateway systems concern the Pearl River Delta (Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou) (8.6%), the Strait of Malacca (Singapore, 6.7%), the Rhine / Scheldt Delta for Western Europe (Antwerp, Rotterdam, 3.5%), and Southern California (Los Angeles area, 1.4%) for the American West Coast. There are significant variations in the modal composition (and importance) of the gateways. While containerized traffic dominates the gateway function in most cases, air cargo carries a high share in gateways such as Dubai, Seoul, and Bangkok. These are major air cargo hubs with an adjacent concentration of high-tech industries. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Participation Level in Global Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/participation-global-value-chains/) **Published:** December 27, 2021 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Value-Chains-2015.png?resize=900%2C452&ssl=1 "Participation Level in Global Value Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Configuration of Global Value Chains*Source: World Bank (2020) World Development Report 2020: Trading for Development in the Age of Global Value Chains, Washington: World Bank.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Value-Chains-2015-1.pdf) Supply chains and the supporting manufacturing and distribution tend to be sequential, implying a hierarchy of the involved locations. Countries can participate in global value chains in various ways since each supply chain has its inherent characteristics. **Backward participation** implies that a country is using outputs, including goods, parts, resources, and services, provided by countries in prior segments of the value chain. **Forward participation** implies that the outputs of a country are used by a third country. At the aggregate level, it is possible to categorize a country into a category expressing the dominant value chain configuration. These include: - **Innovative activities**. Economies generating the bulk of innovations and patents and have a high level of investment in research and development. These economies have a high GDP per capita and represent important consumption markets, impacting the structure of value chains as they are the final destination of several flows of material goods. - **Advanced manufacturing**. Economies having a high share of manufacturing and services as of their exports. Assembly and the use of components provided by earlier stages of the value chain is a core aspect of this function. They have a domestic added value share in manufacturing and service exports of more than 80%. Several of these components are imported from third countries, implying a high share of backward participation. - **Limited manufacturing**. Economies less dependent on exports of parts and manufactured goods. They tend to have a less diversified range of outputs. - **Commodities**. Economies that tend to focus on the earlier stages of global value chains, namely the provision of raw materials and commodities. The share of manufacturing in exports is low, and there is a limited number of backward linkages. For high commodities, the share of the domestic added value of primary goods is more than 40%. For limited commodities, it is between 10 and 40%. For low participation, it is less than 20%. Participation patterns are similar to those related to economic development, with the most advanced poles including Western Europe, North America, and East Asia (Japan/South Korea). Countries engaged in machinery and electronics manufacturing tend to participate most in global value chains. Countries well endowed with natural resources and agricultural goods tend to have a high level of forward participation since these commodities are used to manufacture intermediate goods. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/participation-global-value-chains/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/participation-global-value-chains/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/participation-global-value-chains/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/participation-global-value-chains/?share=reddit) - --- ### [United States Strategic Petroleum Reserves, 1977-2023](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/strategic-petroleum-reserves-united-states/) **Published:** December 19, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/USA_strategic_petroleum_reserves.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "United States Strategic Petroleum Reserves, 1977-2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")United States Strategic Petroleum Reserves 1977 2023*Source: US Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual Report.* As a consequence of the First Oil Shock, the U.S. Government (Department of Energy) initiated the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) program in 1976. In an age of growing oil dependency and instability of international markets, it was perceived that a reserve was of strategic importance for national security. It would enable the United States time to intervene if a major crisis compromising oil supplies was to develop. About 50 huge underground reservoirs, of 6 to 30 million barrels in capacity each, located in Texas and Louisiana store the strategic reserve. The maximum drawdown level is about 4.4 million barrels per day, but it would take about 13 days for this oil to reach the markets once a release has been authorized. Instead of buying oil on markets the Department of Energy receives oil in exchange for royalties owed by producers that drill on government holdings in the Gulf of Mexico (royalty-in-kind transfer). The oil thus comes from fields near the strategic reserve. The SPR began to fill up in 1977, and by 1994, it had reached 592 million barrels, out of a potential total capacity of about 727 million barrels. 1981 was the year when the largest amount was added, 120 million barrels, an outcome of the uncertainties of the Iranian Revolution and of the Iran/Iraq War. Since then, the SPR was called upon five times; in 1991 (Gulf War), in 1996, in 2000 (when President Clinton authorized about 5% of the SPR, 30 million barrels, to be released in an effort to push the price of oil down), in 2005 after the disruptions related to hurricane Katrina and in 2021-22 (when President Biden authorized substantial withdrawals in light of post-pandemic disruptions). In November 2001, facing geopolitical instability, President Bush ordered an expansion of the SPR with the addition of 108 million barrels, which would fill it to capacity. In 2005, a new legislation, the Energy Policy Act, was enacted, boosting the authorized capacity of the SPR to 1 billion barrels. However, this process came to a standstill in late 2005, first with the devastation of oil and gas facilities along the Gulf of Mexico due to hurricane activity and then with surging oil prices and tighter supplies linked with the peaking of global oil production. In 2021 alone, 221 million barrels were withdrawn, representing the largest in the existence of the reserve. As of 2023, the SPR stood at 354 million barrels, which is its lowest since the early 1980s. In its initial design, the SPR should have enough oil to supply the United States for about 60-70 days, but 2023 levels are likely to be sufficient for about two weeks. However, allocation priorities, if such circumstances arise, would obviously be towards the military and other emergency services. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/strategic-petroleum-reserves-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/strategic-petroleum-reserves-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/strategic-petroleum-reserves-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/strategic-petroleum-reserves-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [3.2 - Transportation and Society](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transport systems support complex economic and social interactions and are thus a component of society. Transportation reflects the aspirations of a society such as accessibility and mobility, which expands its horizon. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Mobility and Society](#1_Mobility_and_Society) - [2. Mobility Gaps](#2_Mobility_Gaps) - [3. The Social Externalities of Transportation](#3_The_Social_Externalities_of_Transportation) - [4. The Environment as a Social Transportation Challenge](#4_The_Environment_as_a_Social_Transportation_Challenge) # 1. Mobility and Society Mobility is one of the most fundamental characteristics of human activities. It satisfies the basic need of going from one location to another, a need shared by passengers and freight for different purposes. > Mobility is a multidimensional concept since it simultaneously expresses **the potential for a movement** as well as the activity itself. It is at start a choice to be exercised or not depending on economic and social goals. Irrespective of its aim, **mobility enables** social, cultural, political, and economic activities to take place. Throughout history, changes in mobility have been the outcome of technological developments that improved operational characteristics such as speed, range, price, affordability, and comfort. These changes improved societies and the quality of life of populations. For instance, the diffusion of [highways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1864) and the automobile profoundly impacted the mobility of contemporary societies and [continue to do so](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1869). Regions do not share the same level of mobility from an internal and comparative perspective. A [mobility transition](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5463) has been observed towards motorized forms of transport, a process commonly linked with economic development. Regions with greater mobility often have better opportunities to develop than those with scarce mobility. Reduced mobility impedes development, while greater mobility is a catalyst for development. Mobility is thus a reliable [indicator](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5469) of development. Providing mobility is an industry that offers services to its customers, employs people, disburses wages and benefits, invests capital, generates income, and provides taxation revenue. Mobility is, therefore, the recurring aspect where transportation has its most significant societal impacts. For economic activities, transportation allows **access to a workforce, reach suppliers, and service customers.** With transportation improvements, interactions with the workforce are more effective, and distribution costs usually decline with the derived competitive benefits. Most individuals have extensive experience with transportation since they are regular users. Transportation is the means to access employment, goods, services, leisure, social networks, and using transportation is often a social experience, at times negative (e.g. comfort, safety). Thus, a [share of societal consumption](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5308) is allocated to satisfy mobility needs. Paradoxically, higher income levels are usually associated with a higher share of transportation in consumption; a trend particularly attributed to automobile ownership and air travel. The higher the income, the greater its share is spent on mobility, as mobility symbolizes social status. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Interstate-System-1.png?resize=768%2C523&ssl=1 "The Interstate Highway System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/interstate-highway-system/map-interstate-system/)The Interstate Highway System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lenght_interstate_chinese_expressway-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Length of the Interstate Highway System and of the Chinese Expressway System, 1959-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/highway-length-china-united-states/us_china_highway_system/)Length of the Interstate Highway System and of the Chinese Expressway System 1959 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passenger_mobility_transition.png?resize=900%2C499&ssl=1 "Passengers Mobility Transition | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mobility-transition-passengers/passenger_mobility/)Passengers Mobility Transition[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/consumption_sector_income.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Consumption by Sector and Income, Developing Countries, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/consumption-share-income-developing-economies/consumption_share_income/)Share of Consumption by Sector and Income Developing Countries 2010Mobility is an activity that is **constrained** by several factors that, when applied across social groups, lead to a number of observations: - Variations in the **propensity, intensity, and scale of mobility** are linked to differences in the availability of transportation resources, including infrastructure. - There are variations in the **daily travel behavior** that are manifest in the frequency, time, mode, and distance of travel. - There are variations in **transport accessibility** resulting in different opportunities. For an individual, irrespective of their social group, **time limits the daily number and length of trips**. However, these constraints are technologically, socially, and economically articulated since more efficient transport modes support more extensive mobilities and higher incomes. Thus, an individual would have mobility contingent on physical capabilities, available budget, transport supply, and the spatial distribution of activities such as residential, commercial, and manufacturing areas. Further, the social context of mobility is partly changing because of its impacts. Mobility can be a factor in weaker social interactions as individuals could be living further apart. At the same time, expanded mobility enables social interactions that were not effectively possible beforehand. This is particularly the case for long-distance interactions that have expanded with the growth of air transport. **Transportation is not a homogeneous system** but a set of diverse elements at times in competition. Access and services are not uniform. While many of the social and economic impacts of transportation are positive, there are also significant societal challenges. # 2. Mobility Gaps Since mobility is one of the fundamental components of the economic benefits of transportation, its variations are likely to have substantial impacts on the employment, educational and social opportunities of individuals. There are four forms of gaps: - **Differences in mobility because of the economic function of an area**, particularly between urban and rural areas. - **Unequal mobility and travel behavior between social groups**, including their respective transport resources, such as car ownership, access to public transit, and average travel distance, frequency, and time. - **Accessibility inequalities** to outside markets or services such as retail and opportunities such as employment. - **Employment inequalities** where socioeconomic groups have different participation levels in the transportation sector. ## a. Rural Mobility The World Bank estimates that 1 billion people worldwide do not have direct access to a paved road, undermining their mobility. This gap is almost exclusively between rural and urban areas, which can be significant. Rural mobility must fulfill the dual role of allowing rural residents to access employment, goods, and services, as well as allowing the efficient mobility of **rural equipment** (tractors, trucks), **agricultural inputs** (fertilizers, water, seeds), and **agricultural outputs** (crops and animals). The latter is particularly important since agriculture is the core function of rural areas, and many rural transport systems were designed as feeders to wider circulation systems. For instance, the setting of railways in the western part of North America is organized around a hierarchy of rural towns collecting agricultural resources. Rural areas differ particularly from urban areas because of the **lower population density** and a less diversified economy focusing on agriculture and related activities. This makes the setting of collective forms of transportation more challenging and less cost-effective. However, some rural areas in developing economies such as India and China have higher densities than urban areas in advanced economies like Europe and the United States. This implies a high usage of roads, leading to the [adaptation of farm vehicles to provide mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mini-hand-tractor-mobility-phosavan-laos/ "Mini Hand Tractor Used for Providing Mobility, Phosavan, Laos") for people and goods. The main mobility differences between rural and urban areas involve longer average travel distances, a lower density of transportation infrastructure, with agricultural equipment (e.g. tractors), and farm animals using roads with related hazards (accidents). ## b. Inequalities in mobility Mobility needs do not always coincide due to several factors, namely the **lack of income, time, means, and access**. Mobility and transport demand thus depends on socioeconomic status. The higher the income, the more options and mobility, which may lead to substantial [mobility gaps](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5488) between different population groups. There are mismatches between the location of low-income people and the areas where employment and services are available. The more significant these mismatches regarding accessibility, the higher the gaps. [Gender gaps](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5065) exist in mobility as women tend to have lower mobility levels, which is partly attributable to lower incomes, work preferences, and social roles such as family care. This is particularly the case in developing economies since, in more advanced economies, the labor force participation of women has increased, thus alleviating gender differences. Mobility patterns by gender tend to be similar for younger age groups, but differences increase as women reach child caretaking years. This is associated with shorter travels and trip chaining to perform several activities along a trip sequence. Mobility gaps are particularly prevalent for **long-distance** travel. With the development of air transport, a segment of the global population has achieved a very high level of mobility for their business and leisure activities. In contrast, the great majority of the global population has little mobility. This issue is expected to become more acute as the population of many advanced economies is aging rapidly, which implies that mobility is becoming more than an income issue. An aging population has more difficulties operating vehicles and using transport systems. Further, an aging population has, on average, less disposable income. ## c. Accessibility gaps Locations with low levels of accessibility tend to have higher costs for many goods. This can manifest at several geographical scales, from the national to the local. For [landlocked countries](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2103), most goods must be imported through an intermediate country, often over long distances. The resulting higher transport costs inhibit the competitiveness of such locations and limit opportunities. Consumers, retailers, and industries will pay higher prices, impacting their welfare (disposable income) and competitiveness. At the local level, some neighborhoods are poorly serviced with groceries and other necessities. This leads to paradoxical effects: populations in poorer neighborhoods can pay higher prices for basic goods due to the lack of demand, higher distribution costs, and a lack of mobility to facilities offering a wider variety of goods. Mobility is associated with a wider range of choices and options. Employment clusters in suburban areas are often designed to be accessible only by the automobile, with limited consideration for public transit. This undermines the employment opportunities of those who do not have access to a vehicle. ## d. Employment inequalities Conventionally, the transportation sector and its related activities (e.g. warehousing) were [male-dominated](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/share-employed-females-profession-united-states/ "Share of Employed Females by Profession, United States, 2022"), particularly in operations. This trend is on the decline but likely to endure. The sector tends to have low barriers to entry, implying employment opportunities for young or immigrant workers to find work. Still, transportation work tends to be labor-intensive and physically demanding, which is not conducive to generalized gender equity. For instance, in the transport and warehousing sector, about 75% of the workforce is male, and 85% for the trucking industry, while around 55% of the general workforce is female. The growth of the logistics sector and E-commerce offer opportunities the lessen the gap since they are associated with more management and administrative work. Irrespective, gender equity across the transportation sector is unlikely due to the nature of the work involved and enduring gender preferences in the type of employment. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tractor_phosavan_laos.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Mini Hand Tractor Used for Providing Mobility, Phosavan, Laos | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/mini-hand-tractor-mobility-phosavan-laos/img_0257/)Mini Hand Tractor Used for Providing Mobility Phosavan Laos[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economic_opportunities_automobile.png?resize=900%2C742&ssl=1 "Economic Opportunities According to Automobile Ownership | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/automobile-mobility-gap/opportunities_automobile_ownership/)Economic Opportunities According to Automobile Ownership[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/person_miles_age_gender.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Daily Person Miles of Travel per Person by Age and Gender, 2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/travel-age-gender/daily_person_miles_gender/)Daily Person Miles of Travel per Person by Age and Gender 2017[![Map Landlocked Countries](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landlocked-Countries.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Landlocked Countries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/landlocked-countries/map-landlocked-countries/)Landlocked Countries[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/share_employed_transport.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Employed Females by Profession, United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/share_employed_transport/)Share of Employed Females by Profession United States 2022The above gaps can be presented, particularly by advocacy groups, as a form of **transport equity** issue. This concept needs to be taken with caution since it refers to an equality of outcome. Although equity can appear superficially as a desirable outcome, it goes against many fundamental precepts in geography. At the core, geography underlines that characteristics such as climate, the distribution of resources, and accessibility confer a non-uniform distribution of opportunities. Some locations are better or more suitable than others, leading to an inequality of outcome in terms of accessibility and economic development. Thus, geography can be a powerful force in the generation of inequalities, which can be a factor of productivity and wealth. For instance, global passenger and freight traffic is handled by a rather small number of large ports and airports, which is associated with highly productive distribution systems benefiting from economies of scale and agglomeration. Therefore, the concept of transport equity is, at best, elusive and could lead to substantial misallocations of resources in attempts to rectify gaps. # 3. The Social Externalities of Transportation With increased mobility, it has become common for parts of transportation networks to be used above design capacity, particularly in urban areas. **Congestion** is the outcome of such a situation with its associated costs, delays, and waste of energy (congestion is addressed in more detail in the [Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/ "8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges") section). Distribution systems that rely upon on-time deliveries are particularly susceptible to congestion as well as commuters seeking to arrive at work on time. In addition to additional costs, congestion involves additional time, which is perceived to be increasingly valuable in advanced economies. Still, from a societal standpoint, congestion is an ambiguous issue. First, congestion is commonly the outcome of **economic success** as the level of mobility exceeds what was initially anticipated and designed for. Further, different socioeconomic groups will have different tolerance levels to congestion as each may have a different time value preference. On the positive side, the diffusion of information technologies offers drivers and passengers a wider range of activities to perform while in transit. The use of transport modes and infrastructure is never entirely safe. Every motorized vehicle contains an **element of danger and nuisance**. Due to human errors and various forms of physical failures (mechanical or infrastructural), injuries, damages, and even death occur. Accidents tend to be proportional to the intensity of use of transport infrastructures, which means the higher the probability for an accident to occur with more traffic. The most important segments of road transport infrastructure also inflict the most externalities. They have important socioeconomic impacts, including healthcare, insurance, damage to property, and the loss of life. Therefore, public policy has focused on different aspects of transportation safety, such as vehicles, infrastructure design, and operating conditions. The respective level of safety depends on the [mode of transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5493) and the [speed](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5498) at which an accident occurs. No mode is completely safe, but the [road remains the riskiest mode of transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5504), accounting for 90% of all transport accidents on average. At the global level, about 1.35 million people die in road accidents each year, in addition to 50 million injuries. Although the number of deaths due to car accidents is declining in developed countries, in developing economies, death rates are usually at least twice as high as those of developed countries and account for nearly 90% of all deaths. China has the world’s largest number of fatalities, estimated to be around 255,000 in 2016, mainly due to a sharp growth in vehicle ownership, a lack of driver education, and enforcement of regulations. Another trend is the rise in the number of [pedestrian deaths](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatalities-united-states/ "Pedestrian Fatalities, United States, 1990-2020") after years of decline, a trend attributable to changes in vehicle preferences, suburbanization, and even the rapid diffusion of portable mobile devices such as smartphones. However, there is an emerging body of evidence that ridesharing technologies are associated with a **reduction in traffic fatalities** mainly because of the professionalization of driving and a readily available option to counter the risks of drunk driving. The convenience of mobility, particularly through the diffusion of the automobile and its associated suburban lifestyle, is linked with a lack of physical activity and rising obesity. The easier it is to move over short distances through mechanical means such as vehicles, elevators, and escalators, the fewer users are incited to walk. Thus, there can be a societal drawback to convenient mobility since a population could walk and exercise less. Such a trend is complex to mitigate, and the design of more walking and cycling-friendly neighborhoods has been advocated. They would convey some improved health benefits for their residents. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/road_fatalities_countries.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Road Fatalities per 100,000 People, Selected Countries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/road-fatalities-selected-countries/road_fatalities-1/)Road Fatalities per 100000 People Selected Countries[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/us_transport_fatalities_mode.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Transport Fatalities by Mode, United States, 1970-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/fatality-transport-mode-united-states/us_transport_fatalities/)Transport Fatalities by Mode United States 1970 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/probability_pedestrian_fatality.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Probability of Pedestrian Fatality by Impact Speed | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatality-impact-speed/probability_fatalities/)Probability of Pedestrian Fatality by Impact Speed[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pedestrian_fatalities_united_states.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Pedestrian Fatalities, United States, 1990-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatalities-united-states/pedestrian_fatalities_usa-1/)Pedestrian Fatalities United States 1990 2020All these issues underline the social implications of transportation in terms of opportunities, as well as in terms of **social exclusion**. Significant factors of social exclusion have a transportation component, such as difficulties in affording transportation (public or private), transportation services that do not cover effectively demand, and a lack of appropriate infrastructures such as sidewalks and waiting areas. Land use and housing policies can have the unintended consequence of undermining access to employment, education, healthcare, and other social activities. If efficient transportation does not mitigate this separation, it becomes a segregation factor. Under such circumstances, the high level of subsidies that public transit systems receive is made socially acceptable as a form of support for the mobility of those less advantaged. A similar observation applies to congestion and pricing schemes as the poorer segments of the population cannot afford financial restrictions on mobility, even if undertaken with the rationale of managing scarce assets. The road remains perceived as a public good, and impairing its free use becomes a divisive social issue. # 4. The Environment as a Social Transportation Challenge The mobility provided by transport activities has a wide range of [**environmental consequences**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5512), which have a cost that must be assumed by the users and society. While many environmental issues can have negative health impacts, societal tolerance to environmental externalities has significantly evolved. As income and education levels increase, society becomes more aware of environmental concerns and less tolerant of their negative impacts. The most salient environmental challenges having social consequences include: - **Air quality**. Atmospheric emissions from pollutants produced by transportation, especially by the internal combustion engine, are associated with air pollution and global climate change. Some pollutants (NOx, CO, O3, VOC, etc.) can produce respiratory troubles and aggravate cardiovascular illnesses. The World Health Organisation estimated that 3 million deaths per year are related to air pollution, although the contribution of transportation is less clear. About 50% of all air pollution in urban regions emanates from automobile traffic. Since pollution is a health issue, its societal impacts are perceived to be significant, with air quality commonly a source of social concern. Still, improvements in engine technology (including electrification), changes in fuel quality, and the extension of vegetation and green spaces in urban areas are effective mitigation measures. - **Noise**. A major irritant, noise can impact human health and welfare. Noise can be manifested at different levels depending on emissions intensity, psychological disturbances (perturbations, displeasure), functional disturbances (sleep disorders, loss of work productivity, speech interference), or physiological disturbances (health issues such as fatigue and hearing damage). Noise and vibration associated with trains, trucks, and planes near transport terminals and main roads are major irritants and have commonly been associated with lower land values since they make those locations less desirable. - **Water quality**. The main association between transportation and water quality involves accidental and nominal runoff of pollutants, such as oil spills, which contaminate surface water and groundwater. In addition, paved surfaces are more prone to floods with intense rainfall, implying that the footprint of transportation infrastructure can have multiplying effects. - **Footprint**. Transport is a large consumer of space when all its supporting infrastructure and equipment are considered, such as roads, parking areas, and terminals. This footprint is subject to competition between other activities and reflects societal values, particularly regarding the space allocated to automobile use. Furthermore, the planning associated with transportation infrastructures does not always consider aesthetic values, as is often the case in the construction of urban highways. These visual impacts have adverse consequences on the quality of life of nearby residents. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/environmental_dimensions_transportation.png?resize=900%2C499&ssl=1 "Environmental Dimensions of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/transportation-environmental-dimensions/environmental_dimensions_transport/)Environmental Dimensions of Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/noise_levels2.png?resize=900%2C762&ssl=1 "Noise Levels from Different Sources | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/noise-levels/noise_levels/)Noise Levels from Different SourcesThe most common way for a society to mitigate the environmental externalities of transportation is to impose **regulations** related to standards, levels of emissions, and operating conditions. This comes from various regulatory agencies having jurisdiction, and advocacy groups also play a significant role in promoting and defending environmental concerns. Many transportation infrastructure projects, such as roads, terminals, and pipelines, have become embattled in public debates over environmental and, at times, aesthetic concerns. This underlines a societal change requiring careful consideration of not only technical and commercial aspects of transportation infrastructure, but also their level of social acceptance, or at least tolerance. The situation can go as far as a widespread NIMBY (Not In My Backyard) attitude that prevents, stalls, and increases transport infrastructure development costs. Under such circumstances, society becomes an **active force preventing transport development**, leading to future development challenges due to the lack of infrastructure and could lead to additional safety issues if the infrastructure is not properly maintained. Ideally, society should aim to create an **abundance of mobility options**, as restricting mobility (scarcity) has more negative than positive outcomes. --- ## Related Topics - [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621) - [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1685) - [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481) - [3.3 – Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5268) - [3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/) - [1.3- The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=995) - [1.4- The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1000) - [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1006) - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260) - [4.2 – Transportation and the Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/) ## Bibliography - Anderson, M.L and L.W. Davis (2023) “Uber and Traffic Fatalities”, The Review of Economics and Statistics; doi: https://doi.org/10.1162/rest\_a\_01385 - Banister, D. (2018) Inequality in Transport, Marcham, Oxfordshire: Alexandrine Press. - Berry, B.J.L. (1967) Geography of Market Centers and Retail Distribution, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. - Hall, P. (1984) The World Cities. 3rd edition. New York: St. Martin’s Press. - Lucas, K. (2013) “Transport and Social Exclusion”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - OECD (2017) Income Inequality, Social Inclusion and Mobility, Roundtable Report 164, International Transportation Forum, Paris: OECD. - Pred, A. (1977) City Systems in Advanced Economies: Past Growth, Present Processes and Future Development Options, New York: Wiley. - United Nations Development Programme (2009) Human Development Report 2009, Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. - World Health Organisation (2016) Ambient Air Pollution: A Global Assessment of Exposure and Burden of Disease. - World Health Organization (2018). Global Status Report on Road Safety 2018. Geneva, Switzerland. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Jones Act and International Maritime Markets](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/jones-act-maritime-markets/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** **Issue****Jones Act Market****International Market**Vessel ownershipUS Ownership (minimum 75%)Any (large shipping companies)Vessel registrationUSAAny (flags of convenience)ShipyardUS LocatedAny (mainly Asia)Vessel crewUS citizensAny (developing countries)Vessel typeMostly coastal and riverMostly deepseaVessel trading privilegeCabotage within USAInternational shipmentsLegal jurisdictionUS Federal CourtCountry of registrationTaxationUS corporate taxation systemMostly offshoreBarriers to entryVery highLowCompetitionStatutory protection against foreign competitorsIntensive / Oligopolistic*Source: adapted from B.M. Karatzas (2009) “A Primer on Leasing Transactions in the International Maritime Sector”, Journal of Equipment Lease Financing, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 1-8.* The Merchant Marine Act was implemented in 1920 to regulate maritime commerce between American ports. Section 27 of this act is known as the Jones Act, which regulates [cabotage](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2299) and is under the jurisdiction of the US Coast Guard (and thus of the US Federal Court). The above table resumes the main requirements of the Jones Act. Cargo transported between American ports must be carried by vessels of US ownership (minimum of 75% ownership), built and registered in the United States, and manned by American citizens (or permanent residents). Shipping companies abiding by these requirements are able to service the domestic American market, which also includes Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico, and receive statutory protection against foreign competitors. The purpose of the Jones Act is to protect portions of the American maritime industry (shipbuilders, operators, and labor) and maintain a fleet under direct American control, which addresses some national security concerns. The Jones Act is also subject to controversy. It creates very high barriers to entry, increases cabotage costs, and reduces competition (oligopoly and rate fixing). It thus may have benefited land transportation modes, particularly rail, to the detriment of short sea shipping networks. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/jones-act-maritime-markets/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/jones-act-maritime-markets/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/jones-act-maritime-markets/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/jones-act-maritime-markets/?share=reddit) - --- ### [3.1 - Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Theo Notteboom > The development of transportation systems is embedded within the scale and context in which they take place, from the local to the global and from environmental, historical, technological, and economic perspectives. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Economic Importance of Transportation](#1_The_Economic_Importance_of_Transportation) - [2. Transportation and Economic Opportunities](#2_Transportation_and_Economic_Opportunities) - [3. Economic Returns of Transport Investments](#3_Economic_Returns_of_Transport_Investments) - [4. Types of Transportation Impacts](#4_Types_of_Transportation_Impacts) - [5. Transportation as an Economic Factor](#5_Transportation_as_an_Economic_Factor) # 1. The Economic Importance of Transportation > Development can be defined as improving the welfare of a society through appropriate social, political, and economic conditions. The expected outcomes are quantitative and qualitative improvements in **human capital** (e.g. income and education levels) as well as **physical capital** such as infrastructures (utilities, transport, telecommunications). The [development of transportation systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11171) takes place in a socioeconomic context. While development policies and strategies focus on physical capital, recent years have seen a better balance by including human capital issues. Irrespective of the relative importance of physical versus human capital, development cannot occur without their respective interactions, as infrastructures cannot remain effective without proper management, operations, and maintenance. At the same time, economic activities cannot take place without an infrastructure base. The highly transactional and service-oriented functions of many transport activities underline the complex relationship between its physical and human capital needs. For instance, effective logistics rely on infrastructures and managerial expertise. Because of its intensive use of [infrastructures](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5285), the transport sector is an important component of the economy and a common tool used for development. This is even more so in a global economy where economic opportunities have been increasingly related to the mobility of people and freight, including information and communication technologies. A relation between the quantity and quality of transport infrastructure and the level of economic development is apparent. High-density transport infrastructure and highly connected networks are commonly associated with high levels of development. When transport systems are efficient, they provide **economic and social opportunities and benefits** that result in positive multiplier effects, such as better accessibility to markets, employment, and additional investments. When transport systems are deficient in terms of capacity or reliability, they can have an economic cost, such as **reduced or missed opportunities and lower quality of life**. At the aggregate level, efficient transportation **reduces costs in many economic sectors**, while inefficient transportation increases these costs. Besides, the impacts of transportation are not always intended and can have **unforeseen or unintended consequences**. For instance, congestion is often an unintended consequence of providing users with free or low-cost transport infrastructure. However, congestion also indicates a growing economy where capacity and infrastructure have difficulties keeping up with the rising mobility demands. Transport carries an important social and environmental load, which cannot be neglected. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/development_factors_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C327&ssl=1 "Factors behind the Development of Transport Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/factors-behind-the-development-of-transport-systems/development_factors_transport_systems/)Factors behind the Development of Transport Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/services_infrastructures2.png?resize=900%2C472&ssl=1 "Services and their Associated Infrastructures | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/infrastructures-services/services_infrastructures/)Services and their Associated Infrastructures[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_infrastructure_economic_impacts.png?resize=900%2C740&ssl=1 "Economic Impacts of Transportation Infrastructure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-economic-impacts/transport_infrastructure_economic_impacts/)Economic Impacts of Transportation Infrastructure[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/employment_transport_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Employment in Transportation, United States, 1990-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-employment-united-states/transportation_employment_usa/)Employment in Transportation United States 1990 2021Assessing the economic importance of transportation requires the [categorization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5290) of the types of impacts it conveys. These involve core (the physical characteristics of transportation), operational and geographical dimensions: - **Core**. The most fundamental impacts of transportation-related to the physical capacity to convey passengers and goods and the associated costs to support this mobility. This involves setting routes enabling new or existing interactions between economic entities. - **Operational**. Improvement in the time performance, notably in terms of reliability, as well as reduced loss or damage. This implies a better utilization level of existing transportation assets benefiting its users as passengers and freight are conveyed more rapidly and with fewer delays. - **Geographical**. Access to a broader market base where economies of scale in production, distribution, and consumption can be improved. Increases in productivity from the access to a larger and more diverse base of inputs (raw materials, parts, energy, or labor) and broader markets for diverse outputs (intermediate and finished goods). Another important geographical impact concerns the influence of transport on the location of activities and its impacts on land values. The economic importance of the transportation industry can thus be assessed from a macroeconomic and microeconomic perspective: - At the **macroeconomic level** (the importance of transportation for a whole economy), transportation and related mobility are linked to a level of output, [employment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5448), and income within a national economy. In many developed economies, transportation accounts for between 6% and 12% of the GDP. Further, logistics costs can account for between 6% and 25% of the GDP. The value of all transportation assets, including infrastructures and vehicles, can easily account for half the GDP of an advanced economy. - At the **microeconomic level** (the importance of transportation for specific parts of the economy), transportation is linked to producer, consumer, and distribution costs. The importance of specific transport activities and infrastructure can thus be assessed for each sector of the economy. Usually, higher income levels are associated with a greater share of transportation in consumption expenses. Transportation accounts for between 10% and 15% of household expenditures. In comparison, it accounts for around 4% of the costs of each unit of output in manufacturing, but this figure varies greatly according to sub-sectors. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_location_factors.png?resize=900%2C500&ssl=1 "Basic Location Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-factors-basic/basic_location_factors/)Basic Location Factors[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/share_transport_costs_domestic_haul.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Product Prices and Average Domestic Haul Length | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-costs-prices-domestic-haul-united-states/share_transport_costs_domestic_haul/)Product Prices and Average Domestic Haul Length[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_infrastructure_investment_share_gdp.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Transport Infrastructure Investment and Maintenance Spending as Share of GDP, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-investment-maintenance/transport_infrastructure_investment_share_gdp/)Transport Infrastructure Investment and Maintenance Spending as Share of GDP 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_socioeconomic_benefits.png?resize=900%2C509&ssl=1 "Socioeconomic Benefits of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-socio-economic-benefits/transportation_socioeconomic_benefits/)Socioeconomic Benefits of TransportationThe added value and employment effects of transport services usually extend beyond those generated by that activity; **indirect effects** are salient. For instance, transportation companies purchase some of their inputs (fuel, supplies, maintenance) from local suppliers. These inputs generate additional value-added and employment in the local economy. In turn, the suppliers purchase goods and services from other local firms. There are further rounds of local re-spending, which generate additional value-added and employment. Similarly, households that receive income from employment in transport activities spend some of their income on local goods and services. These purchases result in additional local jobs and added value, with some of the income from these additional jobs spent on local goods and services, thereby creating further jobs and income for local households. As a result of these successive rounds of re-spending in the framework of local purchases, the overall impact on the economy exceeds the initial round of output, income, and employment generated by passenger and freight transport activities. Thus, from a general standpoint, the economic impacts of transportation can be [direct, indirect, and induced](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5318): - **Direct impacts.** The outcome of improved capacity and efficiency where transport provides employment, added value, larger markets, as well as time and cost improvements. The overall demand of an economy is increasing. - **Indirect impacts.** The outcome of improved accessibility and economies of scale. Indirect value-added and jobs result from local purchases by activities directly dependent upon transportation. Transport activities are responsible for a wide range of indirect value-added and employment effects through the linkages of transport with other economic sectors (e.g. office supply firms, equipment, and parts suppliers, maintenance and repair services, insurance companies, consulting, and other business services). - **Induced impacts.** The outcome of the economic multiplier effects when the price of commodities, goods, or services drops and their variety increases. For instance, the steel industry requires the cost-efficient import of iron ore and coal for blast furnaces and export activities for finished products such as steel booms and coils. Manufacturers, retail outlets, and distribution centers handling imported containerized cargo rely on efficient transport and seaport operations. Transportation links together the **factors of production** in a complex web of relationships between producers and consumers. The outcome is commonly a more efficient division of production by the exploitation of comparative geographical advantages, as well as the means to develop economies of scale and scope. The productivity of space, capital, and labor is thus enhanced with the efficiency of distribution and personal mobility. Economic growth is increasingly linked with transport developments, namely infrastructures, but also with managerial expertise, which is crucial for logistics. Thus, although transportation is an infrastructure-intensive activity, hard assets must be supported by an array of soft assets, namely labor, management, and information systems. Decisions about using and operating transportation systems must be made to optimize benefits and minimize costs and inconvenience. # 2. Transportation and Economic Opportunities Transportation developments that have taken place since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution have been linked to [growing economic opportunities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5325). At each development [stage of the global economy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-economy-development-phases/ "Phases of Development of the Global Economy"), a particular transport technology has been developed or adapted with an array of impacts. Economic cycles are associated with a [variety of innovations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/innovation-long-wave-cycles/ "Long Wave Cycles of Innovation"), including transportation, influencing economic opportunities for production, distribution, and consumption. Historically, six major waves of economic development where a specific transport technology created new economic, market, and social opportunities can be suggested: - **Seaports**. The historical importance of seaports in trade has been enduring. This importance was reinforced by the early stages of European expansion from the 16th to the 18th centuries, commonly known as the Age of Exploration. Seaports supported the early development of international trade through colonial empires but were constrained by limited inland access. Later in the industrial revolution, many ports became important industrial platforms. With globalization and containerization, seaports increased their importance in supporting global trade and supply chains. The cargo handled by seaports reflects the economic complexity of their hinterlands. Simple economies are usually associated with bulk cargoes, while complex economies generate more containerized flows. Technological and commercial developments have incited a greater reliance on the oceans as an economic and circulation space. - **Rivers and canals**. River trade has prevailed throughout history, and even canals were built where no significant altitude change existed since lock technology was rudimentary. The first stage of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th and early 19th centuries was linked with the development of canal systems with locks in Western Europe and North America, mainly to transport heavy goods. This permitted the development of rudimentary and constrained inland distribution systems, many of which are still used today. - **Railways**. The second stage of the industrial revolution in the 19th century was linked with the development and implementation of rail systems, enabling more flexible and high-capacity inland transportation systems. This opened substantial economic and social opportunities through the extraction of resources, the settlement of regions, and the growing mobility of freight and passengers. - **Roads**. The 20th century saw the rapid development of comprehensive road transportation systems, such as national highway systems and automobile manufacturing, as a major economic sector. After the Second World War, individual transportation became widely available to mid-income social classes. This was associated with significant economic opportunities to service industrial and commercial markets with reliable door-to-door deliveries. The automobile also permitted new forms of social opportunities, particularly with suburbanization. - **Airways and information technologies**. The second half of the 20th century saw the development of global air and telecommunication networks in conjunction with economic globalization. New organizational and managerial forms became possible, especially in the rapidly developing realm of logistics and supply chain management. Although maritime transportation is the physical linchpin of globalization, air transportation and IT support the accelerated mobility of passengers, specialized cargoes, and their associated information flows. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cumulative_modal_contribution.png?resize=900%2C410&ssl=1 "Cumulative Modal Contribution to Economic Opportunities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/economic-opportunities-modal-contribution/cumulative_modal_contribution/)Cumulative Modal Contribution to Economic Opportunities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/phases_development_global_economy.png?resize=900%2C370&ssl=1 "Phases of Development of the Global Economy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-economy-development-phases/phases_development_global_economy/)Phases of Development of the Global Economy[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/waves_innovation.png?resize=900%2C353&ssl=1 "Long Wave Cycles of Innovation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/innovation-long-wave-cycles/waves_innovation/)Long Wave Cycles of Innovation[![Map Silk Road](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C541&ssl=1 "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/map-silk-road/)The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/VOC_Trade_Network2.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Dutch East India Company, Trade Network, 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/dutch-east-india-company-trade-network/voc_trade_network2/)Dutch East India Company Trade Network 18th Century**No single transport mode** has been solely responsible for economic growth. Instead, modes have been linked with the economic functions they support and the geography in which growth was taking place. The [first trade routes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1048) established a rudimentary system of distribution and transactions that would eventually be expanded by long-distance [maritime shipping networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1089) and the setting of the first multinational corporations managing these flows. Major flows of international migration that occurred since the 18th century were linked with the expansion of international and continental transport systems that radically shaped emerging economies such as North America and Australia. Transport played a catalytic role in these migrations, transforming the economic and social geography of many nations. Transportation has been a **tool of territorial control**, particularly during the colonial era, where [resource-based transport systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5337) supported the extraction of commodities in the developing world and forwarded them to the industrializing nations of the time. The goal to capture resource and market opportunities was a strong impetus in the setting and structure of transport networks. More recently, port development, particularly container ports, has been of strategic interest as a tool of integration into the global economy, as the case of China illustrates. There is a direct relationship, or coordination, between foreign trade and container port volumes, so container port development is commonly seen as a tool to capture the opportunities brought by globalization. The growth of container shipping has systematically been 3 to 4 times the GDP growth rate, underlining a significant multiplier effect between economic growth and container trade. However, this multiplying effect has substantially receded since 2009, underlining the [maturity of the diffusion of containerization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5348) and its dissociation from economic growth. Due to demographic pressures and urbanization, developing economies are characterized by a mismatch between the limited supply and growing demand for transport infrastructure. While some regions benefit from the development of transport systems, others are often marginalized by conditions in which inadequate transportation plays a role. Transport by itself is not a sufficient condition for development. However, the lack of transport infrastructures can be a constraining factor in development. The lack of transportation infrastructures and regulatory impediments are jointly impacting economic development by conferring higher transport costs, but also delays rendering supply chain management unreliable. A poor transport service level can negatively affect the competitiveness of regions and their economic activities and thus impair the regional added value, economic opportunities, and employment. Tools and measures are being developed to assess and compare the performance of national transportation systems. For instance, in 2007, the World Bank published its first-ever report ranking nations according to their logistics performance based on the [Logistics Performance Index](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4562). Logistic performance is commonly associated with economic opportunities. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/resource_based_transport_systems2.png?resize=900%2C415&ssl=1 "Resource-Based Transport Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-system-resources/resource_based_transport_systems2/)Resource Based Transport Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/container_diffusion_cycle.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Diffusion Cycle of Containerization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/containerization-diffusion-cycles/containerization_diffusion_cycle2/)Diffusion Cycle of Containerization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-LPI-2023.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Logistics Performance Index, 2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-performance-index/map-lpi-2010-2016/)Logistics Performance Index 2023# 3. Economic Returns of Transport Investments A common expectation is that transport investments will generate economic returns, which should justify the initial capital commitment in the long run. Like most infrastructure projects, transportation infrastructure can generate a 5 to 20% annual return on the capital invested, with such figures often used to promote and justify investments. However, transport investments tend to have **declining marginal returns ([diminishing returns](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5369))**. While initial infrastructure investments tend to have a high return since they provide an entirely new range of mobility options, the more the system is developed, the more likely additional investment would lower returns. The marginal returns can sometimes be close to zero or even negative. A common fallacy assumes that additional transport investments will have a similar multiplying effect than the initial investments had, which can lead to capital misallocation. The most common reasons for the declining marginal returns of transport investments are: - **High accumulation of existing infrastructure**. Where there is a high level of accessibility and where transportation networks are already extensive, further investments usually result in marginal improvements. This means that the economic impacts of transport investments tend to be significant when infrastructures were previously lacking and tend to be marginal when an extensive network is already present. Additional investments can thus have a limited impact outside convenience. - **Economic changes**. As economies develop, their function shifts from the primary (resource extraction) and secondary (manufacturing) sectors towards advanced manufacturing, distribution, and services. These sectors rely on different transport systems and capabilities. While an economy depending on manufacturing will rely on road, rail, and port infrastructures, a service economy is more oriented toward logistics and urban transportation efficiency. Transport infrastructure is important in all cases, but its relative importance in supporting the economy may shift. - **Clustering**. Due to clustering and agglomeration, several locations develop advantages that cannot be readily reversed through improvements in accessibility. Transportation can be a factor of concentration and dispersion depending on the context and the level of development. Less accessible regions do not necessarily benefit from transport investments if they are embedded in a system of unequal relations. Therefore, each transport development project must be considered independently and contextually. Since transport infrastructures are capital-intensive fixed assets, they are particularly vulnerable to **misallocations and malinvestments**. The standard assumption is that transportation investments tend to be more **wealth-producing** than **wealth-consuming** investments such as services. Still, several transportation investments can be wealth consuming if they merely provide conveniences, such as parking and [sidewalks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5374), or service a market size well below any possible economic return, with, for instance, projects labeled “bridges to nowhere”. In such a context, transport investment projects can be **counterproductive** by draining the resources of an economy instead of creating wealth and additional opportunities. Since many transport infrastructures are provided through public funds, they can be pressured by special interest groups, which can result in poor economic returns, even if those projects are often sold to the public as strong catalysts for growth. Further, large transportation projects, such as public transit, can have inadequate cost control mechanisms, implying systematic **budget overruns**. Infrastructure projects in the United States are particularly prone to these engineered fallacies. Efficient and sustainable transport markets and systems play a key role in regional development, although the causality between transport and wealth generation is not always clear. To better document and monitor the economic returns of transport investments, a [series of indicators](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5379) can be used, such as transportation prices and productivity. Investment in transport infrastructures is thus seen as a regional development tool, particularly in developing countries. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/diminishing_returns_transport_investments.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "Diminishing Returns of Transport Investments | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-diminishing-returns/diminishing_returns_transport_investments/)Diminishing Returns of Transport Investments[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economies_production_distribution_consumption.png?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Types of Economies in Production, Distribution and Consumption | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/economies-production-distribution-consumption/economies_production_distribution_consumption/)Types of Economies in Production Distribution and Consumption[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trade_connectivity_inequalities2.png?resize=900%2C618&ssl=1 "Trade, Connectivity and Spatial Inequalities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/trade-connectivity-inequalities/trade_connectivity_inequalities2/)Trade Connectivity and Spatial Inequalities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_economic_indicators.png?resize=900%2C264&ssl=1 "Transport Economic Indicators | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/transport_economic_indicators/)Transport Economic Indicators# 4. Types of Transportation Impacts The relationship between transportation and economic development is **difficult to establish formally** and has been debated for many years. In some circumstances, transport investments appear to catalyze economic growth, while in others, economic growth puts pressure on existing transport infrastructures and incites additional investments. Transport markets and related transport infrastructure networks are key drivers in promoting more balanced and sustainable development, particularly by improving accessibility and opportunities for less-developed regions or disadvantaged social groups. Initially, there are different impacts on **transport providers** (transport companies) and **transport users**. There are several layers of activity that transportation can [valorize](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5390), from a suitable location that experiences the development of its accessibility through infrastructure investment to better usage of existing transport assets through more efficient management. This is further nuanced by the [nature, scale, and scope](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5395) of possible impacts: - **Timing of the development**. The impacts of transportation can precede (lead), occur during (concomitantly), or take place after (lag) economic development. The lag, concomitant, and lead impacts make it difficult to separate the specific contributions of transport to development. Each case appears specific to a set of timing circumstances that are difficult to replicate elsewhere. - **Types of impacts**. They vary considerably as the spectrum ranges from positive to negative. Usually, transportation investments promote economic development, while in rarer cases, they may hinder a region by draining its resources in unproductive transportation projects. **Cycles of economic development** provide a revealing conceptual perspective on how [transport systems evolve in time and space](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5400), including the timing and nature of transport’s impact on economic development. This perspective underlines that after a phase of introduction and growth, a transport system will eventually reach maturity through geographical and market saturation. There is also the risk of overinvestment, particularly when economic growth is credit driven, which can lead to significant [misallocations of capital](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5406). The outcome is surplus capacity in infrastructures and modes, creating deflationary pressures that undermine profitability. In periods of recession that commonly follow periods of expansion, transportation activities may experiment with a [setback](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5412) in terms of lower demand and a scarcity of capital investment. Because of their characteristics, several transport activities are highly synchronized with the level of economic activity. For instance, if rail freight or [maritime rates](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5619) were to decline rapidly, this could indicate deteriorating economic conditions. Transport, as a technology, typically follows a path of experimentation, introduction, adoption, diffusion, and, finally, obsolescence, each of which impacts the rate of economic development. The most significant benefits and productivity gains are realized in the early to mid-diffusion phases, while later phases are facing diminishing returns. [Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5348) is a relevant example of such a diffusion behavior as its productivity benefits were mostly derived in the 1990s and 2000s when economic globalization was accelerating. If relying upon new technologies, transportation investments can go through what is called a “[hype phase](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5417)” with unrealistic expectations about their potential and benefits. Some projects are eventually abandoned as the technology is ineffective at addressing market or operational requirements or is too expensive for its benefits. Since transportation is **capital intensive**, operators tend to be cautious before committing to new technologies and the significant sunk costs they require. This is particularly the case where transportation is capital-intensive and has a long lifespan. In addition, transport modes and infrastructures are **depreciating assets** that continuously require maintenance and upgrades. Eventually, their useful [lifespan](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5423) is exceeded, and the vehicle must be retired or the infrastructure rebuilt. Thus, the amortization of transport investments must consider the lifespan of the concerned mode or infrastructure. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/multi_layer_perspective_transport_economic_development.png?resize=900%2C565&ssl=1 "A Multi-Layer Perspective about Transport and Economic Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/layers-transport-economic-development/multi_layer_perspective_transport_economic_development/)A Multi Layer Perspective about Transport and Economic Development[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/time_sequence_impacts_transport_investments.png?resize=900%2C471&ssl=1 "Time Sequence and Nature of Impacts of Transport Investments | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-time-sequence/time_sequence_impacts_transport_investments/)Time Sequence and Nature of Impacts of Transport Investments[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cycles_space_transportation2.png?resize=900%2C359&ssl=1 "Cycles, Space and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/cycles-space-transport/cycles_space_transportation2/)Cycles Space and Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/business_cycles_misallocations.png?resize=900%2C527&ssl=1 "Business Cycles and Misallocations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/business-cycles-booms-busts/business_cycles_missallocation/)Business Cycles and Misallocations[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/recessions_consumption_production_trade.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Impact of Recessions on Consumption, Production, and Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/recessions-consumption-production-trade/recessions_consumption_production_trade/)Impact of Recessions on Consumption and Freight Rates[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/baltic_dry_index.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "The Baltic Dry Index, 1985-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/baltic-dry-index/bdi/)The Baltic Dry Index 1985 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/technology_hype_cycle.png?resize=900%2C435&ssl=1 "Technology Hype Cycle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/technology-hype-cycle/technology_hype_cycle/)Technology Hype Cycle[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/life_span_transport_asset.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Lifespan (Life Cycle) of Main Transport Assets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/life_span_transport_asset/)Lifespan Life Cycle of Main Transport Assets# 5. Transportation as an Economic Factor Contemporary trends have underlined that economic development has become less dependent on relations with the environment (resources) and more dependent on **relations across space**. While resources remain the foundation of economic activities, the commodification of the economy has been linked with higher levels of material flows. Concomitantly, resources, capital, and even labor have shown increasing levels of mobility. This is particularly the case for multinational firms that can [benefit from transport improvements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5430) in two significant markets: - **Commodity market**. Improvements in the efficiency with which firms have access to raw materials and parts as well as to their respective customers. Thus, transportation expands opportunities to acquire and sell a variety of commodities necessary for industrial and manufacturing systems. - **Labor market**. Improvements in access to labor and a reduction in access costs, mainly by improved commuting (local scale) or the use of lower-cost labor (global scale). Transportation provides market accessibility by linking producers and consumers so that transactions can occur. A common fallacy in assessing the importance and impact of transportation on the economy is to focus only on transportation costs, which tend to be relatively low; in the range of 5 to 10% of the value of a good. Transportation is an **economic factor of production** of goods and services, implying that it is fundamental in their generation, even if it accounts for a small share of input costs. This means that irrespective of the cost, an activity cannot take place without the transportation factor and the mobility it provides. Thus, relatively small transport costs, capacity, and performance changes can substantially impact dependent economic activities. An efficient transport system with modern infrastructures favors many economic changes, most of them positive. The major impacts of transport on economic factors can be categorized as follows: - [**Geographic specialization**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5436). Improvements in transportation and communication favor a process of geographical specialization that increases productivity and spatial interactions. An economic entity tends to produce goods and services with the most appropriate combination of capital, labor, and raw materials. A region will thus tend to specialize in producing goods and services for which it has the greatest advantages (or the least disadvantages) compared to other regions as long as appropriate transport is available for trade. Through geographic specialization supported by efficient transportation, economic productivity is promoted. This process is known in economic theory as **comparative advantages** that have enabled the economic specialization of regions. - **Scale and scope of production**. An efficient transport system offering cost, time, and reliability advantages enables goods to be transported over longer distances. This facilitates mass production through economies of scale because larger markets can be accessed. The concept of [“just-in-time”](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5442) in supply chain management has further expanded the productivity of production and distribution with benefits such as lower inventory levels and better responses to shifting market conditions. Thus, the more efficient transportation becomes, the larger the markets that can be serviced, and the larger the scale of production. This results in lower unit costs. - **Increased competition**. When transport is efficient, the potential market for a given product (or service) increases, and so does competition. A wider array of goods and services becomes available to consumers through competition, reducing costs and promoting quality and innovation. Globalization has been associated with a competitive environment that spans the world and enables consumers to access a wider range of goods and services. - **Increased land value**. Land adjacent or serviced by good transport services generally has greater value due to its utility. Consumers can have access to a wider range of services and retail goods. In contrast, residents can have better accessibility to employment, services, and social networks, all of which result in higher land value. Irrespective of if used or not, the accessibility conveyed by transportation impacts the land value. In some cases, due to the externalities they generate, transportation activities can lower land value, particularly for residential activities. Land located near airports and highways, near noise and pollution sources, will thus be impacted by corresponding diminishing land value. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_impacts_economic_opportunities.png?resize=900%2C504&ssl=1 "Transport Impacts on Economic Opportunities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/economic-opportunities-transport-impacts/transport_impacts_economic_opportunities/)Transport Impacts on Economic Opportunities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economic_production_specialization2.png?resize=900%2C359&ssl=1 "Trade, Transportation and Geographic Specialization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/trade-transportation-geographic-specialization/economic_production_specialization2/)Trade Transportation and Geographic Specialization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/just_in_time_logistics2.png?resize=900%2C381&ssl=1 "Just-in-Time and its Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/logistics-just-in-time/just_in_time_logistics2/)Just in time and its Logistic[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/household_vehicles_usa2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Percentage of Households by Number of Vehicles, 1960-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/household-vehicles-united-states/household_vehicles_usa2/)Percentage of Households by Number of Vehicles 1960 2020Transport also contributes to economic development through **job creation and derived economic activities**. Accordingly, many direct (freighters, managers, shippers) and indirect (insurance, finance, packaging, handling, travel agencies, transit operators) employment are associated with transport. Producers and consumers make economic decisions on products, markets, costs, location, and prices, which are based on transport services, availability, costs, capacity, and reliability. --- ## Related Topics - [1.5 – Trans](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481)[p](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/ "1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography")[ortation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481) - [3.3 – Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/ "3.3 – Transport Costs") - [3.4- The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/ "3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services") - [1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ "1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems") - [1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/ "1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems") - [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/ "2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization") - [B.16 – The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/ "B.16 – The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure") ## Bibliography - Banister, D. and J. Berechman (2000) Transport Investment and Economic Development, London: Routledge. - Banister, D. and J. Berechman (2001) “Transport investment and the promotion of economic growth”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 9, pp. 209-218. - Berry, B.J.L. (1991) Long-wave Rhythms in Economic Development and Political Behavior, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. - Button K. (2022) Transport Economics, 4th Edition, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar. - Button, K. and A. Reggiani (eds) (2011) Transportation and Economic Development Challenges, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. - Cidell, J. (2015). “The role of major infrastructure in subregional economic development: an empirical study of airports and cities”, Journal of Economic Geography, 15(6), 1125-1144. - Docherty, I., and MacKinnon, D. (2013) “Transport and economic development”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom, T. and J. Shaw (eds.) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies. Sage, London, UK. - European Conference of Ministers of Transport (2001) Transport and Economic Development, Round Table 119, Paris: OECD. - Hargroves, K., and M. Smith (2005) The Natural Advantage of Nations: Business Opportunities, Innovation and Governance in the 21st Century. The Natural Edge Project. London: Earthscan. - Henderson, J.V., Z. Shalizi and A.J. Venables (2000) Geography and Development, Journal of Economic Geography, Vol. 1, pp. 81-106. - Hickman, R., M. Givoni, D. Bonilla & D. Banister (eds.) (2015) Handbook on Transport and Development, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. - Krugman, P. (1999) “The Role of Geography in Development”, International Regional Science Review, 22(2), pp. 142–161. - Lakshmanan, T.R. (2011) “The broader economic consequences of transport infrastructure investments”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 1-12. - MacKinnon, D., G. Pine and M. Gather (2008) “Transport and Economic Development”, in R. Knowles, J. Shaw and I. Docherty (eds.) Transport Geographies: Mobilities, Flows and Spaces, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 10-28. - Rodrigue, J-P (2017) “Transport and Development”, in D. Richardson, N. Castree, M.F. Goodchild, A. Kobayashi, W. Liu, and R.A. Marston (eds) The International Encyclopedia of Geography, New York: John Wiley & Sons. - Rodrigue, J-P (2016) “The Role of Transport and Communication Infrastructure in Realising Development Outcomes”, in J. Grugel and D. Hammett (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of International Development. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 595-614. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.4 – Urban Logistical Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/) **Published:** March 7, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue & Dr. Laetitia Dablanc > City logistics requires an understanding of urban geography and supply chain management. Urban freight distribution has a unique array of challenges as a multidisciplinary field. It reflects many dimensions of contemporary logistics, such as route and delivery sequence selection. It also exacerbates its constraints, such as on-time deliveries in an environment of a scarcity of road access. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Congestion and Parking](#1_Congestion_and_Parking) - [2. Land Use](#2_Land_Use) - [3. Green Logistics](#3_Green_Logistics) - [4. E-commerce](#4_E-commerce) - [5. Regulations](#5_Regulations) # 1. Congestion and Parking Passengers and truck movements are not interacting efficiently as freight and passenger circulation are a zero-sum game; road capacity taken by freight transportation is at the expense of capacity available to passenger transportation (and vice versa). They share the same road infrastructure and **peak hours due to commuting** exacerbate the difficulties of freight distribution. Several cities are seeking to limit trucking as pressures keep mounting up. In many jurisdictions, limits on heavy trucks in urban areas are in place, and there are restrictions on the times of delivery and pickup, which in some European cities extend to the **exclusion of all trucks in the urban core during daytime hours**. The question remains about to what extent constraining urban freight circulation impairs the economy. City logistics, like logistics in general, depend on consistent and reliable deliveries. The urban environment that tends to have **high congestion levels** is challenging since it creates delays and unreliability for deliveries. To avoid congestion, deliveries can take place during the night (or off-peak hours) if possible. Urban freight distribution is characterized by smaller volumes and high-frequency deliveries, which is **in contradiction with the consolidation of loads**. This is not prone to economies of scale and involves higher delivery costs. There is limited parking capacity to accommodate deliveries in high-density areas, implying that **parking** remains one of the core city logistics issues. Delivery vehicles cope with this challenge by double parking, thus seriously impeding local circulation. Freight parking areas mid-street are less disruptive to local circulation since street intersections are the most prone to disruptions. Parking fines can become part of the cost of doing business for urban deliveries. For instance, in Manhattan, a delivery truck can accumulate, on average, $750 worth of parking tickets per week. The curbside is a contested space between pedestrians, cyclists, residents, delivery vehicles, and store owners. # 2. Land Use Land use patterns determine many features of the urban movement of goods, where the pattern of industrial, commercial, and logistics facilities has a direct impact on the nature and flow of commercial goods. Higher density has commonly been advocated as a sustainable strategy for cities. However, for urban freight distribution, higher densities involve higher costs and lower reliability, which contradicts the conventional wisdom. Further, higher density areas make retail space at a premium, inciting a lower level of in-store storage and, therefore, more deliveries are required. [**Logistics sprawl**](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=181) has been a dominant land use change of the last decades, with the relocation of logistics facilities towards peripheral areas at faster rates and greater distances than any other economic activity. Suburban logistics has become relevant to city logistics, with an emerging set of issues, such as congestion near major distribution facilities in peripheral areas. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Paris_Logistics_Sprawl.png?resize=900%2C351&ssl=1 "Location of LTL and Parcel Distribution Centers, Paris 1974-2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Location of LTL and Parcel Distribution Centers Paris 1974 2010# 3. Green Logistics City logistics is facing renewed environmental challenges. Road transportation is the most polluting mode per unit of distance traveled, but there are limited alternatives to the road to provide for urban deliveries. A positive trend has been the decline of air pollution due to better engine designs and the phasing out of leaded fuel in most countries. Diesel trucks still account for a significant source of particulate matter and NOx emissions, an issue compounded by their use as urban delivery vehicles. Urban freight distribution is, on average, twice as polluting than intercity freight transport, particularly because of the following factors: - **Vehicle age.** On average, urban delivery vehicles are older, and it is common practice to use trucks at the end of their service life for short-distance drayage. This problem is compounded in developing countries, where vehicles are even older and thus more prone to higher emissions and accidents. - **Vehicle size**. On average, the size of vehicles used for urban deliveries is smaller, particularly in areas that have high density, limited street parking, and can have clearance issues (low bridges). This implies that the advantages of economies of scale cannot be effectively applied to urban freight distribution. Smaller delivery vehicles must undertake more travel to deliver a similar volume of freight than a regular truck. - **Operating speeds and idling.** The conditions pertaining to urban freight distribution are such that vehicles are forced to have lower driving speeds, regular stops, and acceleration (e.g. traffic signals), as well as much more idling than a vehicle operating in an uncongested environment. Additionally, driving restrictions such as one-way or car-only streets often make the usage of the shortest path unfeasible. The result is more fuel consumption and pollutant emissions. There are also safety concerns since urban areas have high densities of pedestrian movements and trucks have wider dead angles than automobiles. While cities are major consumers of final goods, there are also **reverse logistics** activities related to the collection of waste and recycling. There are several contradicting trends since, as incomes increase, populations tend to consume more and also discard more waste. Concomitantly, wealthier societies tend to impose more regulations concerning the use and discard of waste. Still, the trend towards a greater share of recyclable materials in the share of manufacturing inputs is offering new opportunities for reverse logistics strategies in urban areas. # 4. E-commerce The growth of e-commerce has been significant since 2000, averaging 10 to 20% per year for online retail. In Europe and the United States ecommerce accounted for 9% of retail sales, thus becoming a significant component of final consumption. The emergence of **distributional consumption** implies that final consumption is contingent on delivery to the consumer. As such, e-commerce is related to [new forms of demands and new forms of urban distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4524) with a growth in the home deliveries of parcels. Large online retailers such as Amazon and Alibaba have been able to capture a significant share of e-commerce transactions. While the concerned volumes were relatively small, the diffusion of information technologies has impacted the urban distribution structure of retail goods. This has been accompanied by a growth in parcel deliveries but also higher rates of delivery failures (e.g. consignee not at home). In turn, this has incited the development of new strategies to complement home deliveries with alternate solutions such as [pick-up points](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=189) and [automated locker banks](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=193). For large apartment complexes, the [lobby](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=197) has essentially become a small freight distribution center. Online purchases are also characterized by higher rates of returns, implying reverse distribution strategies. Further, consumer preferences lean towards fast delivery times, often the next or the same day, putting intense pressure to improve the performance of urban deliveries. E-commerce is shaping a new urban geography where the distribution centers of e-retailers are playing a greater role. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2015-12-22-151455.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "The Lobby as a Freight Station | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Lobby as a Freight Station![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Polish_Packstation.jpg?resize=900%2C565&ssl=1 "Urban Freight Station: DHL Packstation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Freight Station DHL Packstation![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2015-05-15-082441.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Urban Pickup Location, Chongqing, China | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Pickup Location Chongqing China![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_planning_strategies_city_logistics.png?resize=900%2C327&ssl=1 "Impacts of Urban Planning Strategies on City Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of Urban Planning Strategies on City Logistics![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Amazon_Locker_-_Baltoro_New_York_New_York.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Amazon Parcel Pick Up Locker | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Parcel Pick Up Locker# 5. Regulations The urban space is prone to conflicts between [different stakeholders](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=202), as high population densities are related to a low tolerance for infringements and disturbances. There are also opportunities for collaboration as city logistics open new realms of engagement for [urban planning](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=207), but with diverging priorities according to the urban setting. Ensuring an adequate circulation of freight flows in urban areas can involve specific strategies that can be done at the level of the individual firm or as a concerted urban planning effort. Municipal governments are increasingly incited to regulate freight distribution components under their jurisdiction, such as parking and access to specific road segments. Commonality across metropolitan areas and numerous municipal governments leads to a regulatory fragmentation that can adopt, at times, conflicting urban freight regulations. However, careful consideration must be placed on the impacts of such regulations as arbitrary decisions may have negative and unintended consequences. For instance, imposing limits on truck size on some road segments (or areas) may force distributors to change their routing and load configurations, with substantial additional costs. Therefore, city logistics is better serviced if it is part of an overall strategy trying to comprehensively address a range of freight issues in urban areas, including their potential impacts. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Contents](https://transportgeography.org/contents/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ### [Chapter 1 – Transportation and Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/ "Chapter 1 – Transportation and Geography") - [1.1 – What is Transport Geography?](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/ "1.1 – What is Transport Geography?") - [1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/ "1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment") - [1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/ "1.3 – The Emergence of Mechanized Transportation Systems") - [1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/ "1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems") - [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/ "1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography") ### [Chapter 2 – Transportation and the Spatial Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/ "Chapter 2 – Transportation and Spatial Structure") - [2.1 – The Geography of Transportation Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/ "2.1 – The Geography of Transportation Networks") - [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/ "2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization") - [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/ "2.3 – Transport and Location") - [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/ "2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility") ### [Chapter 3 – Transportation, Economy and Society](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/ "3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development") - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/ "3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development") - [3.2 – Transportation and Society](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/ "3.2 – Transportation and Society") - [3.3 – Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/ "3.3 – Transport Costs") - [3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/ "3.4 – The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services") ### [Chapter 4 – Transport, Energy and Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/ "Chapter 4 – Transport, Energy and Environment") - [4.1 – Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/ "4.1 – Transportation and Energy") - [4.2 – Transportation and the Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/ "4.2 – Transportation and the Environment") - [4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/ "4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation") - [4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/ "4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization") ### [Chapter 5 – Transportation Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/ "Chapter 5 – Transportation Modes") - [5.1 – Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/ "5.1 – Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift") - [5.2 – Road Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/ "5.2 – Road Transportation") - [5.3 – Rail Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/ "5.3 – Rail Transportation and Pipelines") - [5.4 – Maritime Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/ "5.4 – Maritime Transportation") - [5.5 – Air Transport](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/ "5.5 – Air Transport") - [5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/ "5.6 – Intermodal Transportation and Containerization") ### [Chapter 6 – Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/ "Chapter 6 – Transportation Terminals") - [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/ "6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals") - [6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/ "6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands") - [6.3 – Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/ "6.3 – Port Terminals") - [6.4 – Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/ "6.4 – Rail Terminals") - [6.5 – Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/ "6.5 – Airport Terminals") ### [Chapter 7 – Trade, Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/ "Chapter 7 – Trade, Logistics and Freight Distribution") - [7.1 – Transborder and Crossborder Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/ "7.1 – Transborder and Crossborder Transportation") - [7.2 – Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/ "7.2 – Globalization and International Trade") - [7.3 – Freight Transportation and Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/ "7.3 – Freight Transportation and Value Chains") - [7.4 – Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ "7.4 – Logistics and Freight Distribution") ### [Chapter 8 – Urban Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/ "Chapter 8 – Urban Transportation") - [8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ "8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form") - [8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/ "8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation") - [8.3 – Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/ "8.3 – Urban Mobility") - [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/ "8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges") ### [Chapter 9 – Transport Planning and Policy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/ "Chapter 9 – Transport Planning and Policy") - [9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/ "9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy") - [9.2 – Transport Planning](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6284)[ ](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/ "9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance")[and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6284) - [9.3 – Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/ "9.3 – Transport Safety and Security") - [9.4 – Transportation, Disruptions and Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/ "9.4 – Transportation and Disasters") ### [Chapter 10 – Challenges for Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/ "Chapter 10 – Challenges for Transport Geography") - [10.1 – Transport Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/improving-transport-infrastructure/ "10.1 – Improving Transport Infrastructure") - [10.2 – Governance, Management and Digitalization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/governance-and-management/ "10.2 – Governance and Management") - [10.3 – Social and Environmental Responsibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/social-environmental-responsibility/ "10.3 – Social and Environmental Responsibility") - [10.4 – Future Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ "10.4 – Future Transportation Systems") ### [Appendix A – Methods in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/ "Appendix A – Methods in Transport Geography") #### Overview - [A.1 – Methods in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6562) - [A.2 – Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6741) - [A.3 – Symbolization of Transport Features in a GIS](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7019) - [A.4 – Transportation and Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6945) #### Transport-Related Methods - [A.5 – Graph Theory: Definitions and Properties](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5976) - [A.6 – Graph Theory: Measures and Indices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5981) - [A.7 – Network Data Models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7585) - [A.8 – The Route Selection Process](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19787) - A.9 – Linear Programming - [A.10 – Transport Technical and Economic Performance Indicators](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19302) - A.11 – Traffic Counts and Traffic Surveys - A.12 – Transportation / Land Use Modeling - A.13 – The Lowry Model #### Multidisciplinary Methods - [A.14 – Location Analysis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=24490) - [A.15 – Market Area Analysis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9293) - [A.16 – The Specialization Index and the Location Coefficient](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10279) - [A.17 – The Gini Coefficient](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9229) - [A.18 – Spatial Interactions and the Gravity Model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8565) - A.19 – The Policy Process - [A.20 – Transportation Environmental Management](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) - A.21 – Delphi Forecasting - A.22 – Cost-Benefits Analysis ### [Appendix B – Applications and Case Studies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/ "Appendix B – Applications and Case Studies") #### Socioeconomic Issues - [B.1 – Teaching Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=748) - [B.2 – Transportation and Mega Urban Regions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7705) - [B.3 – Gateways and Transport Corridors in North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7652) - [B.4 – High-Speed Rail Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7457) - [B.5 – Transportation and its Bottlenecks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/) - [B.6 – Mega Airport Projects](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7535) - [B.7 – International Tourism and Transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9622) - [B.8 – Petroleum: A Transportation Resource](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6757) - [B.23 – The Digitalization of Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/digitalization-of-mobility/) #### Freight Issues - [B.9 – The Cold Chain and its Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6585) - [B.10 – Transportation and Blockchains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11189) - [B.11 – Freight Distribution Clusters (Logistics Zones)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8133) - B.12 – Third-Party Logistics Service Providers - [B.13 – The Containerization of Commodities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8394) - [B.14 – The Logistics of Global Food Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12791) #### Planning and Environmental Issues - [B.15 – Green Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6497) - [B.16 – The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8689) - [B.17 – Logistics Policies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/ "B.17 – Logistics Policies") - [B.18 – Climate Change and the Adaptation of Transport Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9422) - [B.19 – Transportation and Pandemics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8869) - [B.20 – The St. Lawrence Seaway and Regional Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9071) - [B.21 – The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9527) - [B.22 – Rail Deregulation in the United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/rail-deregulation-united-states/ "Rail Deregulation in the United States") ### [Appendix C – City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/ "Appendix C – City Logistics") - [C.1 – What is City Logistics?](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/) - [C.2 – The Urban Freight Landscape](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/ "C.2 – The Urban Freight Landscape") - [C.3 – The Diversity of Urban Freight Activities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/ "C.3 – The Diversity of Urban Freight Activities") - [C.4 – Urban Logistical Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/ "C.4 – Urban Logistical Challenges") - [C.5 – Urban Freight Distribution Channels](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/ "C.5 – Urban Freight Distribution Channels") - [C.6 – E-commerce and Home Deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/ "C.6 – E-commerce and Home Deliveries") - [C.7 – Procurement and Fulfillment Facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/ "C.7 – Procurement and Fulfillment Facilities") - [C.8 – Distribution Facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/ "C.8 – Distribution Facilities") - [C.9 – Last Mile Facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/ "C.9 – Last Mile Facilities") - [C.10 – Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/ "C.12 – Stakeholder Relationships in City Logistics") - [C.11 – Third-Party Logistics Services Providers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/third-party-logistics-services-providers/ "C.11 – Third-Party Logistics Services Providers") - [C.12 – Stakeholder Relationships in City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/ "C.12 – Stakeholder Relationships in City Logistics") - [C.13 – Freight Distribution Strategies for City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/ "C.13 – Freight Distribution Strategies for City Logistics") ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Appendix C - City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/) **Published:** December 16, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** City logistics involves freight distribution in urban areas as well as strategies that can improve its overall efficiency while mitigating congestion and environmental externalities. It includes providing services that manage the movements of goods in cities and provide innovative responses to customer demands. City logistics has received growing attention in light of ongoing urbanization, rising standards of living, globalization, and new forms of consumption such as e-commerce. - [C.1 – What is City Logistics?](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/ "C.1 – What is City Logistics?") - [C.2 – The Urban Freight Landscape](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/ "C.2 – The Urban Freight Landscape") - [C.3 – The Diversity of Urban Freight Activities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/ "C.3 – The Diversity of Urban Freight Activities") - [C.4 – Urban Logistical Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/ "C.4 – Urban Logistical Challenges") - [C.5 – Urban Freight Distribution Channels](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/ "C.5 – Urban Freight Distribution Channels") - [C.6 – E-commerce and Home Deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/ "C.6 – E-commerce and Home Deliveries") - [C.7 – Procurement and Fulfillment Facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/ "C.7 – Procurement and Fulfillment Facilities") - [C.8 – Distribution Facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/ "C.8 – Distribution Facilities") - [C.9 – Last Mile Facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/ "C.9 – Last Mile Facilities") - [C.10 – Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/ "C.10 – Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries") - [C.11 – Third-Party Logistics Services Providers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/third-party-logistics-services-providers/ "C.11 – Third-Party Logistics Services Providers") - [C.12 – Stakeholder Relationships in City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/ "C.12 – Stakeholder Relationships in City Logistics") - [C.13 – Freight Distribution Strategies for City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/ "C.13 – Freight Distribution Strategies for City Logistics") ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.13 – Freight Distribution Strategies for City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Laetitia Dablanc > From a freight distribution perspective, a city can be considered a bottleneck where transportation resources are scarce relative to the potential demand and are thus highly valuable. Freight is competing for the use of urban space. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Rationalization of Deliveries](#1_Rationalization_of_Deliveries) - [2. Freight Facilities](#2_Freight_Facilities) - [3. Modal Adaptation](#3_Modal_Adaptation) # 1. Rationalization of Deliveries As a distributional strategy, city logistics can take many forms depending on the concerned supply chains (e.g. retailing, parcels, food deliveries, etc.) as well as the urban setting in which it takes place. However, urban freight distribution strategies are difficult to implement as they systematically imply higher costs and additional delays. The [mitigation strategies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/mitigation-strategies-urban-freight/ "Mitigation Strategies for Urban Freight Distribution") that are the most considered concern three interrelated realms of engagement. The rationalization of deliveries relates to adjustments about how freight is delivered (or picked up) in urban areas so that externalities, namely congestion, are minimized. Such a strategy tries to better use existing assets. One of the simplest strategies is to regulate access to specific parts of the city, such as **forbidding daytime deliveries** in central areas or implementing **off-peak delivery schemes**, such as distributors opting for night deliveries or at least extended delivery windows to avoid peak-hour traffic. A key issue about night deliveries concerns noise since lower noise levels are usually regulated during nighttime, and local residents are likely to have a lower tolerance for noise for night operations. There is an array of information technologies that are increasingly being used to manage urban freight distribution systems. The most used technologies relate to global positioning systems that improve vehicle tracking and urban navigation, as well as load management applications that can assist in building routes and delivery schedules. Under such circumstances, it becomes more effective to **match trip sequences**, such as deliveries and pickups, to strive towards forms of [collaborative deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9737). Still, urban freight distribution remains highly imbalanced as deliveries are more numerous than pickups. The most significant relation concerns very different supply chains; retail deliveries/garbage disposal. There are successful examples of being able to combine retail deliveries and backhaul movements involving recycled goods (e.g. cardboard, plastics, and bottles). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mitigation_strategies_urban_freight.png?resize=900%2C464&ssl=1 "Mitigation Strategies for Urban Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mitigation Strategies for Urban Freight Distribution![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/collaborative_distribution_strategy.png?resize=900%2C693&ssl=1 "Collaborative Distribution Strategies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Collaborative Distribution Strategies# 2. Freight Facilities The development of freight distribution infrastructures that are better adapted to the urban context is an important challenge. This can involve the setting of **designated parking areas** for deliveries, as well as the usage of **urban freight distribution centers** and [local freight stations](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=270), including [locker boxes](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=276). The latter are small facilities trying to service a cluster of urban freight demand (e.g. a neighborhood) or a single large facility such as an office or residential building. These facilities imply additional costs that can only be justified if there are sufficient volumes and concentration of deliveries within an area. Urban freight facilities can thus be a value proposition in large cities (or high-density areas), while for smaller cities,+ such initiatives would drive up costs and unreliability. If the opportunity arises, such as the availability of a brownfield site in proximity to the city center, [urban logistics zones](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/sogaris-urban-logistic-zone-marseilles/ "Sogaris Urban Logistic Zone, Marseilles") can be developed, which can provide a counterweight to logistics zones that have emerged in the periphery of most large urban agglomerations. [**Urban consolidation centers**](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/unloading-cng-truck-motomachi-urban-consolidation-center/ "Unloading a CNG Truck at a Motomachi Urban Consolidation Center") (UCC) specifically provide a bundled and coordinated delivery service. A UCC is a logistics facility located close to the city center from which consolidated deliveries are carried out, and which provides a range of other value-added logistics services. The urban freight distribution center can be a neutral facility interfacing with a set of distribution centers, each being connected to their respective supply chains. Thus, a wide array of supply chains connected to the city can achieve better distributional efficiency within the central city. Few projects for urban consolidation centers have met success even because of their operating costs since they involve high rents and additional handling before final delivery. There were attempts to establish UCC in several cities, but many such projects turned out to be unprofitable and ceased operations once subsidies dried up. However, land prices constitute an important obstacle to the urban siting of freight facilities. Up to 200 such terminals existed in European cities in the 1990s and early 2000s. Due to operating costs, most of them closed down when municipalities could no longer provide subsidies. The case of London is illustrative with the setting of the London Construction Consolidation Centre (LCCC), offering an accessible central storage and sortation center, and was able to reduce the number of deliveries going to construction sites by a factor of 60%. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_freight_stations.png?resize=900%2C608&ssl=1 "Urban Freight Stations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Freight Stations![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Polish_Packstation.jpg?resize=900%2C565&ssl=1 "Urban Freight Station: DHL Packstation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Freight Station DHL Packstation# 3. Modal Adaptation The usage of adapted vehicles for urban freight distribution is another strategy. [**Smaller vehicles**](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=294) tend to be better suited for urban deliveries because of their lesser footprint, their ability to maneuver, and their higher-than-average load factor. Yet, a similar amount of freight would require moving vehicles to be delivered. Freight integrators in parcel deliveries are increasingly advocating for longer trailers, particularly because parcel transportation related to e-commerce tends to have a higher volume-to-weight ratio than standard freight. Like its container transportation equivalent, parcel transportation and deliveries tend to “cube out” before it “weights out”. Extending the length of twin 28-foot trailers to 33 feet would allow them to carry about 18 percent more freight per haul, with the related benefits in fuel consumption and less vehicles on the road. Therefore, regulations can be enforced concerning the permitted size of delivery vehicles (with a chosen limit permitting medium size trucks to operate) and even their age if environmental concerns such as emissions and noise are salient. Innovative strategies such as CNG vehicles, electric vehicles, and even bicycles have been successfully implemented and underline a good potential for modes to adapt to the diversity of the urban landscape. **Electric delivery trucks** are a promising technology adapted to the urban environment since they have low emissions, particularly noise. However, there are several drawbacks to their widespread use, particularly higher acquisition costs (and no secondary resell market), range constraints, charging time, and less load capacity. As such, early adopters of alternative modes and distribution strategies may place themselves at a disadvantage in regard to competitors using conventional delivery vehicles. The usage of the existing **public transit systems** has also been considered for urban freight distribution. However, there are no cost and logistically-effective strategies to date. Urban transit is not well adapted to freight distribution and often involves additional load breaks and costs. Attempts at developing “cargo trams” have failed, such as the ambitious cargo tram project in Amsterdam, which went bankrupt in 2009. More recently, a variety of **autonomous delivery vehicles** have been developed. They range from automated trucks able to carry normal loads to drones and delivery robots for carrying small loads. The latter enables access to difficult locations (crowded or remote areas) but requires a substantial information technology support system for their operation. They can also be difficult to operate when weather conditions are challenging (rain, snow, high wind). Although each of these strategies has its own advantages, there are also [drawbacks](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=264) that are commonly related to higher distribution costs and additional delays. City logistics is facing the paradox of being incited to look at sites located at the urban periphery where land availability is less of an issue. At the same time, most consumers and activities tend to be located in more central areas. For instance, a high-density and congested central city can be serviced by an independent freight distribution system calling from a consolidation center (UCC) located at a location in proximity to the city center, often a brownfield site that served an abandoned function (e.g., rail yard, industrial area). The vehicles used to service customers (either for deliveries or pickups along a flexible route) are likely to be cleaner (electric, CNG) and thus better adapted for distribution in an urban environment. Urban areas remain congested areas where space utilization comes at a premium and where the presence of many stakeholders imposes concerted efforts to ensure that urban markets remain serviced in an effective and environmentally friendly fashion. The future is indicative of a transition towards [greener forms of city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/motor-transition-urban-freight-distribution/ "The Motor Transition in Urban Freight Distribution") since the current situation appears unsustainable in many cities that are facing rising congestion and environmental externalities. Since each city represents a unique setting with its own prevalence of transport infrastructure and modal choice there appears to be no single encompassing strategy to improve urban freight distribution, but a set of strategies reflecting challenges that are rather unique for each city. As underlined, a salient difference relates to city logistics between developing and developed countries. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mitigation_strategies_urban_freight.png?resize=900%2C464&ssl=1 "Mitigation Strategies for Urban Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mitigation Strategies for Urban Freight Distribution![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/motor_transition_city_logistics.png?resize=900%2C648&ssl=1 "The Motor Transition in Urban Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Motor Transition in Urban Freight Distribution### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Motor Transition in Urban Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/motor-transition-urban-freight-distribution/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/motor_transition_city_logistics.png?resize=900%2C648&ssl=1 "The Motor Transition in Urban Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Motor Transition in Urban Freight Distribution*Source: adapted from Dablanc, L. (2009) Freight Transport, A Key for the New Urban Economy. World Bank, Freight Transport for Development: a Policy Toolkit, July.* *Note: Alternative refers to modes such as electric and CNG vehicles as well as bicycles.* What can be labeled the “motor transition” for urban freight is the change from predominantly pedestrian or animal-powered transport of goods to motor vehicles, mostly diesel-powered trucks and vans. Four conceptual stages can be inferred: - **Informal Logistics City (Stage I)**. Tends to reflect city logistics in large cities of the least developed countries where freight distribution is disorganized and dominantly assumed by the informal sector. A significant share of the urban movement of goods comes from non-motorized traditional means of circulation assumed by small independent operators (such as the [rickshaw](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1894)). Dualism is also an important attribute of urban freight distribution as modern means (many operated by multinationals) are interacting with traditional means. - **Motorized Transition City (Stage II)**. As income and economic development rise, city logistics transitions towards higher levels of motorization. While non-motorized means are still significant, diesel trucks and vans are assuming a growing role; dualism is receding. - **Motorized Logistics City (Stage III)**. The majority of cities in advanced economies have fully motorized city logistics, with adapted vehicles like vans and small trucks assuming the majority of deliveries. The urban economy is complex and reflective of a consumer society. This is linked with high levels of energy consumption and salient congestion problems, which underlines the potentially unsustainable character of this form of city logistics. Greener forms of city logistics are starting to emerge. - **Green Logistics City (Stage IV)**. Facing an array of environmental, economic, and social challenges, city logistics adapts, notably with a growing reliance on alternative modes of transport (electric, natural gas, or clean diesel vehicles and even nonmotorized means of transport). Such strategies are increasingly seen as a desirable goal to be achieved by many large cities in the world. However, the transition to alternative vehicles has so far been marginal. For instance, even after a decade of strategies and incentives to promote alternative vehicles, they still account for less than 1% of urban deliveries in the city of Paris. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/motor-transition-urban-freight-distribution/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/motor-transition-urban-freight-distribution/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/motor-transition-urban-freight-distribution/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/motor-transition-urban-freight-distribution/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Unloading a CNG Truck at a Motomachi Urban Consolidation Center](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/unloading-cng-truck-motomachi-urban-consolidation-center/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/motomachi_delivery.jpg?resize=775%2C583&ssl=1 "Unloading a CNG Truck at a Motomachi Urban Consolidation Center | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Unloading a CNG Truck at a Motomachi Urban Consolidation Center*Photo: Dr. Laetitia Dablanc.* The urban consolidation terminal located 300 meters from the city center is supplied through normal means. Deliveries are then consolidated and loaded into three CNG trucks, which are then used to deliver the shops that participate in the system. Delivery movements are kept to a minimum in order to reduce impacts. Several key elements of urban freight distribution mitigation strategies are depicted in the above photo: - Adapted vehicle using an alternative fuel (CNG). - Dedicated delivery parking space. - Rolling delivery carts. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/unloading-cng-truck-motomachi-urban-consolidation-center/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/unloading-cng-truck-motomachi-urban-consolidation-center/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/unloading-cng-truck-motomachi-urban-consolidation-center/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/unloading-cng-truck-motomachi-urban-consolidation-center/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Sogaris Urban Logistic Zone, Marseilles](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/sogaris-urban-logistic-zone-marseilles/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sogaris_marseille.jpg?resize=776%2C582&ssl=1 "Sogaris Urban Logistic Zone, Marseilles | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Sogaris Urban Logistic Zone Marseilles*Photo: Dr. Daniel Boudoin.* Like several large urban agglomerations, Marseilles has real estate constraints leaving limited availability for land to be used for urban freight distribution. In such a context, enterprises involved in freight distribution were electing sites further away from the city center, exacerbating congestion. To mitigate this issue (logistics sprawl) SOGARIS, a major manager of distribution centers and logistics zones, in partnership with SNCF (the French national railway company), developed a logistic zone on a highly accessible site adjacent to the port, with good road and public transit accessibility and with rail connectivity. The 9-hectare brownfield site located about 2 km from downtown Marseilles was built on land owned by SNCF (part of a former rail yard). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/sogaris-urban-logistic-zone-marseilles/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/sogaris-urban-logistic-zone-marseilles/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/sogaris-urban-logistic-zone-marseilles/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/sogaris-urban-logistic-zone-marseilles/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Mitigation Strategies for Urban Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/mitigation-strategies-urban-freight/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mitigation_strategies_urban_freight.png?resize=900%2C464&ssl=1 "Mitigation Strategies for Urban Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mitigation Strategies for Urban Freight DistributionAn array of strategies can be considered to mitigate urban freight distribution problems, most of which are related to congestion: - **Night deliveries** are a straightforward option since they open a new spectrum of urban deliveries, and this is in a context where there is less congestion and conflicts with commuting. However, they impose important changes in the organization of labor for both the freight forwarder and the consignee. Distribution centers must be open at night, even intermodal terminals, while the consignee must have labor available to receive deliveries. For smaller stores, night delivery could impose prohibitive additional labor costs. In such a setting, carriers would tend to prefer night deliveries since their vehicles would operate in a less congested setting with the possibility to use larger vehicles, while retailers would prefer regular day deliveries corresponding to the availability of their workforce. In high-density areas, night deliveries can also result in local disturbances such as noise. - **Extended delivery windows** provide additional options for deliveries, particularly outside peak hours. Like night deliveries, they impose challenges in the organization of labor. - **Cooperative deliveries** involve various forms of agreements between shippers and consignees so that vehicles can be shared and loads consolidated. This reduces the number of empty backhauls and increases asset utilization. However, such collaboration is difficult to organize, considering the wide variety of loads, delivery times, and transport conditions. Cooperative deliveries work well within a sector with similar delivery requirements, such as hotels organizing food deliveries or the pick up of linens. - **Urban freight transshipment centers **offer the opportunity to consolidate loads, many of which are less than truckloads, and organize their deliveries in a more organized fashion.**** It acts similarly to cross-docking facilities that are used by retailers to organize their regional distribution. They incite a better usage of delivery assets leading to less congestion in central areas. This is linked with higher costs as an additional consolidation stage takes place at the urban freight distribution center, which involves additional delays and undermines the potential profitability of such a strategy. It is also likely the common delivery service does not necessarily meet the requirements of the consignee in terms of delivery time and frequency. - **Local freight stations** are an additional alternative, particularly for high-density areas, by offering a local point of consolidation or deconsolidation for pickups and deliveries. Fewer trips are required, leading to a lower imprint on local parking spaces. This leaves the issue of deliveries from the freight station to the consignee, commonly done on rolling carts. There are also costs linked with the setting and management of the local freight station. - **Designated delivery areas** can be implemented so that delivery vehicles have better access to consignees and ensure that deliveries take place in a less disruptive fashion. Less parking space is available for passenger vehicles. In spite of the availability of delivery areas, the intensity of freight distribution may create a parking demand beyond the capacity of available delivery areas. - **Urban delivery vehicles** can be adapted to better suit the density or urban distribution, which often involves smaller vehicles such as vans and even bicycles. Efforts can also be made to have more energy-efficient vehicles, including [CNG](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2946), which can lead to less energy consumption and lower environmental impacts. However, these vehicles tend to be more expensive, which can be prohibitive for developing economies. Reducing the load unit also leads to more delivery trips. - **Autonomous delivery vehicles** are starting to be deployed, but they still require experimentation. Most of these strategies involve cities in advanced economies and would not apply well in cities in developing countries, which are facing their own array of urban freight distribution issues. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/mitigation-strategies-urban-freight/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/mitigation-strategies-urban-freight/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/mitigation-strategies-urban-freight/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/freight-distribution-strategies-city-logistics/mitigation-strategies-urban-freight/?share=reddit) - --- ### [5.6 - Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/) **Published:** November 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Brian Slack > Intermodal transportation concerns the mobility of passengers or freight from an origin to a destination relying on several modes of transportation. The container has become the dominant intermodal transport unit. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Nature of Intermodalism](#1_The_Nature_of_Intermodalism) - [2. Forms of Intermodalism](#2_Forms_of_Intermodalism) - [3. Containerization](#3_Containerization) - [4. Advantages and Challenges of Containerization](#4_Advantages_and_Challenges_of_Containerization) - [5. Intermodal Transport Costs](#5_Intermodal_Transport_Costs) # 1. The Nature of Intermodalism Most transportation modes are developed independently. Competition between modes tended to produce transportation systems that were **segmented and un-integrated**; in their own silos. Each mode, particularly the carriers that operated them, has sought to exploit its cost, service, reliability, and safety advantages. Carriers try to gain market share and increase revenue by maximizing the line haul under their control. All the modes saw the other modes as competitors, often because of different regulatory regimes and competitive rules. The lack of integration between the modes was also accentuated by **public policy** that has frequently prevented companies from owning firms in other modes (as in the United States before deregulation) or has placed a mode under direct state monopoly control (as in Europe and East Asia). **Modalism** was also favored because of the technical difficulties of transferring goods from one mode to another, thereby incurring additional terminal costs and delays, mainly because the load unit needed to be changed, which is typical for bulk transportation. Since the 1960s, major efforts have been made to [integrate separate transport systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2533) through intermodalism, which took place in [several stages](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8667). The transformation first occurred with the [setting of maritime networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/containerization-four-revolutions/ "The Four Revolutions of Containerization"), which were then better connected with inland networks. From a functional and operational perspective, [three components](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2545) are involved in intermodalism: > **Intermodal transportation**. The movements of passengers or freight from an origin to a destination relying on a sequence of transportation modes. Each carrier is issuing its own ticket (passengers) or contract (freight). Transfers from one mode of transport to another are commonly taking place at a specifically designed terminal. > **Multi-modal transportation**. The movements of passengers or freight from an origin to a destination relying on several modes of transportation using one ticket (passengers) or contract (freight). Technically the same as intermodal transportation, but represents an evolution requiring a higher level of integration between the actors involved such as carriers and terminal operators. > **Transmodal transportation**. The movements of passengers or freight within the same mode of transportation. Although pure transmodal transportation rarely exists and an intermodal operation is often required (e.g. ship to dockside to ship), the purpose is to ensure continuity within the same modal network. Intermodal transportation relies on an **exchange of passengers or freight between two transportation modes**. The term has become more commonly used for freight and container transportation across a sequence of modes. In North America, the term intermodal is also used to refer to containerized rail transportation. With intermodal transportation, what initially began as improving the productivity of shipping evolved into an integrated supply chain management system across modes and the development of [multi-modal transportation networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transmodal-connectivity/ "Intermodal and Transmodal Connectivity"). > **Multi-modal transportation network**. A logistically linked system using two or more transport modes with a single rate. Modes have common handling characteristics, permitting freight (or people) to be transferred between modes during a movement between an origin and a destination. For freight, it also implies that the cargo does not need to be handled, just the load unit, such as a pallet or a container. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/integrated_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C444&ssl=1 "Integrated Transport Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/integrated-transport-systems/its_fragmentation_coordination/)Integrated Transport Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/intermodal_integration.png?resize=900%2C350&ssl=1 "Major Steps in Intermodal Integration | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-integration-steps/intermodal_integration/)Major Steps in Intermodal Integration[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/four_revolutions_containerization.png?resize=900%2C239&ssl=1 "The Four Revolutions of Containerization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/containerization-four-revolutions/four_generations_containerization/)The Four Revolutions of Containerization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/intermodal_transportation_integration.png?resize=900%2C443&ssl=1 "Intermodal Transportation as an Integrative Force | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transport-force/unimodal_intermodal/)Intermodal Transportation as an Integrative Force[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/intermodalism_multimodalism_transmodalism.png?resize=900%2C634&ssl=1 "Intermodalism, Multimodalism and Transmodalism | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodalism-multimodalism-transmodalism/iintermodalism_multimodalism_transmodalism/)Intermodalism Multimodalism and Transmodalism[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/integrated_freight_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C575&ssl=1 "Intermodal and Transmodal Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transmodal-connectivity/intermodal_transmodal_connectivity/)Intermodal and Transmodal Connectivity**Intermodalism** involves using at least two different modes in a trip from an origin to a destination through an [intermodal transport chain](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2551), which permits the [integration of several transportation networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2556). Intermodality is expected to enhance the economic performance of a transport chain by using modes most productively. Thus, the line-haul economies of rail may be exploited for long distances, with the efficiency of trucks providing flexible local pick-up and deliveries. The entire trip is seen as a whole rather than as a series of legs, each marked by an individual operation with separate sets of documentation and rates. This system is organized around the following [conditions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2561): - The **nature and quantity** of the transported cargo usually suitable for intermediate and finished goods are for load units of less than 25 tons. The mode with the lowest capacity usually defines the intermodal load unit. As such, intermodal transportation is constrained by the trucking load unit. - The **sequence of transportation modes** being used must ensure a modal continuity. Intermodal transportation is organized as a sequence of modes, often called an [intermodal transport chain](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transport-chain/ "Intermodal Transport Chain"). The dominant modes supporting intermodalism are trucking, rail, barges, and maritime. Air transportation usually only requires intermodalism (trucking) for its “first and last miles” and is not used in combination with other modes. Additionally, load units used by air transportation are not readily convertible with other modes. - The **origins and destinations** of the movements where distances play an important role, as the longer the distance, the more likely an intermodal transport chain will be used. Distances above 500 km (longer than one day of trucking) usually require intermodal transportation. Shorter distances are usually not suitable for intermodal transportation. - The **value of the cargo** is of intermediate value as low, and high-value shipments are usually less suitable for intermodal transportation. High-value shipments will tend to use the most direct options (such as air cargo), while low-value shipments are usually point-to-point and rely on one mode, such as rail or maritime. - The **frequency of shipments** needs to be continuous and in similar quantities. Intermodal transportation is capital intensive, requiring [specialized equipment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3057) to transfer cargo from one mode to the other. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/intermodal_transport_chain.png?resize=900%2C512&ssl=1 "Intermodal Transport Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transport-chain/intermodal_transport_chain2/)Intermodal Transport Chain[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/conditions_outcomes_intermodal_transport.png?resize=900%2C420&ssl=1 "Conditions and Outcomes of Intermodal Transport | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-conditions-outcomes/condition_outcome_intermodalism/)Conditions and Outcomes of Intermodal Transport# 2. Forms of Intermodalism Intermodalism originated in [maritime transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1323), with the development of the container in the late 1960s, and has since spread to integrate other modes. Unsurprisingly, the maritime sector has been the first mode to pursue containerization. It was the mode most constrained by the time taken to load and unload vessels. A conventional breakbulk cargo ship could spend as much time in a port as at sea. Breakbulk cargoes were handled by stevedores who used ad-hoc means to load, unload, and move cargo between the ships, piers, and warehouses. There were no standard forms of cargo handling and equipment. Containerization permits the **mechanized cargo handling** of diverse types and dimensions placed into boxes of standard sizes. In this way, goods that might have taken days to be loaded or unloaded from a ship can now be handled in a matter of minutes. The emergence of intermodalism has been partly brought about by technology and requires **management units** for freight, such as containers, swap bodies, pallets, or semi-trailers. In the early 20th century, [pallets](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2570) became a common management unit. Still, their relatively small size and lack of a protective frame made their intermodal handling labor-intensive and prone to damage or theft. Better techniques and management units for transferring freight from one mode to another have facilitated intermodal transfers. Early examples include [piggyback](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2575) (TOFC: Trailers On Flat Cars), where truck trailers are placed on rail cars, and LASH (lighter aboard ship), where river barges are placed directly on board sea-going ships. While handling technology has influenced the development of intermodalism, another important factor has been changes in public policy. **Deregulation** in the United States in the early 1980s freed firms from government control and ownership, a policy adopted in many transport markets across the world. Carriers were no longer restricted from owning across modes, which developed a strong impetus towards intermodal cooperation. Shipping lines began to offer **integrated rail and road services** to customers. The advantages of each mode could be exploited in a seamless system, which created multiplying effects. Customers could purchase the service to ship their products from door to door, without being concerned about modal barriers. In many cases, cargo owners were not concerned about the sequence of modes, only that their shipments were carried out in a timely and cost-effective fashion. The most important feature of intermodalism is providing a service with **one ticket** (for passengers) or **one bill of lading** (for freight). With one bill of lading, clients can obtain one through rate, despite transferring goods from one mode to another. This has necessitated a revolution in organization and information control. At the heart of modern intermodalism, information and distribution systems are essential to ensure the safe, reliable, and cost-effective control of freight and passenger movements being transported by several modes. **Electronic Data Interchange** (EDI) was initially developed to assist companies and government agencies (customs documentation) cope with an increasingly complex global transport system. This technology has evolved, and crucial information can be shared across modes with digitalization. Intermodal transport is transforming the medium and long-haul freight flows across the world. Large **integrated transport carriers** provide door-to-door services, such as the high degree of integration between maritime and rail transport in North America. In Europe, intermodal rail services are becoming well-established between the major ports, such as Rotterdam and southern Germany, and between Hamburg and Eastern Europe. Rail shuttles are also making their appearance in China. While intermodal rail transport has been relatively slow to develop in Europe, there are extensive interconnections between barge services and ocean shipping, particularly on the Rhine. Barge shipping offers a low-cost solution to **inland distribution** where navigable waterways penetrate interior markets. The limits of intermodality are imposed by factors of space, time, form, the [network pattern](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2581), the number of nodes and linkages, and the type and characteristics of the vehicles and terminals. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/palletsDCShenzhen.jpg?resize=851%2C639&ssl=1 "Pallets Waiting to be Loaded in a Container, Shenzhen, China | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/pallets-distribution-center-shenzhen/palletsdcshenzhen/)Pallets Waiting to be Loaded in a Container Shenzhen China[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tofc_cofc_train.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Piggyback (TOFC) and Doublestack (COFC) Train Cars | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-tofc-cofc/tofc_cofc/)Piggyback and Doublestack Train Cars[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Triple-Crown.png?resize=900%2C784&ssl=1 "Triple Crown Intermodal Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/triple-crown-intermodal-network/map-triple-crown/)Triple Crown Intermodal Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/multimodal_transport_system2.png?resize=900%2C433&ssl=1 "Multimodal Transport System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/multimodal-transport-system/multimodal_transport_system/)Multimodal Transport System# 3. Containerization > The box (container) is what makes the world go round. The driver of intermodal transportation has undoubtedly been the **container**, which permits easy handling between modal systems. While intermodalism could occur without the container, it would be inefficient and costly. To begin with, a distinction is necessary between containerization and the container. > **Container**. A large standard size metal box into which cargo is packed for shipment aboard specially configured transport modes (ISO 668). It is designed to be moved with common handling equipment enabling high-speed intermodal transfers in economically large units between [ships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2588), [railcars](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1960), [truck chassis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2593), and barges using a minimum of labor. The container, therefore, serves as the load unit rather than the cargo contained therein. The reference size is the 20-foot box of 20 feet long, 8’6″ feet high and 8 feet wide, or 1 **Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit** (TEU). Since most containers are now forty feet long, the term **Forty-foot Equivalent Unit** (FEU) is also used, but less commonly. “Hi cube” containers are also common, and they are one foot higher (9’6″) than the standard. > **Containerization**. Refers to the increasing and generalized use of the container as a load unit for freight transportation. It involves processes where the intermodal container either substitutes cargo from other conveyances, is adopted as a mode supporting freight distribution, or can diffuse spatially as a growing number of transport systems are able to handle containers. Containerization conveys a variety of [benefits](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=24457 "The Benefits of Containerization") to the mobility of freight, namely lower transportation costs, lower inventory costs, and a higher service level, including reliability. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerization_benefits.png?resize=900%2C318&ssl=1 "The Benefits of Containerization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/benefits-containerization/benefits_containerization/)The Benefits of Containerization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0668.JPG?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Panamax Containership at the Port of Le Havre | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/mscdiego-2/mscdiego/)Panamax Containership at the Port of Le Havre[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2012-06-16-101135.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "40-Foot Containers Doublestacked on a Rail Car | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/doublestack-railcar/doublestackrail/)40 Foot Containers Doublestacked on a Rail Car[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/container_hybrid_chassis.jpg?resize=850%2C638&ssl=1 "Hybrid Container Chassis | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/hybrid-container-chassis/container_hybrid_chassis/)Hybrid Container Chassis[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/driving_forces_containerization_intermodalism.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "Driving Forces of Containerization and Intermodalism | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/containerization-intermodalism-driving-forces/containerization_intermodalism/)Driving Forces of Containerization and IntermodalismThe development of intermodal transportation and containerization are mutually inclusive, self-strengthening, and rely on [driving forces](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2598) linked with technology, infrastructures, and management. One of the initial issues concerned the different sizes and dimensions of containers used by shipping lines, a source of much confusion in compiling container shipping statistics. A lift could involve different volumes since different box sizes were involved. As a result, the term TEU (Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit) was first used by Richard F. Gibney in 1969, who worked for the Shipbuilding & Shipping Record, as a comparative measure. Since then, the TEU has remained the standard for containerized traffic, where cargo is measured in volume instead of weight. Using containers shows the complementarity between freight transportation modes by offering a higher fluidity to movements and standardization of loads. The container has substantially contributed to the adoption and diffusion of intermodal transportation, which has led to **profound mutations in the transport sector**. By reducing handling time, labor costs, and packing costs, container transportation allows considerable improvement in the efficiency of transportation. Thus, the relevance of containers is not what they are – simple boxes – but **what they enable; intermodalism**. Globalization could not have taken its current form without containerization. Containers are either made of steel (the most common for maritime containers) or aluminum (particularly for domestic containers), and their structure confers flexibility and hardiness. Another factor behind the [diffusion of the container](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3556) is that an agreement about its base dimensions and latching system was reached through the International Standards Organization (ISO 668) within ten years of its introduction. From this standard, a wide variety of [container sizes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2604) and [specifications](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2608) have been put into use. The container length unit remains the imperial foot even if most countries use the metric system, a legacy that the standard was initially introduced in the United States. However, the [most prevalent container size](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2613 "Composition of the Global Fleet of Containers, 2012") is the **40-foot box**, which in its 2,400 cubic feet and carries, on average, [22 tons of cargo](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2618). However, transporting cargo in a 20-foot container is usually 20% cheaper than transporting cargo in a 40-foot container, but the 40-foot container offers at least twice the volume. Irrespective of the size, a 20-foot container requires the same amount of intermodal movements, even if it takes up about half the space during transport and at terminals. This explains why rates for carrying 20-foot containers are not half those for carrying 40-foot containers. Containers can be designed to carry a wide range of goods, which involves a level of specialization around five main types: - **Standard container**. A container designed to carry a wide variety of general cargo. They are often labeled as dry containers because they carry dry goods either in breakbulk (most common) or bulk (less common). Cargo is loaded and unloaded through a double door, which marks the “backside” of the container. - **Tank container**. A container designed to carry liquids (chemicals or foodstuff). It is composed of a tank surrounded by a structure making it the same size as a standard 20-foot container, including its four latching points. - **Open top container**. A container with an open roof designed to carry cargo too large to be loaded through standard container doors, such as machinery. The container is loaded from the top with a tarpaulin used to cover its contents. - **Flat container**. A container having an open roof and sides designed to carry heavy and oversized cargo. The cargo transported is left exposed to outdoor conditions. - **Refrigerated container**. Also known as a **reefer**, it is a container designed to carry temperature-controlled cargo, often around or below freezing point. It is insulated and equipped with a refrigeration plant maintaining the temperature constant. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/shift_containerized_maritime_transportation.png?resize=900%2C602&ssl=1 "Shifts in Containerized Maritime Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-maritime-transport-shift/shifts_containerized_shipping/)Shifts in Containerized Maritime Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/carrying_capacity_containers.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Carrying Capacity of Containers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-carrying-capacity/container_carrying_capacity/)Carrying Capacity of Containers[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/number_units_weight_20_foot_container.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Units and Weight of Consumption Goods Carried by a 20-Foot Container | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-weighting-cubing-out/container_weighting_cubing/)Number of Units and Weight of Consumption Goods Carried by a 20 Foot ContainerA significant share of international containers is owned by shipping lines that tend to use them to help fill up their ships or by leasing companies using containerized assets for revenue generation. In the United States, a large number of [domestic containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2624) of 53 feet are also used. [Doublestacking of containers on railways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1960) (COFC: Containers On Flat Cars) has doubled the capacity of trains to haul freight with minimal cost increases, thereby improving the competitive position of the railways with regard to trucking for long-haul shipments. While it is true that the maritime container has become the workhorse of international trade, other types of containers are found in certain modes, most notably in the **airline industry**. High labor costs and the slowness of loading planes that require a very rapid turnaround made the industry very receptive to the concept of a loading unit of standard dimensions designed to fit the specific shape of the bellyhold. The maritime container was too heavy and did not fit the rounded configuration of a plane fuselage, and thus a box specific to the needs of the airlines was required. The major breakthrough came with the introduction of wide-bodied aircraft in the late 1970s. Lightweight aluminum boxes, called [unit load devices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2396), could be filled with luggage or parcels and freight, and loaded into the holds of the planes using tracking that requires little human assistance. Containerization represented a r**evolution in the freight transport industry**, facilitating economies of scale and improved handling speed and throughput. Containerized traffic has [surged](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2629) since the 1990s. This underlines the adoption of the container as a dominant means to ship products on international and national markets, particularly for non-bulk commodities, where the container accounts for more than 90% of all movements. Containerization leans on growth factors mainly related to globalization, substitution from breakbulk, and, more recently, the setting of intermediate transshipment hubs. Although containerization initially superimposed itself over existing transportation systems, it created its **own unique system of exclusive modes and terminals**. Thus, the container became a standard unit around which a new transportation system was built. Globalization and containerization are closely interrelated. According to UNCTAD, between 1970 and 1990, trade facilitation measures accounted for 45% of global trade growth, while membership to global trade organizations such as GATT/WTO accounted for another 285%. The container accounted for an additional 790%, exceeding all the other trade growth factors combined. The diffusion and adaptation of transport modes to containerization is an ongoing process that will eventually reach a level of saturation. Containers have thus become the most important component for rail and maritime intermodal transportation. The challenge remains about the choice of modes in an intermodal transport chain as well as minimizing the costs and delays related to moving containers between modes. As intermodal transportation increased and became more complex (e.g. international trade), transactional costs and inefficiencies became increasingly apparent. Innovations involve using [blockchain technology](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8517), distributed electronic ledgers, to support the complex array of transactions and information flows related to intermodal transportation. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/domestic53doublestack.jpg?resize=776%2C583&ssl=1 "Domestic 53 Foot Containers Doublestacked | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/domestic-53-foot-conainer-doublestacked/domestic53doublestack/)Domestic 53 Foot Containers Doublestacked[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_container.jpg?resize=776%2C582&ssl=1 "Air Unit Load Device | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-unit-load-device/air_container/)Air Unit Load Device[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_container_throughput2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Container Throughput | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/world-container-throughput/world_container_throughput/)World Container Throughput 1980 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerization_growth_factors2.png?resize=900%2C446&ssl=1 "Containerization Growth Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/containerization-growth-factors/containerization_growth_factors2/)Containerization Growth Factors# 4. Advantages and Challenges of Containerization Containerization is a key benefit form of cargo transportation, particularly its standardization and flexibility. There are several factors supporting the [advantages of containerization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/containerization-advantages-drawbacks/ "advantages of containerization"). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/advantages_challenges_containerization.png?resize=900%2C521&ssl=1 "Advantages and Challenges of Containerization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Advantages and Challenges of Containerization## a. Standard transport product A container can be handled anywhere in the world as its dimensions are an **ISO standard**. Transfer infrastructures allow all elements (vehicles) of a transport chain to handle it with relative ease. Standardization is a prevalent benefit of containerization as it conveys ubiquity in accessing the distribution system and reduces capital investment risks in modes and terminals. Irrespective of the geographical setting, a container can be handled. The rapid diffusion of containerization was facilitated because its initiator, Malcolm McLean, purposely did not patent his invention. Consequently, all segments of the industry, competitors alike, had access to the standard. It necessitated the construction of specialized ships, lifting equipment, and terminal facilities. Still, in several instances, existing transport modes could be [converted to container transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2648) while a more effective transition to containerization took place. In time, the container became the standard transport unit of global trade. ## b. **Flexibility of usage** A container can transport **a wide variety of goods** ranging from raw materials (coal, wheat), manufactured goods, and cars to frozen products. There are specialized containers for [transporting liquids](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2654) (oil and chemical products) and perishable food items in [refrigerated containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2659) (which now account for 70% of all refrigerated cargo transported). About 3.1 million TEUs of reefers were used in 2019. [Discarded containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2665) are often used as storage, [housing](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2670), office, and retail structures. As an indivisible unit, the container carries a [unique identification number](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2675) and a [size type code](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2707), enabling transport management not in terms of loads, but in terms of **units**. This identification number is also used to ensure that it is carried by an authorized agent of the cargo owner and is [verified at terminal gates](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2681), increasingly in an automated fashion. Computerized management considerably reduces waiting times and allows the location of containers (or batches of containers) to be known at any time. It assigns containers according to priority, destination, and available transport capacities. Transport companies book slots in maritime or railway convoys to distribute containers under their responsibility. The container has become a [production, transport, and distribution unit](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2686). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/container_identification_system2.png?resize=900%2C494&ssl=1 "Container Identification System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-identification-system/container_identification_system2/)Container Identification System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerbarge.jpg?resize=601%2C402&ssl=1 "Containers being Unloaded to a Barge, Shanghai 1992 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-barge-shanghai/containerbarge/)Ad Hoc Intermodalism Containers being Unloaded to a Barge Shanghai 1992[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tankcontainer.jpg?resize=850%2C534&ssl=1 "20-Foot Tank Containers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/tank-containers/tankcontainer/)20 Foot Tank Containers[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_3632.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Reefer Containership entering the Zeebrugge Harbor | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/reefer-containership-zeebrugge/reefers/)Reefer Containership entering the Zeebrugge Harbor[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Bus-shelter-2006.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Container Recycled as a Bus Shelter, South Africa | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-bus-shelter/recycled_container_sa/)Container Recycled as a Bus Shelter South Africa[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_5912.JPG?w=900&ssl=1 "Containerized Housing Units, Le Havre, France | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/containerized-housing-units/container_housing_lehavre/)Containerized Housing Units Le Havre France[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/container_transport_production_distribution.png?resize=900%2C538&ssl=1 "The Container as a Transport, Production and Distribution Unit | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-transport-production-distribution/container_transport_production_distribution/)The Container as a Transport Production Distribution Unit[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/common_iso_container_size_type.png?resize=900%2C458&ssl=1 "Common ISO Container Size and Type Codes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-iso-codes/common_iso_container_size_type/)Common ISO Container Size and Type Codes## c. **Economies of scale** Relatively to bulk, container transportation reduces transport costs considerably, about 20 times less. While before containerization, maritime transport costs could account for between 5 and 10% of the retail price. This share has been [reduced to about 1.5%](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2692), depending on the goods transported. The main factors behind cost reductions reside in the speed and flexibility incurred by containerization. Like other transportation modes, container shipping benefits from economies of scale using [larger containerships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2232). The 6,000 TEU [landmark](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2161) was surpassed in 1996 with the Regina Maersk, and in 2006, the [Emma Maersk](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2206) surpassed the 12,000 TEU landmark. By 2013, ships of more than 18,000 TEU became available, and by 2022, the market saw the introduction of 22,000 TEU ships. A 5,000 TEU containership has operating costs per container 50% lower than a 2,500 TEU vessel. Moving from 4,000 TEU to 12,000 TEU reduces operating costs per container by a factor of 20%, which is very significant, considering the additional volume involved. System-wide, the outcome has been cost reductions of about 35% using containerization. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/container_shipping_costs_cargo_value.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Container Shipping Costs and Cargo Value | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Container Shipping Costs and Cargo Value## d. **Operational velocity** Transshipment operations are minimal and rapid, which increases the utilization level of the modal assets and port productivity. A modern container ship has a monthly capacity of 3 to 6 times more than a conventional cargo ship of the same tonnage. This is notably attributable to gains in **transshipment time,** as a container crane can handle roughly 30 movements (loading or unloading) per hour. Port turnaround times have thus been reduced from an average of 3 weeks in the 1960s to **less than 24 hours** since it is uncommon for a ship to be fully loaded or unloaded at a port call along regular container shipping routes. It takes, on average, between 10 and 20 hours to unload 1,000 TEUs compared to 70 and 100 hours for a similar quantity of bulk freight. With larger containerships, more cranes can be allocated to transshipment; 3 to 4 cranes can service a 5,000 TEU containership, while ships of 10,000 TEU can be serviced by 5 to 6 cranes. The latest generation of 18,000 to 24,000 TEU containerships requires 6 to 9 cranes to be effectively serviced. This implies that larger ship sizes do not have many differences in loading or unloading time, but this requires more yard equipment. A regular freighter can spend between half and two-thirds of its useful life in ports. With less time in ports, containerships can spend more time at sea generating revenue. Automatic Identification Service (AIS) data shows that a containership spends around 40% of its time stationary. Further, on average, containerships are 35% faster than regular freighter ships (19 knots versus 14 knots). With all the above velocity factors taken into consideration, it is estimated that containerization has reduced travel time for freight by a **factor of 80%**. ## e. **Warehousing and security** The **container is its own warehouse** and limits damage risks for the goods it carries because it is resistant to shocks and weather conditions. Therefore, the packaging of goods it contains is simpler, less expensive, and can occupy less volume. This reduces insurance costs since cargo is less prone to damage during transport. Besides, containers fit together, permitting stacking on ships, trains (doublestacking), and on the ground. The stacking height of containers is constrained by a permissible weight of 192 tons. With 30 tons per container, this would correspond to a pile of 6 containers in height. However, due to the operational complexity of high piles, staking usually superimposes three to four loaded and six empty containers on the ground. The contents of the container are anonymous to outsiders as containers can only be opened at the origin, customs, or destination. Theft of valuable commodities is considerably reduced, resulting in lower insurance premiums. It was a serious issue at ports before containerization, as longshoremen had direct access to the cargo they handled. Even if there are numerous advantages to the usage of containers, some [challenges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2638) are also evident. ## f. **Site constraints** Containerization implies a large **consumption of terminal space**. To fully load or unload a containership of 5,000 TEU, a minimum of 12 hectares of stacking space is required. Conventional port areas are often inadequate for the location of container transshipment infrastructures, particularly because of draft issues as well as required space for terminal operations. Many container vessels require a draft of at least 14 meters (45 feet), and the later generation of larger ships requires at least 15 meters (50 feet). The site constraints imposed by containerization have incited the development of new terminal facilities and migration towards better-suited sites. A similar challenge applies to container rail terminals; many were relocated at the periphery of metropolitan areas. Consequently, major container handling facilities have new location criteria where suitable sites are only found at the periphery and, at times, far from the original site. ## g. **Infrastructure costs and stacking** Containerization is a **capital-intensive endeavor**. Container handling infrastructures, such as gantry cranes, yard equipment, road, and rail access, represent important investments for port authorities and terminal operators. For instance, the costs of a modern container crane (portainer) range from 4 to 10 million USD depending on the size. Several developing economies, as well as smaller ports, face the challenge of finding capital for these infrastructure investments. The arrangement of containers, both at [terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2701) and on modes ([containerships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2713) and [double-stack trains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1960)), is a complex problem. The possible stacking density is related to available yard space and equipment. When loading with a reachstacker or a gantry, it becomes imperative to ensure that containers that must be taken out first are not below a pile. Further, containerships must be loaded to avoid restacking during port calls where containers are loaded and unloaded. ## h. **Thefts and losses** While many theft issues have been addressed because of the freight anonymity a container confers, it remains an issue for movements outside terminals where the contents of the container can be assessed based on its final destination. The World Shipping Council estimated that, on average, 2,300 containers are lost at sea each year under normal operating conditions. Still, these figures are subject to significant fluctuations since they are associated with single incidents. [Rough weather is the primary cause of container losses](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/one-apus-cargo-loss-2020/ "Rough weather is the major cause of container losses"), but improper container stacking also plays a role (distribution of heavy containers). Yet, the loss rate remains very low since about 250 million containers are shipped every year. During an intermodal transport chain, the carrier or the terminal operator is responsible for any thefts or losses occurring during their handling. ## i. **Empty travel** Carriers need containers to maintain their operations along the port networks they service. Containers brought into a market through a port must eventually be relocated, regardless of whether full or empty. On average, containers will spend about 56% of their 10 to 15 years [lifespan](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2719) **idle or being repositioned empty**, which is not generating any income but conveys a cost that is part of the shipping rates. Either full or empty, a container takes the same amount of space on the ship or in a storage yard and takes the same amount of time to be transshipped. Due to a divergence between production and consumption, reflected in the balance of trade, it is uncommon to see equilibrium in the distribution of containers. About 2.5 million TEUs of empty containers are stored in yards and depots worldwide, underlining the issue of the movement and accumulation of empty containers. They represent about 20% of the global container port throughput and the volume carried by maritime shipping lines. Most [container trade is imbalanced](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2724); thus, containers accumulate in some places and must be shipped back to locations with deficits, mostly those with a strong export function. This is particularly the case for [American container shipping](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2730). As a result, shipping lines waste substantial amounts of time and money in [repositioning empty containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9481). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_3873.JPG?w=900&ssl=1 "Portainer, APM Terminal, Port Newark (New York) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/portainer-apm-terminal-newark/apm_new-york-crane/)Portainer APM Terminal Port Newark New York[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0224-scaled.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Stacked Upper Deck of a Containership | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-stacked-ship/img_0224/)Stacked Upper Deck of a Containership[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/one_opus_cargo_2020.jpeg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "ONE Apus Cargo Loss, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/one-apus-cargo-loss-2020/one_apus_2-1536x1152/)ONE Apus Cargo Loss 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerized_cargo_flows_trade_routes.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Containerized Cargo Flows along Major Trade Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-cargo-flows-trade-routes/containerized_flows/)Containerized Cargo Flows along Major Trade Routes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/na_containerized_trade_asia.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "North American Containerized Trade with Asia | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/north-america-asia-container-trade/na_containerized_trade_asia/)North American Containerized Trade with Asia 1995 2020## j. **Illicit trade** By its confidential character, the container is a common instrument used in the illicit trade of counterfeit goods, drugs, and weapons. At the global level, only 2 to 5% of all containers handled at ports are manually inspected by customs, leaving opportunities for **illicit cargoes**. This share can go as low as 1% for several large European ports. Manually inspecting a container requires physical resources such as inspection areas as well as labor resources. Thus, assessing if a container should be physically inspected is the outcome of careful considerations related to its origin, the customs declaration, the carrier, and the cargo owner. Concerns have also been raised about containers being used for terrorism. These fears have given rise to regulations to counter the illegal use of containers. In 2003, following US inspection requirements, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) introduced regulations regarding the security of port sites and the vetting of workers in the shipping industry. The United States established a 24-hour rule, requiring all shipments destined for the United States to receive clearance from US authorities 24 hours before the vessel’s departure. In 2008, the US Congress passed a regulation requiring all US-bound containers to be electronically scanned at the foreign loading port before departure. These measures incur additional costs and delays that many in the industry oppose. Yet, the advantages of containerization have far outweighed its drawbacks, transforming the global freight transport system and, along with it, the global economy. # 5. Intermodal Transport Costs A [relationship between transport costs, distance, and modal choice](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1801) has long been observed. With the three options available, road transport is usually used for short distances (below 500 km), railway transport for average distances (from 500 to 750 km), and maritime transport for long distances (above 750 km). According to the geographical setting, variations of modal choice are observed, but figures tend to show a growth in the range of trucking. However, intermodalism allows combining modes and finding a less costly alternative than a unimodal solution. It is also linked with a [higher average value of the cargo being carried](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2741) since intermodal transportation is related to more complex and sophisticated value chains. As a result, the efficiency of contemporary transport systems rests as much on their **capacity to route freight** as on their **capacity to transship it**, but each of these functions has a cost that must be reduced. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_modal_choice_transport_costs2.png?resize=900%2C513&ssl=1 "Distance, Modal Choice and Transport Cost | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distance-modal-choice-transport-cost/distance_modal_choice_transport_costs2/)Distance Modal Choice and Transport Cost[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/intermodal_transportation_cost_function2.png?resize=900%2C511&ssl=1 "Intermodal Transportation Cost Function | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-cost-function/intermodal_transportation_cost_function2/)Intermodal Transportation Cost Function[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/time_cost_moving_40_container2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Time and Cost for Moving a 40 Foot Container between the American East Coast and Western Europe | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-cost-time-united-states-europe/time_cost_40_foot_container/)Time and Cost for Moving a 40 Foot Container between the American East Coast and Western Europe[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/impacts_river_sea_shipping2.png?resize=900%2C644&ssl=1 "Impacts of River / Sea Shipping on a Transport Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/river-sea-shipping/impacts_river_sea_shipping/)Impacts of River Sea Shipping on a Transport Chain--- The [intermodal transportation cost](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2748) implies considering several types of transportation costs for the routing of freight from its origin to its destination, which involves a [variety of shipments, transshipment, and warehousing activities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2754). It considers a **logistic** according to organized transport chains where production and consumption systems are linked to transport systems. Numerous technical improvements, such as [river/sea shipping](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2759) and better rail and road transport integration, have been set to reduce interchange costs. Still, containerization remains the most significant achievement so far. The concept of [economies of scale](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5626) applies particularly well to container shipping. However, container shipping is also affected by [diseconomies involving maritime and inland transport systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-ship-scale-economies-diseconomies/ "Economies and Diseconomies of Scale in Container Shipping") as well as transshipment. While maritime container shipping companies have been pressing for larger ships, transshipment, and inland distribution systems have tried to cope with increased quantities of containers. Thus, land transport costs remain significant despite significantly reducing maritime transport costs. Between half and two-thirds of total transport costs for a TEU are accounted for by land transport. **Public policy** is also playing a role through concerns over the dominant position of road transport in modal competition and the resultant concerns over congestion, safety, and environmental impacts. In Europe, policies have been introduced to induce a shift of freight and passengers from the roads to environmentally more efficient modes. Intermodal transport is seen as an option that could work in certain situations. For example, in Switzerland, laws stipulate that all freight crossing through the country must be placed on the railways to reduce air pollution in alpine valleys. The European Union promotes intermodal alternatives by subsidizing rail and shipping infrastructure and increasing road user costs. Since intermodal transportation is mostly the outcome of private initiatives seeking to capture market opportunities, it remains to be seen to what extent public strategies can be reconciled with a global intermodal transport system, which is flexible and footloose. While economies of scale enable to reduce maritime unit costs, [inland intermodal transportation costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2780) account for about 50% of the total costs if terminal costs are included. With the deregulation and privatization trends that began in the 1980s, containerization, which was already well established in the maritime sector, could **spread inland**. The shipping lines were among the first to exploit the intermodal opportunities that deregulation permitted. They could offer door-to-door rates to customers by integrating rail services, and local truck pick-up and delivery in a seamless network. To achieve this, they leased trains, managed rail terminals, and in some cases, purchased trucking firms. In this way, they could serve customers by offering door-to-door service from suppliers located around the world. The move inland also led to significant developments, most notably the double-stacking of containers on rail cars. This produced imp**ortant competitive advantages** for intermodal rail transport and favored the development of [inland terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139). It also required various forms of transloading between maritime and domestic container units. After more than half a century of intermodal development, the geography of freight terminals and supply chains has been transformed by sequences of modes and terminals that are time and cost-efficient. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/daily_operating_expenses_teu.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Daily Operating Expenses for Containerships per TEU | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/operating-costs-containerships/daily_operating_expenses_teu/)Daily Operating Expenses for Containerships per TEU[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economies_diseconomies_container_shipping2.png?resize=900%2C467&ssl=1 "Economies and Diseconomies of Scale in Container Shipping | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-ship-scale-economies-diseconomies/economies_diseconomies_container_shipping/)Economies and Diseconomies of Scale in Container Shipping[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/container_transport_costs2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Container Transport Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-transport-costs/container_transport_costs/)Container Transport Costs--- ## Related Topics - [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3009) - [6.3- Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3235) - [Inland Ports / Dry Port (PEMP)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139) - [B.13 – The Containerization of Commodities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8394) - [Containers (PEMP)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9481) - [Terminals and Terminal Operators (PEMP)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3904) - [5.3 – Rail Transportation and Pipelines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1759) - [1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1000) ## Bibliography - Bohlman, M.T. (2001) “ISO’s container standards are nothing but good news”, ISO Bulletin, Geneva: International Standards Organization, pp. 12–15. - DeBoer, D.J. (1992). Piggyback and Containers: A History of Rail Intermodal on America’s Steel Highway, San Marino, CA: Golden West Books. - Donovan, A. (2000) “Intermodal Transportation in Historical Perspective”, Transportation Law Journal, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp 317-344. - Fremont, A. (2007) Le monde en boîtes. Conteurisation et mondialisation, Paris: Les collections de l’Inrets. - Fremont, A. (2013) Containerization and Intermodal Transportation, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Hayuth, Y. (1987) Intermodality: Concept and Practice, Essex: Lloyds of London Press. - Hoel, L.A., G. Guiliano and M.D. Meyer (eds) (2010) Intermodal Transportation: Moving Freight in a Global Economy. Washington, DC: Eno Transportation Foundation. - Levinson, M. (2006) The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, Princeton: Princeton University Press. - Levinson, M. (2020) Outside the Box: How Globalization Changed from Moving Stuff to Spreading Ideas, Princeton: Princeton University Press. - Muller, G. (1999) Intermodal Freight Transportation, 4th Edition, Eno Transportation Foundation. - Slack B. (1998) “Intermodal Transportation” in B.S. Hoyle and R. Knowles (eds) Modern Transport Geography, Second Edition, Wiley: Chichester, pp. 263-290. - Spychalski, J.C. and E. Thomchick (2009) “Drivers of Intermodal Rail Freight Growth in North America”, EJTIR, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 63-82. - van Klink A. and G.C. van den Berg (1998) “Gateways and intermodalism” Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 6, pp. 1-9. - World Shipping Council (2023) Containers Lost at Sea – 2023 Update. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Time Restricted Curb-Side Parking for Food Pickup](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/time-restricted-curb-side-parking-food/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/time_restricted_curbside_food_pickup.png?resize=900%2C379&ssl=1 "Time Restricted Curb-Side Parking for Food Pickup | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Time Restricted Curb Side Parking for Food Pickup*Photo: Dr. Tom O’Brien, 2021.* At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, government-mandated restrictions prohibited indoor dining. Many restaurants responded by offering home deliveries and curbside pickup. To adapt, infrastructure managers allowed time-limited curbside pickup for customers. COVID-19 is an event that has demonstrated that, while not all stakeholders have equal influence, all play a critical role in the efficient and safe distribution of goods and management at the curb. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/time-restricted-curb-side-parking-food/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/time-restricted-curb-side-parking-food/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/time-restricted-curb-side-parking-food/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/time-restricted-curb-side-parking-food/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Waste Management Truck by the Curb](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/waste-management-truck-curb/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/waste_management_truck.jpg?resize=780%2C438&ssl=1 "Waste Management Truck by the Curb | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Waste Management Truck by the Curb*Photo: Dr. Tom O’Brien, 2021.* A waste management truck maintaining the cleanliness of the city is stopped by the curb, facing the opposite direction of traffic. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/waste-management-truck-curb/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/waste-management-truck-curb/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/waste-management-truck-curb/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/waste-management-truck-curb/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Changing the Number of Street Lanes to Accommodate Business Needs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/number-street-lanes-business/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/changing_street_lanes_business.png?resize=900%2C715&ssl=1 "Changing the Number of Street Lanes to Accommodate Business Needs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Changing the Number of Street Lanes to Accommodate Business NeedsThe number of lanes has been reduced to accommodate business needs, allowing restaurants to set up outdoor dining to comply with government-mandated restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/number-street-lanes-business/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/number-street-lanes-business/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/number-street-lanes-business/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/number-street-lanes-business/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Distributor Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/distributor-stakeholder-influence/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distributor_stakeholder_influence.png?resize=900%2C388&ssl=1 "Distributor Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence | The Geography of Transport Systems ")*Source: Conway, A., & Williamson, J. (2018). Complete Streets Considerations for Freight and Emergency Vehicle Operations. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.* ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/distributor-stakeholder-influence/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/distributor-stakeholder-influence/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/distributor-stakeholder-influence/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/distributor-stakeholder-influence/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Planner and Governance Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/planner-governance-stakeholder-relationships-interests-influence/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/planner_governance_source_influence.png?resize=900%2C167&ssl=1 "Planner and Governance Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Planner and Governance Stakeholder Relationships Interests and Different Sources of Influence*Source: Adapted from Stakeholders, Conflicting Interests and Governance in Port Clusters by Peter W. de Langen from Devolution, Port Governance and Port Performance.* ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/planner-governance-stakeholder-relationships-interests-influence/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/planner-governance-stakeholder-relationships-interests-influence/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/planner-governance-stakeholder-relationships-interests-influence/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/planner-governance-stakeholder-relationships-interests-influence/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Infrastructure Manager Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/infrastructure-manager-stakeholder-relationships-interests-influence/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/infrastructure_manager_influence.png?resize=900%2C207&ssl=1 "Infrastructure Manager Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Infrastructure Manager Stakeholder Relationships Interests and Different Sources of Influence### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/infrastructure-manager-stakeholder-relationships-interests-influence/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/infrastructure-manager-stakeholder-relationships-interests-influence/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/infrastructure-manager-stakeholder-relationships-interests-influence/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/infrastructure-manager-stakeholder-relationships-interests-influence/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Consumer Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/consumer-stakeholder-relationships-interests-different-influence/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/consumer_stakeholder_source_influence.png?resize=900%2C367&ssl=1 "Consumer Stakeholder Relationships, Interests and Different Sources of Influence | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Consumer Stakeholder Relationships Interests and Different Sources of Influence*Source: Adapted from Conway, A., & Williamson, J. (2018). Complete Streets Considerations for Freight and Emergency Vehicle Operations. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.* ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/consumer-stakeholder-relationships-interests-different-influence/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/consumer-stakeholder-relationships-interests-different-influence/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/consumer-stakeholder-relationships-interests-different-influence/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/consumer-stakeholder-relationships-interests-different-influence/?share=reddit) - --- ### [City Logistics Stakeholder Categories](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/city-logistics-stakeholder-categories/) **Published:** March 17, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/city_logistics_stakeholder_categories.png?resize=900%2C392&ssl=1 "City Logistics Stakeholder Categories | The Geography of Transport Systems ")City Logistics Stakeholder CategoriesThe four categories of stakeholders are: Consumers, Infrastructure Managers, Planners and Regulators, and Distributors. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/city-logistics-stakeholder-categories/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/city-logistics-stakeholder-categories/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/city-logistics-stakeholder-categories/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/stakeholder-relationships-city-logistics/city-logistics-stakeholder-categories/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.11 – Third-Party Logistics Services Providers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/third-party-logistics-services-providers/) **Published:** March 16, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue UNDER CONSTRUCTION CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [a. Role and Function](#a_Role_and_Function) - [b. The System of Logistical Services](#b_The_System_of_Logistical_Services) - [c. Integration in City Logistics](#c_Integration_in_City_Logistics) # a. **Role and Function** Intermodal transport can be described as the transport of merchandise by at least two transport modes with a minimum of one stage being made by train, by truck, or by maritime modes. In other words, it is a cargo unit that is transferred from a transport mode to another. The optimal combination of modes allows transporters to achieve what is known as economies of scope. In a majority of cases, the first and/or last steps of the cargo itinerary consist of truck transportation and are to be minimized. More than ever, delivery firms’ activities are based on intermodal transport to **optimize delivery times and, in turn, their overall efficiency**. Own account versus for hire. Services offered. # b. The System of Logistical Services The UPS system is mostly aimed at servicing businesses since 80% of the traffic handled is business-to-business. To be effective, UPS relied on the efficiency of its distribution system. Reliability and efficiency are key issues in the establishment and management of freight distribution systems leaning on parcels. Optimal locations for the hubs are sought, as well as the possible delivery routes to avoid unnecessary movements, congestion, and assure timely deliveries. Every single parcel has to go through the UPS network regardless of its destination. It could be bound for the other side of the planet or addressed to the neighbor; the parcel will have to go through the distribution system, which has a hub-and-spoke structure. This distribution system involves three primary functions: - **Consolidation.** Collection of cargo assigned to specific routes. The cargo is then assembled at the closest distribution center. - **Distribution**. The distribution function works on a hub-to-hub basis. Depending on the distance involved, the mode used between hubs will either be trucking or air. Trucks are commonly used for distances less than 400 miles (600 km). - **Last-mile**. This step is the inverse of consolidation, as parcels have to be delivered to each individual destination. Fragmentation is commonly combined with consolidation, as a delivery truck route can be integrated with a pickup route. This can be achieved only with a high level of control on the logistical chain. In instances where there is not enough density to justify a commitment of distribution assets, a local contractor will cover the last mile. # c. Integration in City Logistics Attention at providing new distribution services and Internet-based activities. The emergence of e-commerce is a significant growth segment The logistical expertise developed represents a major growth segment. These services cover a wide array of logistical activities including quick air or inexpensive ground delivery, global trade financing, Web retailing and call centers, warehousing and supply-chain management. All the major international transportation modes, namely containerized maritime shipping, have been integrated within distribution strategies. Non-Vessel Operating Common Carrier, implying booking large volumes of slots on containerships. Using its existing infrastructures and management capabilities to expand in new business opportunities. Strategic alliances with major manufacturers and distributors **takd over the management of the supply chain**. Even large multinational corporations have difficulties managing their complex supply chains, since globalization has tremendously expanded their length and complexity. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/third-party-logistics-services-providers/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/third-party-logistics-services-providers/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/third-party-logistics-services-providers/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/third-party-logistics-services-providers/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.10 – Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/) **Published:** March 16, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Heleen Buldeo Rai, Sabrina Touami and Dr. Laetitia Dablanc > Automation for urban deliveries can be classified as sidewalk robots, road robots, and drones. They employ air or road infrastructure and differ in speed, automation level, size, and carrying capacity. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Advantages of vehicle automation](#1_Advantages_of_vehicle_automation) - [2. Autonomous Vehicle Types for Urban Deliveries](#2_Autonomous_Vehicle_Types_for_Urban_Deliveries) - [3. Autonomous Vehicle Scenarios for Urban Deliveries](#3_Autonomous_Vehicle_Scenarios_for_Urban_Deliveries) - [4. Challenges of Vehicle Automation for Urban Deliveries](#4_Challenges_of_Vehicle_Automation_for_Urban_Deliveries) # 1. Advantages of vehicle automation Automation promises many advantages for urban deliveries, including more **efficient use of space**, **less energy consumption**, **improved delivery times**, as well as **reduced costs**. As opposed to conventional vehicles, automation reduces parking requirements, particularly when drivers are manually unloading their vehicles during a delivery. This underlines the potential of reducing the space used by urban deliveries. Driverless vehicles have more capacity for the same volume, providing additional benefits in terms of load factors. With automation, fewer vehicles are needed to serve the same mobility needs and relieve congestion and its associated time delays. Automation allows vehicles a better optimization of their routing for each delivery loop and mitigates energy consumption accordingly. Cost savings for urban goods transport are expected to be quite significant due to reductions in labor costs. A McKinsey report published in 2018 found that autonomous vehicles could reduce delivery costs in cities by approximately 10% to 40%. A growing body of evidence underlines that autonomous vehicles are **safer than conventional vehicles**. They are programmed to avoid accidents and monitor all relevant context conditions autonomously and continuously to stay clear of obstacles. Removing human error, which causes about 90% of all vehicle accidents, is an additional benefit. However, some situations can rely on complex moral decisions, such as “the lesser of two evils” paradox. Experiments like MIT’s Moral Machine used crowdsourced surveys to create ethical guidelines for automation. This platform presents respondents with collision situations in which vehicles either stay in their course and hit obstacles on their path or swerve and hit something else. Accordingly, respondents were asked to judge which outcomes are more acceptable and which ones are less. Most respondents elected to sacrifice individuals to save larger groups, and most respondents spared women over men. Besides, dogs were more likely to be spared than cats, but dogs were also spared more likely than criminals. Diverging perspectives among respondents can be associated with geography and culture. Autonomous vehicles can contribute to **lower environmental emissions and noise** since they rely on electrification. Autonomous delivery vehicles have the potential to reduce energy consumption and CO2 emissions by replacing internal combustion engine delivery vans and even when replacing electric vans. Regulations, public opinion, and technology costs will determine the speed at which different countries will implement autonomous vehicles for urban deliveries. # 2. Autonomous Vehicle Types for Urban Deliveries Automation is not uniformly applied, but more as a **sequence of improvements over [five levels](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/forms-of-transport-automation/ "Forms of Transport Automation")**: 1. The driver monitors the driving environment and is assisted in performing lateral motion control (e.g., steering) or longitudinal motion control (e.g., brake and throttle). 2. The driver monitors the driving environment and is assisted in performing lateral and longitudinal motion control. 3. An automated driving system performs all dynamic tasks of driving, but the driver should be able to take control of the vehicle. 4. An automated driving system performs all dynamic tasks of driving in certain conditions (e.g. highways), either occupied or unoccupied. 5. An automated driving system performs all dynamic tasks of driving in all conditions, either occupied or unoccupied. For urban goods transport, several types of autonomous vehicles are [classified in a typology](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries-2/ "Typology of Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries"). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_automation.png?resize=900%2C455&ssl=1 "Forms of Transport Automation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Forms of Transport Automation![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/typology_autonomous_vehicles_urban_deliveries2.png?resize=900%2C467&ssl=1 "Typology of Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Typology of Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries## Use of Infrastructure Autonomous vehicles employ **two types of infrastructure**: air and road. **Autonomous aerial delivery** vehicles, also called “unmanned aerial vehicles” or “drones”, were initially introduced for military purposes. Because of their ability to reach difficult and remote areas, they have the potential for delivery services. Two main types are tested for delivery: multirotor drones (or “quadcopters”, “hexacopters”, “octocopters”) that are popular because of their maneuverability and hybrid drones with propellers and wings that increase their range. ## Transport speed **Autonomous ground delivery vehicles** require a well-designed and maintained land infrastructure. These vehicles can be divided into **sidewalk robots** and **road robots**. Sidewalk robots share pedestrian areas with other users. In many countries and especially in the United States, start-ups target university campuses to deploy these robots. Such environments are of interest because of their layout, but also because students are a suitable market, given that they are more smartphone adept and open to new technologies. The speed of autonomous delivery vehicles differs depending on the type of infrastructure. Multirotor drones have a maximum speed of sixty kilometers per hour, while hybrid drones can go up to 120 kilometers per hour. For pedestrian safety reasons, sidewalk robots do not exceed six kilometers per hour. Road robots go much faster and have performance levels similar to regular vehicles, between 60 and 90 km/hr. ## Automation level Technology allows autonomous delivery vehicles to reach their destination while avoiding obstacles through different levels of automation. Currently, drones have an automation level between three and four, meaning that they can make some decisions, but human supervision remains necessary. Semi-autonomous sidewalk robots also travel autonomously but are supervised by operators who take control if the situation warrants. They operate alongside them, at the same speed, carrying a full load of parcels. Both low-speed and high-speed road robots have reached an automation level of four, implying that they do not require human assistance in most circumstances. ## Size and carrying capacity The **size and carrying capacity** of autonomous vehicles are highly related. While drones carry up to five kilograms, semi-autonomous sidewalk robots generally have a capacity between 10 and 35 kilograms, up to a maximum of fifty kilograms. Such vehicles have space for one parcel, which allows them to deliver one consignee at a time. Follower sidewalk robots can carry a load of up to 300 kilograms. Low-speed road robots are smaller and lighter than regular vans but have a higher carrying capacity because they do not require a driver cabin. The design of high-speed road robots is based on regular vans that are either automated or modified to accommodate autonomous deliveries. Their carrying capacity is high as well. The type of products carried by these different vehicles ranges widely, from prepared meals and groceries to regular non-food parcels of varying urgency. # 3. Autonomous Vehicle Scenarios for Urban Deliveries The use cases in which autonomous vehicles are deployed for urban goods transport differ. Within an e-commerce context, the [eight most common scenarios](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/ "Typology of Autonomous Vehicles Scenarios for Urban Deliveries") can be conceptualized. Each of these scenarios consists of a vehicle or combination of vehicles, as well as consumer destinations. Departure points for deliveries are either post offices, stores, or warehouses, which are either closer to or more remote from consumer destinations: - The **follower sidewalk robot scenario** (1) allows delivery workers to be assisted by autonomous delivery vehicles to carry out deliveries from local post offices to consignees’ homes. - Sidewalk robots are represented in scenarios (2) to (4). In scenario (2), the **van-robot model** uses vans that are specifically designed to carry a number of sidewalk robots. The van is loaded in a distribution center, drives to a specific point within a three-kilometer radius of the delivery locations, parks, and deploys the robots. Robots spread out across the radius to deliver to one consignee and return back to the van, which returns to the distribution center once robots are recollected. Labeled as a “mothership”, the van acts as a mobile hub avoiding the costs of a fixed urban distribution center. - In scenario (3), the **sidewalk robot model**, sidewalk robots carry out deliveries from local businesses, such as restaurants, grocery stores, and pharmacies, directly to consumers within a three-kilometer radius. Once a consumer order is placed via a smartphone application, in-store workers prepare the order and load the robot for delivery. - For scenario (4), the **robot-cargo bike model** combines sidewalk robots with cargo bikes to carry out deliveries from local retail stores. In this multimodal delivery model, one cargo bike carries a few robots to a specific point close to consignees. - **Road robots** are represented in scenarios (5) and (6). These robots can travel further and faster and deliver more consignees at once. Their large carrying capacity allows for storing different orders in separate compartments. These scenarios have two different starting points, from a distribution center further away from the urban area in scenario (5), the **warehouse-road robot model**, and local retailers, such as restaurants, grocery stores, and pharmacies in scenario (6), the **store-road robot model**. - Drones are represented in scenarios (7) and (8). Scenario (7), the **van-drone model**, combines vans equipped with precision technology and drones. Ford Europe proposes this combination: vans drive into urban areas, and drones carry out the final deliveries to consumers. - Finally, scenario (8), the **drone model**, consists of drone deliveries from local retailers such as restaurants, grocery stores, and pharmacies directly to consumers. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/typology_autonomous_vehicles_urban_deliveries.png?resize=900%2C876&ssl=1 "Typology of Autonomous Vehicles Scenarios for Urban Deliveries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Typology of Autonomous Vehicles Scenarios for Urban Deliveries# 4. Challenges of Vehicle Automation for Urban Deliveries The speed at which different countries will implement autonomous vehicles for urban deliveries depends on three factors: **regulations**, **public opinion**, and the **costs of the applied technology**. Currently, regulations do not properly address autonomous vehicles. Although drafting regulations and testing vehicles occur simultaneously, large-scale implementation of vehicle automation still requires considerable developments of the regulatory framework. This is fundamental to ensure the fair distribution of societal advantages and to encourage more sustainable applications. Such efforts can contribute to improving public opinion, which remains largely skeptical about technological change. Through attitudinal surveys and pilot testing, researchers and companies try to scope expectations and perceived benefits and drawbacks of vehicle automation among the general public. For urban deliveries, particular efforts are made in the design of vehicles. Sidewalk robots that share the space with pedestrians are designed in a way that inspires a positive and nonthreatening perception by those they encounter. Yet, autonomous vehicle costs, although largely depending on the vehicle type and developer, remain high. For urban deliveries, the costs for autonomous delivery vehicles are balanced out by costs for labor. As the cost of labor increases, technology becomes relatively more affordable and accelerates the transition to vehicle automation. The question remains as if and how urban delivery concepts based on automation can create **a positive business case**. Other challenges to the large-scale implementation of autonomous vehicles include **adapting infrastructure** and issues with **liability** and **privacy**. In terms of infrastructure, ongoing tests and implementations indicate that streets and sidewalks in some Asian and North American cities are more suitable to accommodate autonomous vehicles than in European cities. To ease the testing and implementation, companies are collaborating with university campuses as well. Issues related to liability emerge because of third-party involvement in the design of safety systems, causing autonomous vehicles to face greater vulnerability to lawsuits involving product liability. Should decisions be prioritized by the likelihood, severity, and quality of life effects of the type of injury, or by the number of people injured? Although it is possible to anonymize the data captured by various sensors and cameras with which autonomous vehicles are equipped, privacy issues are emerging as this provides remote surveillance opportunities by public and private agencies. --- ## Bibliography - Buldeo Rai, H., Touami, S. & Dablanc, L. (2020). Autonomous e-commerce delivery in ordinary and exceptional circumstances. The French case. Submitted to Research in Transportation Business & Management. - Buldeo Rai, H., & Touami, S. (2020). E-commerce : vers l’automatisation du transport de marchandises en ville ? Transports Infrastructures & Mobilité, 522. http://tmv.let.fr/documents/rapports/plaquette2.pdf - Figliozzi, M. A. (2020). Carbon emissions reductions in last mile and grocery deliveries utilizing air and ground autonomous vehicles. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 85, 102443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102443 - Lester, C. (2019). A Study on Driverless-Car Ethics Offers a Troubling Look Into Our Values. The New Yorker. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001529 - Ric. (2015, September 29). How much weight can delivery drones carry? Unmanned Cargo. http://unmannedcargo.org/how-much-weight-can-delivery-drones-carry/ - Schröder, J., Heid, B., Neuhaus, F., Kässer, M., Klink, C., & Tatomir, S. (2018). Fast forwarding last-mile delivery – implications for the ecosystem. - Society of Automotive Engineers. (2018, December 11). SAE International Releases Updated Visual Chart for Its “Levels of Driving Automation” Standard for Self-Driving Vehicles. https://www.sae.org/news/press-room/2018/12/sae-international-releases-updated-visual-chart-for-its-“levels-of-driving-automation”-standard-for-self-driving-vehicles - Steer. (2020). Economic Impacts of Autonomous Delivery Services in the US. - Touami, S. (2020). Les robots de livraison en ville, une solution à venir ? Université Gustave Eiffel, chaire Logistics City. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Typology of Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries-2/) **Published:** March 16, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/typology_autonomous_vehicles_urban_deliveries2.png?resize=900%2C467&ssl=1 "Typology of Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Typology of Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries*Source: Adapted from Touami, S. (2020). Les robots de livraison en ville, une solution à venir ? Université Gustave Eiffel, chaire Logistics City.* Zipline uses drones to transport medication and blood in Ghana, Rwanda, and Tanzania, while the Swiss Post delivers laboratory samples by drone to hospitals in Zurich, Bern, and Lugano. Drones gain traction for consumer goods as well. Ford Europe introduced the “Autolivery” concept that makes use of drones for the collection and delivery of parcels to consumers in urban areas. Road robots such as Nuro and Neolix share the infrastructure with other passenger and freight vehicles. Low-speed road robots such as Nuro travel up to forty kilometers per hour, while high-speed road robots such as Udelv and Gatik have a maximum speed of eighty kilometers per hour. Sidewalk robots Starship and Kiwibot operate in the United States but are controlled from Colombia. In the same category, follower sidewalk robots such as TwinswHeel’s TH05 support delivery workers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries-2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries-2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries-2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries-2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Typology of Autonomous Vehicles Scenarios for Urban Deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/) **Published:** March 16, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/typology_autonomous_vehicles_urban_deliveries.png?resize=900%2C876&ssl=1 "Typology of Autonomous Vehicles Scenarios for Urban Deliveries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Typology of Autonomous Vehicles Scenarios for Urban Deliveries*Source: Adapted from Touami, S. (2020). Les robots de livraison en ville, une solution à venir ? Université Gustave Eiffel, chaire Logistics City.* Examples of the **sidewalk robot model** (1) include the collaboration between Mercedes-Benz and Starship and between Ford and Agility Robotics. A notable feature of Agility Robotics’ robot Digit is its ability to climb stairs. Examples of the **van robot model** (2) include Postmates’ Serve robot in the United States and ZMP’s delivery robot DeliRo in Japan. The KiwiCampus project is an example of the **robot cargo bike model** (4) delivering prepared meals from local restaurants to students at the UC Berkeley campus. Initially, Kiwi Campus used sidewalk robots only but introduced cargo bikes later to increase efficiency. UPS’s partnership with self-driving technology company Waymo stands as an example of the **warehouse-road robot mode**l (5). Waymo’s minivans travel between UPS store locations and sorting facilities. Nuro’s collaboration with Kroger and Domino’s to deliver groceries, and prepared meals in Houston exemplifies the **store-robot model** (6). A collaboration between Mercedes-Benz, drone developer Matternet, and Swiss e-marketplace SIROOP applied the **van drone model** (7) in Zurich. In this case, vans are parked on predefined points in the urban area, to which local businesses send drones loaded with online orders. After the arrival of all orders, van drivers carry out the deliveries, while drones return to the businesses. Israeli drone designer Flytrex and Icelandic e-retailer AHA applied the **drone model** (8) to carry out prepared meal deliveries in Reykjavik. Avoiding the complicated and time-consuming urban travel, Flytrex collaborates with local restaurants so consumers can receive their orders directly. Further, new autonomous delivery concepts are being explored. Two examples include Robomart, an autonomous mobile grocery store, and intelligent cabinets specifically developed for the autonomous loading and offloading of shipments by drones. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/typology-autonomous-vehicles-urban-deliveries/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.7 – Procurement and Fulfillment Facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/) **Published:** March 14, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Procurement and fulfillment represent the first stage in the organization of supply chains and are usually composed of large facilities accessible to international and regional transportation systems. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Hierarchy of Urban Facilities](#1_Hierarchy_of_Urban_Facilities) - [2. Inbound Facilities](#2_Inbound_Facilities) - [3. Fulfillment Centers](#3_Fulfillment_Centers) # 1. Hierarchy of Urban Facilities City logistics relies on an array of facilities to provide for the handling of material goods. These facilities have locational requirements, technical characteristics, a footprint, and operational characteristics. They are organized as a **hierarchy** that collects, consolidates, distributes, and delivers to specific urban locations. Three stages can be considered, with each having distinct facilities: - **Procurement and fulfillment**. The first stage involves procurement with the primary purpose of stocking distribution centers with the required inventory. Sourcing strategies vary according to the retail function. The extensive range of goods sold underlines multiple suppliers, origins, and transportation modes used for deliveries. The positioning of the inventory for fulfillment indicates that the primary concerns are regional demand patterns and minimizing delivery time through the advantage of proximity. - **Distribution**. The matter is to establish a distribution structure that offers capacity, flexibility, and time performance through the selection of the most suitable distribution channels and the locations to service them. The focus is on where the order is going to be fulfilled and the routing of the delivery. - **Last-mile**. WIthin the full realm of city logistics bringing consignments (parcels, truckloads, vanloads) to their final destination, mainly through delivery routes from specialized facilities. The purpose is to develop city logistics strategies that cope with the constraints of urban freight distribution, such as congestion, the lack of parking space, and the atomization of deliveries where a small amount of cargo, such as a unique parcel, needs to be delivered to a single address. These hierarchies can be **integrated or unintegrated** depending on the size and logistics strategies of the involved actors (retailers, distributors, carriers). Unintegrated hierarchies are composed of different logistical service providers having assets such as distribution centers and vehicles offering their services on an open market (for hire). An emerging trend has been integrated hierarchies of facilities (own account), improving market access and the integration between different transportation modes, from large-scale containerized or full truckload transportation to vans for last-mile deliveries. This initially involved third-party logistics service providers offering transportation, distribution, and warehousing services to their customers. Large “Big-Box” retailers also got involved as many became large corporations commanding substantial amounts of freight flows over a complex network of distribution centers servicing their stores. The latest trend concerns large e-commerce firms such as Amazon, Alibaba, and Jindong that have developed their [logistical capabilities and facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/logistics-facilities-supporting-e-commerce/ "Logistics Facilities Supporting E-commerce") to reflect the unique characteristics of e-commerce where purchases are virtual. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_facilities_e_commerce-1.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "Logistics Facilities Supporting E-commerce | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistics Facilities Supporting E commerceProcurement and fulfillment represent the first stage of urban logistics facilities. They involve all the activities required so that a city logistics platform has the capability and capacity to make goods available under an array of constraints. # 2. Inbound Facilities The growth of international trade related to the outsourcing of several aspects of manufacturing has transformed retail and the distribution of its goods. Imports were conventionally a specialized market serviced by wholesalers importing goods and selling them to national distributors and retailers. For that purpose, they maintained import warehouses in major metropolitan areas (particularly port cities) where goods were brought in after clearing customs. This inventory was then made available and in some cases repackaged for domestic distribution. Since the 1990s, large big-box retailers have built [import distribution centers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-evolution/ "Amazon Inbound Cross Dock Facilities Network") due to global sourcing from low-cost manufacturers and to accommodate the growing quantities of foreign goods supplying retail networks. The share of retail goods distributed by wholesalers has increased, particularly for imported goods. **[Inbound cross docks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-inbound-cross-dock-facilities-network/ "Amazon Inbound Cross Dock Facilities Network")** (IXD) are facilities designed for the purpose of de-stuffing international containers containing imported goods and can also handle deliveries from domestic suppliers. They are usually located near major intermodal terminals such as ports and rail yards. It is through these terminals that inbound containerized trade flows are moved at gateways and inland distribution hubs. The inventory is sorted and stored until needed and sent to fulfillment facilities in full truck loads. The facilities are usually configured with bay doors on both sides and are functionally similar to transloading facilities but service exclusively fulfillment centers. In the 2000s, e-commerce firms started to build their own IDX once they reached a critical mass. For instance, Amazon built its first IDX in 2007 and by 2022 it was operating [a network of 36 IXD](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-inbound-cross-dock-facilities-network/ "Amazon Inbound Cross Dock Facilities Network") in the United States. Such facilities were also built in Germany, Poland, and the United Kingdom to service the European market. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_retail_logistics2.png?resize=900%2C397&ssl=1 "Evolution of Retail Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Evolution of Retail Logistics![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_idx.png?resize=900%2C427&ssl=1 "Inbound Cross Dock Facility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Inbound Cross Dock Facility![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map_amazon_idx.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon Inbound Cross Dock Facilities Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Inbound Cross Dock Facilities NetworkAs their name suggests, IXDs are configured on the cross-docking principle, with bay doors on both sides, and are functionally like transloading facilities. On one side of the facility, inbound cargo loads (mainly containers) are unloaded and stored. Within the facility, the inventory is stored until needed, implying that the IXD is a crucial buffer in large-scale commercial supply chains. On the other side of the facility, full truckloads are assembled according to demand and sent to specific fulfillment facilities. IXD and import warehouses are the points of entry for the fulfillment process, both for standard retail and e-commerce, by synchronizing inbound procurement logistics with the distributional capabilities of fulfillment centers. # 3. Fulfillment Centers Fulfillment centers meet the material orders of customers through the fabrication, storage, and distribution functions they perform within their supply chains. This requires own-account or third-party logistics services providers to deliver orders. The distinction between a fulfillment center, a distribution center, and a warehouse can be confusing. Both warehouses and distribution centers are fulfillment centers, and the major distinction is the average duration of the storage, with goods usually stored in a warehouse for a longer time period. The distribution center is more of a flow-based facility, while the warehouse is more of a storage-based facility. As freight facilities, distribution centers tend to consume a large footprint, both from the site they occupy and the building facility. In an urban area, the expanding footprint of fulfillment facilities is challenging as it pushes towards suburban and exurban locations. Further, distribution centers mainly rely on trucking, which also underlines a preference for suburban locations due to road accessibility and lower-cost real estate footprint. They have become one-floor facilities designed more for throughput than for warehousing, with specialized loading and unloading bays and sorting equipment. The main channels serviced by urban fulfillment facilities include: - **Retail**. Supplying networks of chain stores or independently owned retail stores. Chain retail stores usually have their own account distribution facilities, while independent retailing relies on wholesalers. Because of their large footprint, these facilities are commonly located in a suburban or exurban setting. - **Food and restoration**. Supplying networks of chain restaurants as well as independently owned restaurants. It implies a reliance on cold chain facilities able to store temperature-sensitive food products (meat, dairy, produce). Chain restaurants tend to have their own account storage and preparation facilities, implying that they transform food products into items to be delivered to restaurants for final preparation. This is a common strategy in the “fast food” industry. - **Parcel deliveries**. Used to be a market focusing on the delivery of documents and specialty items. The growth of e-commerce has allowed several third-party logistics services providers, including e-commerce firms, to set up new facilities dedicated to the fulfillment of delivery deliveries. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/e_fulfillment_center.png?resize=900%2C430&ssl=1 "E-Fulfillment Center | The Geography of Transport Systems ")E Fulfillment Center![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map_amazon_efc.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon E-Fulfillment Centers Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon E Fulfillment Centers Network![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_e-fulfillment_centers_item.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Amazon E-Fulfillment Centers by Item | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon E Fulfillment Centers by ItemTechnological changes impacted the location, design, and operation of fulfillment centers, particularly with the emergence of e-commerce. [E-fulfillment centers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/e-fulfillment-center/ "E-Fulfillment Center") (EFC) are extensive facilities specifically designed to support the requirements of e-commerce, such as assembling individual online orders. They can have a footprint of half a million to one million square feet for the larger retailers. Due to the high number of items held in inventory, EFCs usually have high rack storage, with a clearance of 36 feet considered to be the standard EFC height, with newer designs exceeding 40 feet. In recent years, several EFCs have become partially or fully automated, allowing them to quickly retrieve orders from storage and place them into backs for parcel assembly. With enough scale, an online retailer elects for the [specialization of its EFCs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-fulfillment-centers-network/ "Amazon Fulfillment Centers Network"), which fall into two categories. - **Item type**. E-fulfillment centers specialize in apparel, electronics, jewelry, groceries, and perishables. These items usually have a high value or require specific handling and packaging methods. - **Item size**. EFCs are mainly allocated to handle small sortable (items fit in a small box; < 10 kg), large sortable (items fit in a large box; <25 kg), and large non-sortable (items too large for a box; e.g., furniture, tv, printers). The main reason behind this specialization is that different item sizes require different warehouse handling equipment. It would be counterproductive to replicate specialized equipment and procedures across. Small sortable warehouses can easily be automated with conveyor belts, while this is more complex for large non-sortable items stored on pallets to be handled manually. Both inbound and fulfillment facilities tend to be large-scale and epitomize suburban logistics. The growth of urban material consumption has incited a significant growth in the footprint of related facilities. Once the fulfillment process is completed, city logistics switch to the distribution aspect, which requires [specialized facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-e-fulfillment-centers-item/ "Amazon E-Fulfillment Centers by Item"). --- ## Bibliography - Dablanc, L., S. Ogilvie, and A. Goodchild (2014) “Logistics sprawl: differential warehousing development patterns in Los Angeles, California, and Seattle, Washington”, Transportation Research Record, Vol. 2410, pp. 105-112. - Lecavalier, J. (2016) The Rule of Logistics: Walmart and Architecture of Fulfillment, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. - Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Distribution Network of Amazon: Analyzing the Footprint of Freight Digitalization”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 88. - MWPVL International (2020) Amazon Global Supply Chain and Fulfillment Center Network. https://mwpvl.com/html/amazon\_com.html. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.9 – Last Mile Facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Laetitia Dablanc > Last-mile facilities are designed to support the final segment or urban deliveries, mostly through deconsolidation to delivery vehicles. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Fast Delivery Hubs](#1_Fast_Delivery_Hubs) - [2. Delivery Stations and Micro-Hubs](#2_Delivery_Stations_and_Micro-Hubs) - [3. Freight Stations](#3_Freight_Stations) # 1. Fast Delivery Hubs Three main types of [distribution facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/logistics-facilities-supporting-e-commerce/ "Logistics Facilities Supporting E-commerce") support last-mile for urban deliveries, which take place in specific urban areas (e.g. districts or neighborhoods). The first involves **fast delivery hubs** supplying the local market with pre-positioned high-demand or perishable goods. The fast delivery market is highly specialized and segmented due to the variety of goods it delivers, from parcels to groceries and parts for maintenance and repairs. The second type involves **delivery stations** where parcels are loaded on vans for home deliveries or delivery points. The third type of facility is composed of **freight stations** allowing for local delivery points, instead of a delivery to an address. The purpose of a fast delivery hub is to [supply time-dependent fulfillment requests](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-fast-delivery-hubs-network/ "Amazon Fast Delivery Hubs Network"). To do so, they jointly act as a fulfillment center and a distribution hub for last-mile logistics. By carrying a smaller number of high-demand items and by being positioned in high-density areas, fast delivery hubs are designed to improve the velocity of urban deliveries. This allows for better response times through the benefits of being strategically positioned. Fast delivery hubs are commonly used for e-commerce, the deliveries of groceries, and [perishable goods](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fresh-produce-amazon-prime-fast-delivery-hub-berlin/ "Fresh Produce at an Amazon Prime Fast Delivery Hub, Berlin") as well as for restaurant deliveries. The cargo handled by fast delivery hubs can either be placed directly on delivery vans (or other conveyances), sent to a sortation center, or to a delivery station. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fast_delivery_hub.png?resize=900%2C440&ssl=1 "Fast Delivery Hub | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fast Delivery Hub![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_fast_delivery_hubs_network.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon Fast Delivery Hubs Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Fast Delivery Hubs Network![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/berlin_primenow-2-scaled-1.jpg?resize=683%2C1024&ssl=1 "Fresh Produce at an Amazon Prime Fast Delivery Hub, Berlin | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fresh Produce at an Amazon Prime Fast Delivery Hub BerlinAnother form of fast delivery hub involves the **conversion of a retail facility**, allowing for pickup and deliveries, which can reduce. costs since additional distribution centers are not required. However, this requires several important modifications to standard retail procedures. Fulfillment capabilities need to be available, allowing for the retrieval of inventory (often from store shelves) to be packaged for customer pick up or for delivery (own account or through a third party). Also, store employees need to be trained to perform a new set of related tasks, such as order retrieval and preparation (packaging, boxing, labeling). Further, fast delivery hubs require real-time inventory management to track the location of the inventory within the facility as well as provide accurate information about the inventory that can be made available for online sales. This approach is particularly relevant when the provider (e.g. retailer) has a network of facilities allowing to maximize customer accessibility. # 2. Delivery Stations and Micro-Hubs Delivery stations are flow-based facilities specializing in [deconsolidation of urban deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/delivery-station/ "Delivery Station") by **breaking loads for last-mile deliveries**. They have emerged to support the growing quantities of urban deliveries, a trend that is particularly driven by e-commerce. Delivery stations allow for the final load break in an area covered by its delivery routes. Cargo can be delivered to a delivery station in full truckloads, which are deconsolidated into unit loads for delivery routes. They tend to have a small footprint and are located at accessible locations close to (or in) central areas. Depending on the density, regulations, physiography, and environmental conditions, a variety of delivery vehicles can be used, such as vans, electric vehicles, or cargo bicycles. With the advent of drone technology and automated vehicles, some delivery stations could also be used as delivery hubs for these vehicles. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/delivery_station.png?resize=900%2C430&ssl=1 "Delivery Station | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Delivery Station![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_delivery_stations_network.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon Delivery Stations Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Delivery Stations NetworkDelivery stations are designed and positioned to support a specific modal option for urban deliveries, as each mode requires a custom-designed facility (load units, access ramps, bay doors). Joint operations are possible, particularly if the load unit is similar. Otherwise, a specific area within the delivery station must be allocated to different vehicles, such as trucks and vans. A specialization of delivery stations according to the **weight of the delivery** is also emerging, particularly for e-commerce. Since bulky and heavy cargo (furniture, appliances) requires special handling equipment and procedures, their last-mile deliveries can require a specialized facility and delivery vehicles. **Micro-hubs** are small delivery stations in dense urban areas. They are most often used in networks of micro-hubs for parcel express delivery operators willing to transform last-mile delivery into faster and cleaner operations. From micro-hubs, vehicles such as cargo-cycles or small electric vans are used to deliver parcels quickly to the final consumer. They can be implemented underground in car parks or in areas of cities that are not used anymore, such as former gas stations and industrial or retail properties. # 3. Freight Stations Freight stations are facilities designed as a [pickup point for deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/urban-freight-stations/ "Urban Freight Stations"), instead of direct deliveries to the final delivery location. They compensate for the local lack of accessibility associated with congestion and parking difficulties. They can be implemented at a central location in a high-density area or in a reserved area within a large building facility. They come in two main categories: pickup points, composed of local stores (convenience stores, dry cleaners, florists, etc.) and automated lockers. Local stores have the opportunity to convert a share of the footprint as a pickup point, particularly if they are in a high pedestrian traffic area. This includes subway stations, shopping malls, and high-density commercial streets. Automated lockers are being actively implemented in high-parcel demand locations such as convenience stores, grocery stores, gas stations, and campus residences or condominiums. They are becoming an integral part of the design of lobbies in new residential and commercial developments and are made available to property managers so that they can be installed in apartment buildings and office complexes. A clustering effect in the location of lockers is noticed around high-income and education-level neighborhoods (universities, hospitals, research centers) since such clusters are easier to service along a sequential delivery route from a delivery station. Urban areas have larger numbers of pick-up points than suburban or rural areas, underlining the function of density. Further, in suburban and rural areas, pick-up points are more likely located along main commercial streets. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_freight_stations.png?resize=900%2C608&ssl=1 "Urban Freight Stations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Freight Stations![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Polish_Packstation.jpg?resize=900%2C565&ssl=1 "Urban Freight Station: DHL Packstation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Freight Station DHL Packstation![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Amazon_Locker_-_Baltoro_New_York_New_York.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Amazon Parcel Pick Up Locker | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Parcel Pick Up Locker### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Urban Freight Stations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/urban-freight-stations/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_freight_stations.png?resize=900%2C608&ssl=1 "Urban Freight Stations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban freight stations are receiving a growing level of attention as a city logistics strategy aiming at consolidating deliveries bound to a specific area or even a large facility (e.g., a high-rise office tower). A sufficient volume and density level are two fundamental conditions justifying their integration into urban supply chains. There are two main settings in which an urban freight station can be established: - **Clustered**. In a standard situation (without a freight station), carriers perform individual deliveries to customers in a neighborhood (a cluster of customers), each time having to park (street or off-street) to unload the consignment. Since parking is one of the most salient issues in city logistics, carriers usually spend some time for each delivery trying to find a parking spot or have to double park, impairing local circulation. While carriers may have the opportunity to consolidate several deliveries in one truck trip, variations in demand and delivery times make such an approach challenging. Two customers, even if in proximity, could thus involve two separate deliveries. The setting of a freight station aiming at servicing a cluster of customers consists of the selection of a central location maximizing accessibility to this cluster. Carriers only need to deliver to the freight station, which gives additional opportunities to consolidate deliveries and use delivery time frames avoiding local congestion. A dedicated parking space for deliveries to the freight station can even be established. Customers have the responsibility to pick up their consignments at the freight station at their own convenience, which is relatively easy if the freight station involves parcels in [locker boxes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-freight-station-dhl-packstation/ "Urban Freight Station: DHL Packstation"). This may also require additional “last mile” hurdles for larger deliveries, such as the usage of [rolling carts](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2932). - **Punctual**. Concern deliveries in a single large facility that may regroup a large number of customers, such as an office tower, an institution, or a large residential tower. Without a freight station, each customer usually receives an individual delivery involving parking, unloading, and delivering the consignment to the customer within the facility (this can involve the usage of a freight elevator). The setting of a freight station within the facility enables the consolidation of deliveries and more rational use of the parking space. Consignments can be delivered within the facility at the convenience of the customers. An issue about freight stations in large facilities concerns the setting of dedicated and secure storage space, including a workforce to deliver the consignments. Such deliveries may also not be suitable for specific cargo types, such as refrigerated cargo (for restaurants and cafeterias). Many lobbies of residential buildings are already operating as [informal freight stations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/lobby-freight-station/ "The Lobby as a Freight Station"). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/urban-freight-stations/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/urban-freight-stations/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/urban-freight-stations/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/urban-freight-stations/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon Delivery Stations Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-delivery-stations-network/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_delivery_stations_network.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon Delivery Stations Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Delivery Stations Network*Source: Adapted from Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Distribution Network of Amazon: Analyzing the Footprint of Freight Digitalization”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 88.* Amazon’s network of delivery stations underlines its effort to offer last-mile services through a process of horizontal integration. The delivery station represents the most common facility, occupying a small median footprint of 91,200 square feet in high accessibility areas. A specialization of delivery stations towards heavy and bulky goods requiring special last-mile delivery arrangements is taking place. This trend is indicative of Amazon moving into large consumption goods such as televisions and appliances. With a network of delivery stations being implemented, Amazon is substituting the full array of retailing goods and their delivery requirements. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-delivery-stations-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-delivery-stations-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-delivery-stations-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-delivery-stations-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Delivery Station](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/delivery-station/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/delivery_station.png?resize=900%2C430&ssl=1 "Delivery Station | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Delivery Station### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/delivery-station/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/delivery-station/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/delivery-station/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/delivery-station/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Fresh Produce at an Amazon Prime Fast Delivery Hub, Berlin](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fresh-produce-amazon-prime-fast-delivery-hub-berlin/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/berlin_primenow-2-scaled-1.jpg?resize=683%2C1024&ssl=1 "Fresh Produce at an Amazon Prime Fast Delivery Hub, Berlin | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fresh Produce at an Amazon Prime Fast Delivery Hub Berlin*Photo: Dr. Alison Conway, 2019.* Fresh goods, including fruits and vegetables, are stored on racks, ready to be picked up and assembled into individual deliveries. The small number of items being stored is indicative of the high daily turnover. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fresh-produce-amazon-prime-fast-delivery-hub-berlin/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fresh-produce-amazon-prime-fast-delivery-hub-berlin/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fresh-produce-amazon-prime-fast-delivery-hub-berlin/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fresh-produce-amazon-prime-fast-delivery-hub-berlin/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon Fast Delivery Hubs Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-fast-delivery-hubs-network/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_fast_delivery_hubs_network.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon Fast Delivery Hubs Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Fast Delivery Hubs Network*Source: adapted from Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Distribution Network of Amazon: Analyzing the Footprint of Freight Digitalization”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 88.* The fast delivery hubs operated by Amazon are called Prime Hubs. They are located within large metropolitan areas, usually where there is good access to the local transportation system. Prime Hubs are mainly of small size, with a median of 42,300 square feet, allowing for high-demand items to be delivered within a 48-hour timeframe. They represent a trade-off between high market accessibility and reduced delivery lead time with high rent costs. The footprint is therefore attributed to selected items having a high turnover rate, multiplying the distance reduction saving effect. Prime facilities are mainly co-located with delivery stations, Amazon Fresh, and Amazon Pantry facilities, which have in common short lead times and access to central areas. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-fast-delivery-hubs-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-fast-delivery-hubs-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-fast-delivery-hubs-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/amazon-fast-delivery-hubs-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Fast Delivery Hub](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fast-delivery-hub/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fast_delivery_hub.png?resize=900%2C440&ssl=1 "Fast Delivery Hub | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fast Delivery Hub### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fast-delivery-hub/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fast-delivery-hub/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fast-delivery-hub/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/last-mile-facilities/fast-delivery-hub/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.8 – Distribution Facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Distribution facilities are flow-based structures that aim to consolidate, sort, and deconsolidate cargo to more efficiently service urban markets. # 1. Air Hubs Distribution facilities are **flow-based intermediate elements of freight distribution** with the core purpose of routing cargo toward its destination, often using a [hub-and-spoke structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/hub-spoke-structure-parcel-carriers/ "The Hub-and-Spoke Structure of Parcel Carriers"). Cargo spends a limited amount of time within these facilities as their core role is around three interdependent flew-based functions: - **Consolidation** involves placing cargo loads together to generate a load unit large enough for a high-capacity transport mode offering direct service from one hub to another. This usually involves a shift from one mode to another. - **Sortation**. Routing cargo according to a defined destination can involve consolidation or deconsolidation. - **Deconsolidation**. Breaking cargo loads into smaller units that are suitable for a lower-capacity transport mode. Distribution facilities do not perform storage or warehousing functions of any significance. Like fulfillment facilities, they tend to be located in suburban areas as they require a substantial footprint due to the volumes they handle. Air hubs and sortation centers are the two main types of distribution facilities. **Air hubs** are facilities adjacent to airports designed to consolidate, deconsolidate, and sort air cargo. They are set on the principle of co-location, implying that they have direct access to runways and airport facilities for their cargo operations. These operations are based on the cross-docking principle and centered around handling air Unit Load Devices (ULD), which are containers designed to specifically fit into the bellyhold of aircraft. Once a cargo plane lands at an air hub, its ULDs are unloaded, and their contents are placed on conveyor belts to be sorted by destination. Then, cargo is consolidated into ULDs to be loaded on outbound planes. Air services are usually organized as a hub-and-spoke network linking airports acting as origins or destinations to an intermediate hub. Major third-party logistics service providers (freight integrators) such as FedEx, UPS, or DHL generally provide these air cargo services through gigantic hub/sortation facilities covering the [world’s largest markets](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/hubs-air-freight-integrators/ "Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators"). One of the world’s largest air hubs is Worldport, operated by UPS at the Louisville airport. The 5.2 million sqft facility is the hub of the whole UPS continental air cargo network. During peak hours, it can sort more than 400,000 packages per hour. The growth of e-commerce and city logistics has incited the growth of air cargo operations and opened opportunities for new entrants, such as Amazon Air, which began operating in 2016. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hub_spoke_structure_parcel.png?resize=900%2C369&ssl=1 "The Hub-and-Spoke Structure of Parcel Carriers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Hub and Spoke Structure of Parcel Carriers![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Air-Freight-Integrators.png?resize=900%2C437&ssl=1 "Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_air_hub.png?resize=900%2C430&ssl=1 "Amazon Air Hub | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Air Hub![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_air_hubs_network.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon Air Hubs Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Air Hubs NetworkAlthough air hubs are not directly city logistics facilities, they exist to support specialized urban cargo demands. Air hubs emerge when large parcel volumes are generated, enough to justify investing in dedicated air cargo services and supporting facilities. This is what has happened in the e-commerce sector in recent years. While it still extensively relies on the air networks of FedEx and UPS, [Amazon Air is developing a network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hubs-network/ "Amazon Air Hubs Network") complementing the lack of capacity between its e-fulfillment centers, which implies more direct services. # 2. Sortation Centers Sortation centers, which started emerging in the 2010s, play an essential role in accessibility to regional distribution and represent the first layer of city logistics. As [cross-docking facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-center/ "Amazon Sortation Center"), they work on a similar principle to air hubs. Still, their function is more oriented toward the **sorting and deconsolidation** of loads bound for a metropolitan area, supporting the distribution requirements of e-commerce. They handle cargo carried by road, implying that regional accessibility is an important location factor, but their average footprint allows for locations closer to central areas. Sortation centers increase the velocity of deliveries as well as reduce their cost and, as such, improve the competitiveness of e-commerce within city logistics. Cost reductions are mainly derived from the consolidation of cargo into larger loads and improved transit times. When a metropolitan area reaches a specific volume of parcel deliveries, a sortation center can be set up to route cargo more efficiently. Loads bound to specific areas (such as ZIP codes in the United States) are broken down into pallets to be carried to last-mile facilities such as post offices and delivery stations. The introduction of sortation centers has led to a blurring of distribution channels since the routed cargo can be sent to a number of options for last-mile delivery. This can include own account deliveries, private operators, or postal services depending on local delivery options, such as the availability of delivery assets during the week (e.g. Sunday deliveries). Therefore, freight can be routed based on anticipated capacity. For instance, [Amazon](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-centers-network/ "Amazon Sortation Centers Network") has established an extensive network across the major metropolitan areas in the United States. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_sortation_center.png?resize=900%2C430&ssl=1 "Amazon Sortation Center | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Sortation Center![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_sortation_centers_network.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon Sortation Centers Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Sortation Centers Network--- ## Bibliography - Bowen, J. (2012) “A spatial analysis of FedEx and UPS: hubs, spokes, and network structure,” Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 24, pp. 419-431. - MWPVL International (2020) Amazon Global Supply Chain and Fulfillment Center Network. https://mwpvl.com/html/amazon\_com.html. - Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Distribution Network of Amazon: Analyzing the Footprint of Freight Digitalization”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 88. - Schwieterman, J.P. and J. Walls (2020) Insights into Amazon Air: 2020’s Transportation Juggernaut, Chaddick Institute for Metropolitan Development. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon Sortation Centers Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-centers-network/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_sortation_centers_network.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon Sortation Centers Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Sortation Centers Network*Source: Adapted from Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Distribution Network of Amazon: Analyzing the Footprint of Freight Digitalization”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 88.* Sortation centers are dispersed facilities with a reliance on accessibility to a regional parcel distribution market. This is particularly apparent by looking at the uniform spatial distribution of sortation centers along the Boston – Washington corridor, extending into Virginia and North Carolina. From these centers, parcels are either sent to delivery stations or to post offices for final delivery. As of 2022, 106 sortation centers of a median size of 385,400 square feet were covering the largest metropolitan areas in the United States. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-centers-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-centers-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-centers-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-centers-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon Sortation Center](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-center/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_sortation_center.png?resize=900%2C430&ssl=1 "Amazon Sortation Center | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Sortation Center### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-center/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-center/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-center/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-sortation-center/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon Air Hubs Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hubs-network/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_air_hubs_network.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon Air Hubs Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Air Hubs Network*Source: Adapted from Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Distribution Network of Amazon: Analyzing the Footprint of Freight Digitalization”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 88.* Amazon Air operated by early 2024 a fleet of 90 leased aircraft, the majority being 767s. Amazon Air relies less on the hub-and-spoke structure than major air freight operators since the purpose of its services is to support purchases made on Amazon’s digital platform. As of mid-2022, 52 airports were serviced, and Amazon operated directly six air hubs. A significant factor in airport choice for a hub is proximity to distribution facilities. Smaller airports at a distance from major metropolitan areas tend to be preferred. From these airports, parcels are brought by truck to regional sortation centers or local delivery stations. Thirty-two e-fulfillment centers (17%) and eight sortation centers (17%) are within 10 km from an airport serviced by Amazon Air, underlining a close integration between air distribution and fulfillment capabilities. The development of the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport (CVG) hub, expected to act as the primary nexus, is indicative that Amazon Air is seeking to replicate a hub-and-spoke structure that competes more directly with FedEx and UPS. The first phase of this 3.4 million square foot facility came online in 2021 and acts as the major anchor to Amazon’s air network. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hubs-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hubs-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hubs-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hubs-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon Air Hub](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hub/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_air_hub.png?resize=900%2C430&ssl=1 "Amazon Air Hub | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Air Hub### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hub/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hub/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hub/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/amazon-air-hub/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Hub-and-Spoke Structure of Parcel Carriers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/hub-spoke-structure-parcel-carriers/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hub_spoke_structure_parcel.png?resize=900%2C369&ssl=1 "The Hub-and-Spoke Structure of Parcel Carriers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Hub and Spoke Structure of Parcel CarriersThe distribution strategy adopted by parcel carriers such as FedEx and UPS is an example of an intermodal transport chain. It is usually composed of three steps: - The first step is the **pickup**; specific routes are assigned, and regular stops are planned according to a tight schedule. The package will inevitably be sent to the hub for consolidation. There is a complex hierarchy of hubs ranging from local hubs servicing a specific market to giant air hubs spanning a continent. - At the **hub**, packages are unloaded and sorted according to the geographical location where they are bound. There is a hierarchy of hubs ranging from local (truck deliveries) to national (truck, rail, or air) and global (air transportation). Consequently, all the parcels are divided to be loaded in the courier leading to the specified destination. If the parcel is bound locally, then it will remain at the local hub to be sorted. If the parcel is bound to a destination further than the reach of a local hub, it will then be sent to another hub that will consolidate the loads into truck, rail, or air, depending on the destination. - The last step involves **fragmentation** into loads that are suitable for delivery that are made by trucks. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/hub-spoke-structure-parcel-carriers/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/hub-spoke-structure-parcel-carriers/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/hub-spoke-structure-parcel-carriers/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/distribution-facilities/hub-spoke-structure-parcel-carriers/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon E-Fulfillment Centers by Item](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-e-fulfillment-centers-item/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_e-fulfillment_centers_item.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Amazon E-Fulfillment Centers by Item | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon E Fulfillment Centers by Item*Source: Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Distribution Network of Amazon: Analyzing the Footprint of Freight Digitalization”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 88. N=268.* An outcome of the diversity of items offered by online retailers such as Amazon is that a large number of e-fulfillment facilities (EFC) are designed not for the type of items they carry, but **if this item is sortable or not**. The most common EFC (38% of all facilities where item specialization was known) are large non-sortable facilities that need to be close to markets because of the weight and bulk of the shipments. EFCs specializing in small sortable items are the second most common (34%) and have more locational flexibility. Specialized EFCs (12% of all facilities) focus on a specific range of items such as footwear, apparel, jewelry, and high-value electronics. Amazon also maintains facilities solely specializing in returns where items are either restocked, sold to liquidation companies, or discarded. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-e-fulfillment-centers-item/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-e-fulfillment-centers-item/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-e-fulfillment-centers-item/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-e-fulfillment-centers-item/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon E-Fulfillment Centers Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-fulfillment-centers-network/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map_amazon_efc.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Amazon E-Fulfillment Centers Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon E Fulfillment Centers Network*Source: Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Distribution Network of Amazon: Analyzing the Footprint of Freight Digitalization”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 88.* The locational behavior of Amazon’s e-fulfillment centers (EFC) shows a strong market orientation and relatively uniform distribution of facility sizes with a median footprint of 855,000 square feet. This implies that Amazon is using a facility size that it considers optimal and that growth is accommodated by leasing new facilities of similar size. This is a common practice in the expansion of “big-box” retailers that elect for a standard store size, such as Walmart. The latter has a network of more than 3,280 SuperCenters in the United States, with an average footprint of 180,000 square feet. Still, there are variations in the footprint of EDCs reflecting the specialization of their functions, with the great majority of the footprint in the 600,000 to 1M square foot range. The space requirement of EFCs usually implies their location in a suburban (exurban) setting, near a major highway, and a parcel hub, since orders are shipped through parcel services. Similar to IXDs, EFCs have a weighted median location in close proximity to the demographic center of the United States, underlining Amazon’s strategy toward optimal market accessibility. The most common co-location concerns delivery stations, as when an EFC is in proximity to a high-demand area, there is an opportunity to use a part of the facility as a delivery station. To accommodate the high throughput generated by online orders, a new generation of automated EFCs has developed random storage operations for sortable items. This matches the stochastic nature of online orders, and the large variety of goods carried. Sortable goods are stored randomly on automated racks with each location recorded, which reduces the average retrieval time since the inventory is at several locations in the distribution center. As online orders usually involve single items that are shipped as individual parcels, random storage matches more closely the volume and frequency of e-commerce orders. This storage strategy, which was developed for the purpose of e-commerce, reduces the warehousing footprint since inventory is stored in unallocated space. The storage capacity has a higher utilization level than if storage space was allocated by item category. Heavier and non-sortable items are stored in separate allocated spaces. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-fulfillment-centers-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-fulfillment-centers-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-fulfillment-centers-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/amazon-fulfillment-centers-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [E-Fulfillment Center](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/e-fulfillment-center/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/e_fulfillment_center.png?resize=900%2C430&ssl=1 "E-Fulfillment Center | The Geography of Transport Systems ")E Fulfillment Center### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/e-fulfillment-center/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/e-fulfillment-center/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/e-fulfillment-center/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/e-fulfillment-center/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Inbound Cross Dock Facility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/inbound-cross-dock-facility/) **Published:** March 15, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/amazon_idx.png?resize=900%2C427&ssl=1 "Inbound Cross Dock Facility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Inbound Cross Dock Facility### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/inbound-cross-dock-facility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/inbound-cross-dock-facility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/inbound-cross-dock-facility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/inbound-cross-dock-facility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Evolution of Retail Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-evolution/) **Published:** November 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_retail_logistics2.png?resize=900%2C397&ssl=1 "Evolution of Retail Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Evolution of Retail LogisticsThe retail sector has experienced a notable evolution of its logistics in recent decades with globalization and e-commerce being the factors having the most significant impacts. This evolution has involved new and more effective forms of distribution and can be summarized in four phases: - **Direct replenishment (1970s)**. (not shown) Up to the 1970s, most of the sourcing was domestic. It is provided either directly by suppliers (manufacturers) or by wholesalers specializing in specific categories of retail goods (e.g. toys, apparel, shoes, etc.). These suppliers had their own warehouses supplying directly to their customers. Each store was also maintaining its own inventory and ordering directly from its suppliers, many of them within the region. Imported goods, while present, represented a small share of retail sales, usually for specialized or luxury goods. For smaller markets, the share of imports could be higher. - **Rationalization (1980s)**. During the 1980s, the emergence and expansion of large retail chains such as Wal-Mart incited the rationalization of logistics, and many retailers built distribution centers in peripheral areas. These centers acted as warehousing and sorting facilities between suppliers and several stores, often within the same region (regional distribution centers). A streamlined and high-throughput form of distribution center took shape as a [cross-docking facility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4453). - **Global sourcing (1990s)**. Outsourcing and offshoring expanded the spatial reach of sourcing strategies, which involved a growing number of overseas suppliers and long-distance transportation. As an important share of retail imports became containerized, import centers emerged nearby container port facilities. These centers de-stuffed import containers and arranged shipments for domestic distribution. [Transloading](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3109) is a common activity performed by import centers. - **E-commerce (2000s)**. The growth of web-based retail sales triggered the development of new logistics structures. Since most online retail purchases are shipped as parcels, this distribution structure saw the emergence of e-fulfillment centers, which are large facilities assembling individual orders that are shipped through parcel services. The parcels are then moved to hubs that consolidate shipments or sortation centers that arrange shipments by their regional/local destinations. Sortation centers are feeding parcels directly into local postal delivery routes or into the carrier’s local delivery system. The parcels will then reach a delivery center where they will be placed on specific local delivery routes. In large urbanized areas, local depots can also be used for urban deliveries using small vehicles such as vans (“last mile logistics”). The final destination is either the **residence** of the customer, a **collection point** (such as an [urban freight station](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2895) or an [urban pickup location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2887)), or a **delivery point** such as a postal box or even the [lobby](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2905) of a residential building. Each of these phases in the evolution of retail logistics did not completely replace the previous ones, but more than often added to them. For instance, there are still direct deliveries from suppliers to stores, but this strategy is less prevalent. E-commerce has obviously not replaced standard retailing activities supplied by national or regional distribution centers, but added new distribution channels that are, a times, competing with existing retailing, but also can be complementary when a retailer is jointly involved in conventional retail and e-commerce (often labeled as omnichannel). In such a context, the store concomitantly acts as a standard retail outlet, as a distribution center, as a showroom, and as a pickup point for online purchases; an **omnifacility**. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-evolution/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-evolution/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-evolution/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-evolution/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Logistics Facilities Supporting E-commerce](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/logistics-facilities-supporting-e-commerce/) **Published:** March 14, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_facilities_e_commerce-1.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "Logistics Facilities Supporting E-commerce | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistics Facilities Supporting E commerce*Source: Adapted from Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Distribution Network of Amazon: Analyzing the Footprint of Freight Digitalization”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 88.* The growth of online retail sales incited the development of new logistics structures through a process of functional specialization, particularly since e-commerce is based on parcel deliveries. This implies the setting of seven particular types of facilities, each addressing the freight distribution of parcels at a specific scale and scope. - **Inbound cross docks** are facilities usually located near major intermodal terminals such as ports and rail yards for the purpose of de-stuffing international containers containing imported goods. The inventory is stored until needed and sent to e-fulfillment facilities in full truckloads. The facilities are usually configured with bay doors on both sides and are functionally similar to transloading facilities but service exclusively e-fulfillment centers. - **E-fulfillment centers** are large facilities assembling individual online orders (half a million to one million square feet). Due to the high number of items that are held in inventory, such centers tend to have high rack storage. In recent years, many of these facilities have become partially or fully automated, with robots able to quickly retrieve orders from storage and place them into backs that will be used to assemble parcels (envelopes or boxes of different sizes). The mere size of these facilities and the number of delivery vehicles accessing them incite their setting in low land cost locations that remain accessible to highways. Since orders are shipped through parcel services, access to a major parcel hub is an important locational attribute. With a sufficient scale, an online retailer can have a specialization of its fulfillment centers according to product category and size (if it fits in a parcel or not). - **Fast delivery hubs** are designed to service the growing requirements for fast deliveries, usually within 48 hours. To do so, these small to medium-sized facilities are located within large metropolitan areas and maintain an inventory of a limited number of high-demand items. Therefore, the inventory is pre-positioned ahead of the expected demand and made available immediately for delivery upon order. - **Air hubs** are facilities adjacent (co-located) to airports designed to transfer parcels to and from air cargo services with regional fulfillment and sortation centers. These services are usually organized as a hub-and-spoke network linking major metropolitan areas to an intermediate hub. Major third-party logistics service providers such as FedEx, UPS, or DHL are usually providing these air cargo services. Amazon Air is currently developing an air network as the giant online retailer generates volumes sufficient enough to justify investing in dedicated air cargo services. - **Parcel hubs and sortation centers** arrange shipments by their regional/local destinations and tend to be large-sized facilities (half a million square feet). They are designed to sort parcels bound to an area by smaller units, such as postal code, and also include sorting packages coming from different e-fulfillment centers. From the sortation center, parcels can be sent to local postal offices for last-mile delivery or to subcontracting delivery companies. Due to their sortation function, these facilities rely on the [cross-docking model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4453) where inbound flows arrive on one side and outbound flows on the other. Further, depending on the strategy of the online retailer, they call also act as e-fulfillment centers (parcel hubs), particularly for goods that are in high and regular demand. Like e-fulfillment centers, low land cost is an important locational attribute, but the facility is located with the aim of maximizing accessibility to a regional distribution system. - **Parcel delivery centers (stations), urban logistics depots, micro-hubs** are medium-sized or small-sized cross-docking facilities mostly to sort parcels to be placed on specific local delivery routes. Since the deliveries are mostly within an urban setting, the parcels are usually loaded into delivery vans or other specialized urban delivery vehicles (electric vans and increasingly cargo-cycles). These facilities are usually in the immediate periphery of an urban area. In European cities, they are increasingly located inside central urban areas, in underground car parks or former gas stations for example. - **Pickup locations and local freight stations** are used when deliveries are not made directly to the customers’ residences. These small scale facilities, located at accessible high-density locations, are serviced with urban adapted vehicles. In most cases, a store-like facility is used, but an emerging trend has been the usage of freight stations composed of [locker banks](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=276) where customers can pick up their parcels by using a code (e.g. credit card, QR code). In standard e-commerce distribution chains, e-fulfillment facilities are usually owned by the online retailer while parcel hubs, sortation centers, and parcel delivery centers are usually owned by third-party logistics providers. However, consolidation (vertical integration) trends are emerging as large online retailers are opening their own sortation centers. Some are also getting involved in the transportation segment of their distribution with urban delivery vehicles and trailers to move cargo between e-fulfillment and sortation centers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/logistics-facilities-supporting-e-commerce/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/logistics-facilities-supporting-e-commerce/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/logistics-facilities-supporting-e-commerce/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/procurement-fulfillment-facilities/logistics-facilities-supporting-e-commerce/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Lorenz and Perfect Inequality Differences](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-perfect-inequality/) **Published:** February 7, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lorenz_perfect_inequality.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Lorenz and Perfect Inequality Differences | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Lorenz and Perfect Inequality DifferencesThe concentration of the level of activity can be visually represented by the Lorenz curve and its deviation from the perfect equality line, which assumes a uniform distribution. This example considers 10 carriers and their market share. If each carrier had the same market share, the plot of their cumulative number (X) and cumulative traffic (Y) would be the perfect equality line. In this case, traffic distribution is unequal, with the three largest carriers accounting for 60% of the market. The largest carrier accounts for 25% of the market and thus has a Lorenz difference of 15% (25%-10%) and an inequality difference of 75% (100%-25%). The Gini coefficient (G) would be calculated by dividing the summation of Lorenz differences by the summation of Lorenz differences added to the summation of inequality differences. G = 196 / (196+254) = 0.435. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-perfect-inequality/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-perfect-inequality/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-perfect-inequality/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-perfect-inequality/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.6 – E-commerce and Home Deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/) **Published:** January 31, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Laetitia Dablanc and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The emergence of e-commerce has driven a new impetus for city logistics with the fast growth in home deliveries and the related flows of parcels. These delivery services were further expanded to include fast deliveries involving selected items and food. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Rise of E-commerce](#1_The_Rise_of_E-commerce) - [2. Fast and Instant Deliveries](#2_Fast_and_Instant_Deliveries) - [3. An Emerging Workforce](#3_An_Emerging_Workforce) - [Bibliography](#Bibliography) # 1. The Rise of E-commerce The growing share of e-commerce in total retail sales has **several impacts on urban freight distribution**. This ranges from **more urban deliveries** (and pick-up), **changes in the types of vehicles**, operators, time and place of deliveries, technological and economic innovations, labor disruptions, and **adaptions in local traffic and planning policies**. Most dimensions of urban freight distribution have been impacted by e-commerce. It represents a much larger share of deliveries in cities than its share of retail value. Since 2000, [e-commerce sales](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/e-commerce-retail-sales-united-states/ "E-Commerce Retail Sales as a Percent of Total Sales, United States") and parcel volumes have grown at a rate of 5 to 10% per year until 2020. Then, the COVID-19 pandemic was associated with a surge in online sales, which stabilized afterward. It is expected e-commerce will continue to growth in the coming years, but likely at a lower rate. For freight deliveries, e-commerce relies on a fundamentally different set of requirements: - **Order size**. E-commerce orders are predominantly small, with the average order of fewer than two items. They fall into the category of small sortable packages, where an order includes a series of items that can be placed in boxes of less than 22 kg (50 pounds) and placed on a conveyor belt. - **Scope of inventory**. E-commerce retailers tend to have an extensive variety of items available for sale. Since warehousing space is cheaper than retail space, it is possible to maintain more diversified inventories. - **Instant (Fast) deliveries**. The effectiveness of e-commerce is based on its capability to deliver orders quickly, at times, in less than 48 hours. Timely deliveries and being able to track packages are part of the expectations of customers. - **Demand volatility**. The demand for online goods is random and subject to time variations, such as seasonality. This results in a constant stream of orders for deliveries bound to random destinations. Urban freight distribution results from logistics decisions specific to urban activity sectors. Each sector relies on specific logistics chains to meet production or distribution requirements. Two opposing forces are at play. - **Massification** implies consolidated and less frequent deliveries in larger vehicles to achieve economies of scale. This is notably the case for grocery retail in dense urban areas, with a decrease in independent stores and an increase in chain retail. This is especially true for large cities, where independent retail is in decline. While an independent store can see several deliveries per day, a chain supermarket will receive only one or two since deliveries are consolidated on pallets in a large truck. - **Atomization** implies a fragmentation and customization of deliveries made on a case-by-case basis, with higher frequency, and in smaller vehicles. E-commerce supply chains are the main forces towards fragmentation since they rely on individual parcel deliveries. This is particularly the case in the development of instant e-commerce deliveries to fulfill an online order within 24 hours. E-commerce offers advantages for the whole commodity chain, from consumers being exposed to a wider range of products to manufacturers and distributors being able to adapt quickly to changes in demand. Therefore, it is a key [driver of change for freight distribution](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=414). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ecommerce_sales_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "E-Commerce Retail Sales as a Percent of Total Sales, United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")E Commerce Retail Sales as a Percent of Total Sales United States![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/impacts_ecommerce_distribution.png?resize=900%2C292&ssl=1 "The Impacts of E-commerce on Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Impacts of E commerce on Freight Distribution![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distribution_based_consumption.png?resize=900%2C676&ssl=1 "Distribution-Based Consumption | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Distribution Based Consumption# 2. Fast and Instant Deliveries > **Fast delivery services** provide the delivery of a selected range of high demand items to meet a delivery window of usually less than 48 hours. > **Instant delivery services** provide on-demand delivery within two hours by connecting shippers, couriers, and consumers via a digital platform. Fast and instant deliveries are an advanced form of distributional consumption that requires coordination and positioning of the procurement. Fast deliveries are more massified in part because they tend to apply to the retail sector with a greater opportunity to consolidate them. Fast delivery platforms have become an add-on to a regular e-commerce transaction with the e-retailer able to offer a faster delivery window because of a better command of logistics. Instant delivery platforms are focused on a specific market segment, including prepared meals, parcels, and grocery home deliveries. Some are involved in more specific businesses, such as large items (furniture), highly valuable items, and items requiring special care (jewels, flowers, pastries). The main companies are the following: - World brands: Amazon Prime Now, UberEATS. - US brands: GrubHub (JustEat-Takeaway now), Postmates (now owned by Uber), Instacart, DoorDash. - Chinese brands: Meituan-Dianping (linked to Tencent), Ele.me (Alibaba). - Latin American brands: Rappi, IFood, Pedidos Ya (part of iFood now). - European brands: JustEat Takeaway, Delivery Hero, Deliveroo, Glovo. - Many domestic brands. This sector is rapidly growing, and the COVID-19 pandemic has increased further its development. Profitability has remained an enduring challenge for fast and instant deliveries. In this highly competitive environment, several strategies have been used to ensure continuity in operations: - The first strategy is to **push towards economies of scale**. In Europe, Takeaway bought Just Eat in January 2020, becoming the world’s second-largest meal delivery platform. It then bought GrubHub in June 2020. Similarly, Uber bought Postmates in July 2020. IFood bought PedidosYa. - Another strategy is to ensure **ongoing capitalization** by subscribing to capital markets, issuing shares and bonds, and asking for direct investments. - Platforms also secure a more stable and predictable demand level for their services through **strategic partnerships** with retailers or restaurant chains. Amazon and Deliveroo have established a partnership in the UK, which has raised concerns from regulators such as the Competition & Market Authority. Carrefour works with UberEats in France. In the United States, Walmart collaborates with Postmates, while McDonald’s has established partnerships with UberEATS and Doordash. In China, Alibaba has a specific relationship with Ele.me. There are also circumstances where instant delivery platforms prefer to leave a country, which is a sort of implicit market sharing between competitors. In Latin America, Glovo left Chile and Brazil, in Europe, Deliveroo left Germany, while Foodora left France. New socially and environmentally conscious platforms have emerged, such as Urb-It, a Swedish company operating in London, Paris, and Stockholm. Deliveries are made only by foot, bike, or public transport. There is, on average better pay than regular platforms such as UberEats or Deliveroo. About 50% of the couriers for Urb-It are women, underlining a different recruiting strategy. Some platforms also use an alternative hiring model, such as cooperatives (e.g. Olvo, Applicolis: associated with a cooperative, couriers can become partners by buying social shares). These niches are more costly to operate but are growing as customers are seeking alternative models. During the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdowns incited many instant delivery start-ups to offer their services to local retailers that had to curtail their regular operations, turn to online sales, and face a surge in home delivery demand they did not have the capacity to meet. # 3. An Emerging Workforce The rapid growth of urban deliveries due to e-commerce and the related fast and instant delivery services has required recruiting an **entirely new workforce**. While large e-retailers have a reliance on own-account deliveries and their hired workforce, the use of third-party services is growing to cope with fast growth and the intense specialization of the customer base. Most couriers (delivery workers) are self-employed and sometimes are just private individuals, with no official registration as self-employed or freelance entrepreneurs. One can distinguish between “pure” crowd-sourcing (use of available transport capacity of private individuals on the way to work or elsewhere, such as for DHL MyWays, Cocolis, Shopopop) from ‘regular’ crowd-sourcing, which represents the use of dedicated delivery workers: either private individuals (such as for Amazon Flex) or free-lance contractors, self-employed couriers (such as those working for Deliveroo in Europe). Courts in several countries have recently converged in issuing decisions that consider delivery workers as actual employees and not true independent workers. In France, the Cour de Cassation (highest court) on March, 4 2020 considered that Uber (and UberEats) workers are actually employees because of economic dependency on Uber. The same court on December 2018 had considered that TakeEatEasy delivery workers were employees because of GPS tracking and sanctions. In California, legislation AB5 followed a 2018 California Supreme Court ruling considering that contractors that are part of the core business of their client should be considered employees. Uber and Postmates took legal action and put forward Proposition 22, proposed to a referendum at the last US elections. Proposition 22 was adopted, reversing AB5. In Spain, on September 23, 2020, the highest court (Tribunal Supremo) estimated that Glovo delivery workers were actual employees. On-demand instant deliveries are a fast-growing segment of e-commerce deliveries, which raises several questions: - **Huge turnovers of delivery couriers** and very rapid changes in the nature, role, and function of the delivery workers (from part-time to full-time). - **Business models adapting constantly**, including partnerships with large shippers, retailers, and mergers. Access to an ongoing source of capitalization is key to ensuring the expenses linked with the setting of these distribution networks. - **Emerging legal issues** include increased illegal work through the sharing of licenses and registrations and the illegal use of motorbikes in some countries. This new sector also provides opportunities for low-skilled jobs in city centers and shows immense potential for the transmission of logistical skills through training programs. There are also opportunities to develop the use of electric two-wheelers and new mobility modes (bike sharing). More socially responsible platforms may be growing in the future, following court decisions related to the legality of the type of work offered by the “gig economy.” --- # Bibliography - Boysen, N., R. de Koster and F. Weidinger (2019) “Warehousing in the e-commerce era: A survey”, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 277 (2), pp. 396-411. - Dablanc, L., Morganti, E., Arvidsson, N., Woxenius, J., Browne, M., Saidi, N. (2017) The Rise of On-Demand ‘Instant Deliveries’ in European Cities. Supply Chain Forum – an International Journal. Vol 18(4), p. 203-217. - Dablanc, L. (2019) “E-commerce trends and implications for urban logistics”, in Browne, M., S. Behrens, J. Woxenius, G. Giuliano and J. Holguin-Veras (eds) Urban Logistics: Management, Policy and Innovation in a Rapidly Changing Environment. London: Kogan-Page. pp. 167-195. - Dablanc, L. (2020) Instant delivery in Paris: results of the 2020 survey on delivery workers. [ttps://www.lvmt.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Rapport-enque%CC%82te-2020.pdf](https://www.lvmt.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Rapport-enque%CC%82te-2020.pdf) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/e-commerce-home-deliveries/?share=reddit) - --- ### [2.2 - Transportation and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transportation imposes an organization on activities and a spatial structure. Inversely, the spatial structure influences transportation. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Spatial Organization of Transportation](#1_The_Spatial_Organization_of_Transportation) - [2. Global Spatial Organization](#2_Global_Spatial_Organization) - [3. Regional Spatial Organization](#3_Regional_Spatial_Organization) - [4. Local Spatial Organization](#4_Local_Spatial_Organization) # 1. The Spatial Organization of Transportation The spatial organization relies on two dimensions that underline that uniformity rarely exists. The first relates to **spatial differentiation,** where attributes such as location, size, and density illustrate inequalities in the distribution of features such as population or resources. This differentiation results from a cumulative process of spatial accumulation as several elements of the spatial structure, such as urban areas, accumulate population and infrastructures at different rates and densities. The second relates to **spatial interactions** where flows illustrate inequalities in the characteristics of origins and destinations. Transportation favors not only economic development but also has an impact on spatial organization. Throughout history, transport networks have structured space at different scales. The fragmentation of production and consumption, the locational specificities of resources, labor, and markets generate a wide array of people and freight flows. The structure of these flows in terms of origin, destination, and routing are closely related to spatial organization. Space shapes transport as much as transport shapes space, which is a salient example of the reciprocity of transportation and its geography. This **reciprocity** can be articulated over two points: - **Reciprocity to locations**. This relationship concerns the transport system and the impacts it has on locations. Since the transport system is composed of nodes and links as well as the flows they support, the spatial organization of this system is a core defining component of the spatial structure. Transportation, by its physicality, shapes the spatial structure. Even if the streets are not the city, they shape its organization in terms of locations, orientations, and relations. The same applies to maritime shipping networks, which are not international trade but reflect the spatial organization of the global economy. - **Reciprocity to demand**. This relationship concerns **activities** that are all dependent on transportation at different levels and different scales. Since every single activity is based on a level of transport demand and mobility, their relationship with transportation is reflected in their spatial organization. While a small retail activity is conditioned by local accessibility from which it draws its customers, a large manufacturing plant relies on accessibility to global freight distribution for its inputs (parts) as well as its outputs (finished goods). The more interdependent an economy is, the more transportation becomes a support and a factor shaping its interdependencies. However, the importance of transportation can be neglected as interdependencies will be noticed while their structural support less so. The effect is being observed while its cause is not. Transportation infrastructures are [constrained by a number of factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19844), including the physical environment, the level of demand, the available capital, and the regulatory environment. The relationship between transport and spatial organization can be considered from [three major geographical scales](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1374); the global, the regional, and the local. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_infrastructures_constraints2.png?resize=900%2C432&ssl=1 "Transportation Infrastructures and their Constraints | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-infrastructures-constraints/transport_infrastructures_constraints/)Transportation Infrastructures and their Constraints[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/scale_spatial_transportation.png?resize=900%2C364&ssl=1 "Scales of Spatial Organization for Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-spatial-organization-scale/scale_spatial_transportation/)Scales of Spatial Organization for Transportation# 2. Global Spatial Organization At the global level, transportation supports and shapes economic specialization and productivity through international trade. Improvements in transport are expanding markets and development opportunities, but **not uniformly**. The inequalities of the global economy are reflected in its spatial organization and the structure of international transport systems. Globalization incited a growth in spatial flows (trade) and increased interdependencies. Telecommunications, maritime transport, and air transport support most global flows because of their scale of service. The nature and spatial structure of these flows can be considered from two major perspectives that seek to explain global differences in growth and accessibility: - **[Core / periphery](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-core-periphery/ "Core / Periphery Division of the World")**. This basic representation assumes that the global spatial organization favors a few core areas that grow faster than the periphery, with differential growth creating inequalities in development levels. For instance, [global migration flows](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-net-migration/ "Global Net Migration (2010-2015)") are illustrative of different levels of economic development, with flows from locations with lower development levels to higher development levels dominating. Transportation is thus perceived as a factor of polarization and unequal development. From this perspective, parts of the global economy are gaining because they are more accessible, while others are marginalized and bound to dependency. However, this trend can be reversed if international transport costs are significantly reduced. This is evidenced by the substantial growth of many Pacific Asian economies that have opted for an export-oriented strategy that requires good access to global freight distribution. Consequently, the core/periphery relationship is flexible, relative, and can change over time. - **[Poles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1397)**. Transportation is perceived as a factor of articulation in the global economy, where the circulation of passengers and freight is regulated by poles corresponding to a high accumulation of transport infrastructures, distribution facilities, and economic activities. These poles are subject to [centrifugal and centripetal forces](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1405) that have favored the concentration of some activities and the dispersion of others. The global economy is thus based on the backbone of freight distribution, which relies on networks established to support its flows and on nodes that regulate flows within networks. Networks, particularly those concerning maritime shipping and air transportation, are flexible entities that change with the ebb and tides of commerce, while nodes are locations fixed within their regional geography. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Core-Periphery.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Core / Periphery Division of the World | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-core-periphery/map-core-periphery-png/)Core Periphery Division of the World[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Migration.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Global Net Migration (2010-2015) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-net-migration/map-migration-png/)Global Net Migration 2010 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trade_connectivity_inequalities2.png?resize=900%2C618&ssl=1 "Trade, Connectivity and Spatial Inequalities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/trade-connectivity-inequalities/trade_connectivity_inequalities2/)Trade Connectivity and Spatial Inequalities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Poles-Global-Economy-1024x551.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Poles of the Global Economy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-economy-poles/map-poles-global-economy-png/)Poles of the Global Economy[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/centrifugal_centripetal.png?resize=900%2C416&ssl=1 "Forces of Geographical Concentration and Dispersion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/concentrationdispersionforces/centrifugal_centripetal/)Forces of Geographical Concentration and DispersionDepending on their geographical and modal context, global flows are handled by poles labeled as **gateways** and **hubs**. > [Gateway](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1411). A location offering accessibility to a large system of circulation of freight and passengers. Gateways reap the advantage of a favorable physical location such as highway junctions, the confluence of rivers, a good port site, and have been the object of a significant accumulation of transport infrastructures such as terminals and their links. A gateway is commonly an origin, a destination, and a point of transit. It generally commands the entrance to and the exit from its catchment area. In other words, it is a pivotal point for the entry and exit of a region, a country, or a continent and often requires intermodal transfers. > [**Hub**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1411). A central point for the collection, sorting, transshipment, and distribution of goods for an area. This concept comes from a term used in air transport for passengers as well as for freight and describes collection and distribution through a single point such as the “Hub and Spoke” concept. The global spatial organization is a priori conditioned by its [**connectivity**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10914), often reflective of a network structure. Its main [components](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10215) are the nodes and the foreland (international connectivity, usually by maritime and air transportation) and hinterlands (regional connectivity, usually by land transport systems). Through the principle of economies of agglomeration and accessibility, a region can accumulate several major intermodal infrastructures, namely port, and airport terminals, reinforcing its connectivity. When these nodes act as an interface, they can be characterized as gateway systems (or regions) that play a substantial role in the global distribution of freight, connecting major circulation systems. Gateways also act as **bottlenecks** in global freight distribution, imposing constraints on their capacity, infrastructure performance, or supply chain management capabilities. Gateways emerged in the 19th century when rail transportation began structuring hinterland accessibility by allowing specific locations, such as ports, to command access to vast market areas. Later, the emergence of air transport enabled the setting of gateways between global and regional air transport systems. Services are following a spatial trend that appears to be increasingly different than production. As production dispersed globally to lower-cost locations, high-level services focused on a relatively few large metropolitan areas labeled as **[world cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1427)**. They are centers for [financial services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/ "Global Financial Centers, 2021") (banking, insurance), [head offices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1432) of major multinational corporations, innovation clusters, nexuses for the arts, and the seats of major governments. Gateways and world cities may not necessarily correspond as locations, underlining the ongoing **dichotomy** between central places (commercial imperatives) and transport places (distribution imperatives). This is particularly true for containerized traffic linked with new manufacturing clusters and intermediary hubs. The world’s largest container ports are not necessarily global cities, but many, such as New York, Shanghai, and Tokyo, are. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gateways_hubs2.png?resize=900%2C414&ssl=1 "Gateways and Hubs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/gateways-hubs/gateways_hubs2/)Gateways and Hubs[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relevance_connectivity2.png?resize=900%2C479&ssl=1 "The Relevance of Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/relevance-connectivity/relevance_connectivity/)The Relevance of Connectivity[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/components_nodal_connectivity.png?resize=900%2C476&ssl=1 "The Components of Nodal Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/components-connectivity-geography/components_nodal_connectivity/)The Geographical Components of Connectivity[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Gateways-Index-2018.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "Global Gateways Index, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/map-global-gateways-index-2010-png/)Global Gateways Index 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bottlenecks_types.png?resize=900%2C629&ssl=1 "Types of Transportation Bottlenecks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/bottlenecks-types-transportation/bottlenecks_types/)Types of Bottlenecks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Cities-Index-2012.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World Cities, 2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-city-index/map-world-cities-index-2012-png/)World Cities 2012[![Map Financial Centers World](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Financial-Centers-2021.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global Financial Centers, 2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-financial-centers/map-global-financial-centers-2021/)Global Financial Centers 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Fortune-250.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's 250 Largest Corporations by Head Office City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/largest-corporations-head-office-map/map-fortune-250-png/)Worlds 250 Largest Corporations by Head Office City# 3. Regional Spatial Organization Regions are commonly organized along with an interdependent set of cities, forming what is often referred to as an **urban system**. The key spatial foundation of an urban system is based on a series of [market areas](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1438), which are a function of the level of activity of each center concerning the friction of distance. The spatial structure of most regions can be subdivided into three basic components: - **Locations of specialized industries**, such as manufacturing and mining, tend to agglomerate according to location factors such as raw materials, labor, or market accessibility. They are often export-oriented industries from which a region derives the bulk of its basic growth. - **Service industry locations**, including administration, finance, retail, wholesale, and similar services, tend to agglomerate in a system of central places (cities), providing optimal accessibility to labor or potential customers. - **Transport nodes and links**, such as roads, railways, ports, and airports, service major centers of economic activity. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/delimitation_market_areas2.png?resize=900%2C767&ssl=1 "Delimitation and Variations in Market Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/delimitation_market_areas2/)Delimitation and Variations in Market Areas [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/core_periphery_stages_urban_system.png?resize=900%2C785&ssl=1 "Core-Periphery Stages of Development in an Urban System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/urban-system-core-periphery/core_periphery_stages_urban_system/)Core Periphery Stages of Development in a Urban System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/conceptual_corridor_development.png?resize=900%2C540&ssl=1 "Conceptual Corridor Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/corridor-development/conceptual_corridor_development/)Conceptual Corridor Development[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_corridors_regional_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C557&ssl=1 "Transport Corridors and the Regional Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transport-corridors-spatial-structure/transport_corridors_regional_spatial_structure/)Transport Corridors and the Regional Spatial StructureJointly, these components define the [spatial order](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=430) of a region, mostly its organization in a hierarchy of relationships involving the mobility of passengers and freight. More or less well-defined urban systems spatially translate such developments, with the most important cities being the best connected and accessible while lower-order centers have less connectivity. This begets whether connectivity is an outcome of city size or if city size is the outcome of connectivity. Many conceptual models have been proposed to explain the relationships between transport, urban systems, and regional development, particularly [core-periphery stages of development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/urban-system-core-periphery/ "Core-Periphery Stages of Development in a Urban System") and [network expansion](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/corridor-development/ "Conceptual Corridor Development") theories. Three conceptual categories of regional spatial organization can be observed: - [**Central places / urban systems** models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1457) try to find the [relationships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1463) between the size, the number, and the geographic distribution of cities in a region to explain [variations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-variations/ "Variations of the Central Places Theory") in the regional spatial structure. Most urban systems have a well-established and stable hierarchy where a few centers dominate. Transportation is particularly important in such a representation as the organization of central places is based on minimizing the friction of distance. The territorial structure depicted by the central places theory is the outcome of a region seeking the provision of services in a (transport) cost-effective way. - [**Growth poles**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1473) where economic development is the structural change caused by the growth of new industries. The clustered location of these activities is the catalyst of the regional spatial organization. Growth poles first initiate, then diffuse, development. Growth is distributed within a regional urban system, but this process is uneven, with the core benefiting first and the periphery eventually becoming integrated with a system of flows. In the growth poles theory, transportation is a factor of accessibility, reinforcing the importance of poles. - [**Transport corridors**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7296) represent an accumulation of flows and infrastructures of various modes, with their development linked with economic, infrastructural, and technological processes. When these processes involve urban development, corridors are a system of cities oriented along an axis enabling commercial relations. Many urban regions, such as [BostWash](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7741) (Boston – Washington) or [Tokaido](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7748) (Tokyo – Osaka), share this spatial commonality. The development of [high-speed train systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1921) around the world takes place along major urban corridors and reinforces the existing regional spatial structure. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/central_places_theory2.png?resize=900%2C504&ssl=1 "Central Places Theory (Market Principle) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-market-principle/central_places_theory2/)Central Places Theory Market Principle[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/market_size_central_place2s.png?resize=900%2C313&ssl=1 "Market Size / Area Relationships in the Central Places Theory | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-urban-system/market_size_central_place2s/)Market Size Area Relationships in the Central Places Theory[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/central_places_variations.png?resize=900%2C350&ssl=1 "Variations of the Central Places Theory | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-variations/central_places_variations/)Variations of the Central Places Theory[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/growth_poles_theory3.png?resize=900%2C395&ssl=1 "Growth Poles Theory | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/growth-poles-theory/growth_poles_theory3/)Growth Poles Theory[![The Boston - Washington Urban Corridor](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-BostWash-Horizontal.png?w=900&ssl=1 "The BostWash Corridor | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/boston-washington-corridor/bostwash/)The BostWash Corridor[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tokaido-megalopolis.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "The Tokaido Megalopolis | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/tokyo-osaka-corridor-tokaido/tokaido/)The Tokaido Corridor[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-HSR.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "World High Speed Rail Systems, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/map-world-hsr/)World High Speed Rail Systems 2018It is at the regional level that transportation has the most significant impact since the choice of routes reinforces the existing accessibility and may increase the importance of corridors. Therefore, transportation can be more of a factor in reinforcing regional inequalities. # 4. Local Spatial Organization Although transport is an important element in rural spatial organization, it is at the urban level that transportation has the most significant local spatial impact. Urbanization and transport are interrelated concepts, particularly with transport [shaping the size and extent of cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4720). Every city relies on a need for mobility of passengers (residence, work, purchases, and leisure) and freight (consumption goods, food, energy, construction materials, and waste disposal). Urban demographic and spatial evolution transform the scale and scope of movements. Employment and attraction zones are the essential elements shaping the local urban spatial organization: - **Employment zones**. The growing dissociation between the workplace and the residence is mainly due to the success of motorized transport, notably the private automobile. Employment zones located away from residential zones have contributed to an increase in the number and length of commuting trips. Before suburbanization, public transit was wholly responsible for commuting. Today, the automobile supports most of these trips, but the city supports a wide range of mobility options. This trend is particularly prevalent in highly populated, industrialized, and urbanized zones, but motorization is also dominant in developing economies. - **Attraction zones**. Attraction zones linked to transport modes are areas to which a large number of individuals will travel for reasons such as shopping, professional services, education, and leisure. As with central places theory, there is a specific [hierarchy of services within an urban area](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1481) ranging from the central business district offering a wide variety of specialized services to small local centers providing basic services such as groceries and personal banking. The **development of cities is conditioned by transport**, and several modes, from urban transit to the automobile, have contributed to creating urban landscapes. Three distinct phases can be noted: - **Conventional (classic) city**. Constructed for pedestrian interactions and constrained by them, the historical city was compact and limited in size. The emergence of the first urban transit systems in the 19th century permitted the extension of the city into new neighborhoods. However, pedestrian movements still accounted for the vast majority of movements, and the local spatial organization remained compact. Many European and Asian cities still have a significant level of compactness, where urban transit remains a defining element of spatial organization. - **Suburbanization**. The advent of more efficient urban transit systems and, later, the automobile permitted an increased separation between basic urban functions (residential, industrial, and commercial) and their spatial specialization. The rapid expansion of urban areas, especially in North America, created a new spatial organization, less cohesive than before but still relatively adjacent to the existing urban fabric. Although this process started in the early 20th century, it accelerated in the 1950s. - **Exurbanization**. Additional improvements in mobility favored urban expansion in the countryside, where urban and rural activities are somewhat intermixed. Many cities became extended metropolitan regions with a wide array of specialized functions, including residential areas, commercial centers, industrial parks, logistics centers, recreational areas, and high-tech zones. These exurban developments have also been called “edge cities”. The automobile has influenced contemporary urban spatial organization, but other socioeconomic factors have also shaped urban development, such as gentrification and differential changes in [land values](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1487). The diffusion of the automobile has led to an urban expansion relying on the mobility of individuals and often conflicting urban functions (residential, industrial, commercial). Still, distance decay remains a force shaping urban spatial organization since suburban and exurban developments tend to occur as [concentric rings](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4914) within large metropolitan areas. Transport thus contributes to the local spatial organization. However, it must also adapt to urban morphologies. Transport networks and urban centers complement and condition each other. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/one_hour_commuting.png?resize=900%2C629&ssl=1 "One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/one-hour-commuting/one_hour_commuting/)One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/central_places_urban_areas.png?resize=900%2C580&ssl=1 "Central Places in Urban Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-urban-areas/central_places_urban_areas/)Central Places in Urban Areas[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/land_use_activity_sector.png?resize=900%2C480&ssl=1 "Land Use Values and Activity Sectors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/land-use-activity-sectors/land_use_activity_sector/)Land Use Values and Activity Sectors[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/chicago_pop_change_2000_2010.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Population Density Changes by Census Block, Chicago 2000-2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/population-changes-chicago/chicago_pop_change_2000_2010/)Population Density Changes by Census Block Chicago 2000 2010--- ## Related Topics - [1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=322) - [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1498) - [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481) - [7.2 – Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3919) - [8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4609) - [B.3 – Gateways and Transport Corridors in North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7652) - [B.5 – Transcontinental Bridges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7237) ## Bibliography - Alessandretti, L., Aslak, U. and S. Lehmann (2020) The scales of human mobility. Nature 587, 402-407. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2909-1. - Cooley, C.H. (1894) The Theory of Transportation, Publications of the American Economic Association, 9. - Gottmann, J. (1961) Megalopolis: The Urbanized Northeastern Seaboard of the United States, New York: Twentieth Century Fund. - Harris, C. and E. Ullman (1945) “The Nature of Cities”, Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, No. 242, pp. 7-17. - Henderson, J.V., Z. Shalizi and A.J. Venables (2000) Geography and Development, Journal of Economic Geography, Vol. 1, pp. 81-106. - Janelle, D. (1969) “Spatial Reorganization: A Model and Concept”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 59, pp. 348-364. - Michel, B. (2017) “Seeing Spatial Structures: On the Role of Visual Material in the Making of the Early Quantitative Revolution in Geography”, Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Vol. 98, No. 3, pp. 189-203. https://doi.org/10.1111/geob.12099. - Scholvin, S., M. Breul and J.R. Diez (2019) “Revisiting gateway cities: connecting hubs in global networks to their hinterlands”, Urban Geography, Vol. 40(9), pp. 1291-1309. - Ullman, E. (1980) Geography as Spatial Interaction, Seattle: University of Washington Press. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Basic Location Strategies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategies-basic/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_location_strategy.png?resize=900%2C357&ssl=1 "Basic Location Strategies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Basic Location StrategiesAn economic activity can remain operational if the relationship between the costs of its inputs and the revenue from the sale of its outputs is positive. It is at least able to break even. Otherwise, it needs to be subsidized, implying a transfer of wealth from another sector. A location can impact the price of both inputs and outputs, so the choice of a location can be important to ensure its profitability. In the above example, two location criteria are considered along a continuum between a location with low land costs (X) and a location (market) with a high number of customers (Y). Two location strategies can be considered: - **Cost minimization** mainly considers location problems where revenues (sales) are generally constant and where costs vary. This approach focuses on reducing input costs such as rent, which is particularly the case for manufacturing and resources that tend to service large markets. Thus, a manufacturer is likely to have similar sales, wherever its location, but its production costs are likely to vary depending on its location. The goal is consequently to find an optimal location (X) that minimizes costs and maximizes profits. Such a location can be “bounded” (between X and A), implying that a certain geographical area, due to its lower costs, would incur profits for an activity wherever its location is within this area. There is a potential positive feedback effect as a low-cost location enables an increase in profits, which can be passed down the supply chain and likely improve the market share, demand, and revenue. - **Revenue maximization** deals with constant costs, but varying revenues. This approach focuses on maximizing outputs, which is particularly the case for retail activities whose inputs tend to be constant (such as labor), but whose revenues (sales) can increase at locations that are more accessible to potential customers. There is an optimal location (Y) ensuring the highest access to customers, which can be bounded (between B and Y). Both strategies can be reconciled in a **profit maximization** perspective where costs and revenue vary according to the location. In the above case, the profits from land costs derived from a location are compared with the profits from customer revenues from the same location. Each requires being above a breakeven line. Under such a perspective, the optimal location could be different (O). Still, cost minimization is more common because identifying costs is easier than estimating revenue. Costs can be controlled to a greater extent than revenue. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategies-basic/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategies-basic/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategies-basic/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategies-basic/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Urban Pickup Location, Chongqing, China](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-pickup-location-chongqing/) **Published:** March 7, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2015-05-15-082441.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Urban Pickup Location, Chongqing, China | The Geography of Transport Systems ")*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2015.* Direct home deliveries are rather uncommon in China. Orders are usually routed to a neighborhood pickup location, which is owned or leased by the retailer. Delivery at a pickup location enables a consumer to pay cash for the purchase (COD), which accounts for about 40% of online transactions but is receding rapidly. The pickup outlet shown in the above photo below is located on a university campus where many students do not have access to a credit card. Therefore, the prevalence of urban pickup outlets enables the combination of the benefit of a consolidated pickup location and the unique transactional (cash prevalence) characteristics of the Chinese consumer market. Still, the use of credit cards has been increasing rapidly. There are also widely used small payment systems, namely Alipay (owned by the giant online retailer Alibaba) and WeChat. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-pickup-location-chongqing/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-pickup-location-chongqing/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-pickup-location-chongqing/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-pickup-location-chongqing/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Impacts of Urban Planning Strategies on City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/impacts-urban-planning-city-logistics/) **Published:** March 7, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_planning_strategies_city_logistics.png?resize=900%2C327&ssl=1 "Impacts of Urban Planning Strategies on City Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of Urban Planning Strategies on City LogisticsThe urban planning discourse tends to promote strategies leaning on the development of an urban setting significantly different from the existing pattern, which is judged to be inefficient and unsustainable. In particular, low-density, specialized, car-dependent land use developments on greenfield sites are to be avoided. Urban developments are part of a wider cluster of activities that includes freight distribution. Yet, freight distribution concerns are usually not part of the issues that are at the core of urban planning (such as smart growth strategies), which underlines gaps between what is advocated as desirable outcomes and the realities of city logistics. For instance, higher densities are usually advocated as desirable, but from a freight distribution perspective, they are linked with a concentration with the freight demand and parking difficulties for deliveries. The promotion of public transit, walking, and cycling is seen as eminently positive, but it must also consider that it could lead to parking difficulties, conflicts for curb access, and even an increase in home deliveries because of e-commerce. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/impacts-urban-planning-city-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/impacts-urban-planning-city-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/impacts-urban-planning-city-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/impacts-urban-planning-city-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon Parcel Pick Up Locker](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/amazon-parcel-pick-up-locker/) **Published:** March 7, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Amazon_Locker_-_Baltoro_New_York_New_York.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Amazon Parcel Pick Up Locker | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Amazon Parcel Pick Up Locker*Photo: Wikipedia /Adam Malan, 2013.* E-commerce has been an important driving force in the retail sector, and one aspect concerns the growth of parcel deliveries to residential addresses. A challenge is that the majority of homes and apartment buildings are not well adapted to parcel deliveries. They often lack the space or a secure drop-off location. Further, many households are away from home during regular business hours, resulting in missed deliveries. To cope with these problems, the online retailer Amazon is starting to set up its own delivery lockers at strategic and highly accessible urban locations, such as convenience stores. This improves the performance of urban deliveries with fewer missed deliveries and allows consignees to pick up their parcels at a convenient time (such as when coming back from work). Most locker deliveries are set when a consumer purchases goods online and is offered the opportunity to use a locker delivery, often at lower shipping costs. The consumer then receives a pickup code (or bar code to be scanned by the locker) through email or text messaging that is inputted at the locker bank. This code unlocks a locker door containing the parcel. If the parcel is not picked up within a certain amount of time (usually 3 days), it is returned to the distribution center. Amazon is also developing similar systems for [large apartment buildings ](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=197)since the growth of home deliveries has increased the number of parcels such buildings are handling each day. Such initiatives are also taking place in other parts of the world, such as [Europe](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=193). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/amazon-parcel-pick-up-locker/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/amazon-parcel-pick-up-locker/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/amazon-parcel-pick-up-locker/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/amazon-parcel-pick-up-locker/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Urban Freight Station: DHL Packstation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-freight-station-dhl-packstation/) **Published:** March 7, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Polish_Packstation.jpg?resize=900%2C565&ssl=1 "Urban Freight Station: DHL Packstation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Freight Station DHL Packstation*Photo: Wikipedia.* The growth of parcel deliveries to individuals, mostly the outcome of online sales, incited the setting of urban freight stations handling small to mid-sized parcels. This enables the consolidation of parcel deliveries bound to a specific neighborhood (a cluster of customers) and avoids the risk of missed deliveries when the consignee is not present at home. Customers have the option to pick up parcels at any time using a pickup code. This is usually done by major parcel carriers. For instance, the above photo represents a “PackStation” or automated locker banks, thousands or which were set at accessible locations across European cities. Further, several online retailers are generating sufficient volumes to establish such a network independently from standard postal or parcel services, such as Amazon. The number and size of such facilities is a function of the frequency and intensity of parcel deliveries. If demand surpasses the capacity of the freight station, another can be added nearby or at a better market-serving location. Still, consumers prefer deliveries to their homes and locker boxes have a real estate cost, meaning that the cost difference difference between home and locker-box delivery is not that significant. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-freight-station-dhl-packstation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-freight-station-dhl-packstation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-freight-station-dhl-packstation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/urban-freight-station-dhl-packstation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Location of LTL and Parcel Distribution Centers, Paris 1974-2010](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/logistics-sprawl-location-paris/) **Published:** March 7, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Paris_Logistics_Sprawl.png?resize=900%2C351&ssl=1 "Location of LTL and Parcel Distribution Centers, Paris 1974-2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Location of LTL and Parcel Distribution Centers Paris 1974 2010*Source: adapted from Dablanc, L. and D. Rakotonarivo (2010) “The impacts of logistic sprawl: how does the location of parcel transport terminals affect the energy efficiency of goods’ movements in Paris and what can we do about it?”, The Sixth International Conference on City Logistics; Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences 2(3): 6087-6096.* Logistics sprawl concerns the relocation of freight facilities and distribution centers in suburbia and is characteristic of the majority of large urban agglomerations, particularly in advanced economies. The above map reflects the process in the case of Paris, which has seen the disappearance and the relocation of a number of freight activities in its central area towards the periphery. Since economic activities and the population have not dispersed to a similar extent to logistics facilities, the amount of vehicle-km for urban freight distribution has increased. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/logistics-sprawl-location-paris/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/logistics-sprawl-location-paris/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/logistics-sprawl-location-paris/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/logistics-sprawl-location-paris/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Lobby as a Freight Station](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/lobby-freight-station/) **Published:** March 7, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2015-12-22-151455.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "The Lobby as a Freight Station | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Lobby as a Freight Station*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2015.* In urban agglomerations, a significant share of large apartment complexes (more than 25 units, either rented or privately owned) have a lobby monitored by a concierge, this often on a 24-hour basis. The traditional role of a concierge is to provide a level of security by monitoring the access of a building, screening visitors, and providing general assistance services to residents. A concierge is also responsible for receiving packages on the residents’ behalf, particularly in their absence, a role that has substantially expanded with the growth of online retailing and its resulting home deliveries of large boxes (see above photo). Under such circumstances, a growing amount of deliveries end up using the **lobby as a distribution center** (an informal freight station); a buffer between the delivery schedules and the availability of residents to collect them. For parcels and goods delivery companies, this is a very efficient system as it guarantees uninterrupted supply chains (ability to deliver to the consignee) and continuity of deliveries. The delivery truck is ensured to be able to drop all the cargo bound to a specific address because there will always be someone available to act as a consignee. It is thus not surprising that large apartment buildings receive priority for delivery scheduling both because of the volume they generate (three to five large buildings could generate enough cargo to fill a standard urban delivery truck each day) and the reliability they confer to deliveries. Inversely, deliveries to single-family homes or small apartment complexes are prone to a high risk of missed deliveries as the consignee may not be present, which requires the setting of an alternative delivery date and time (additional organizational complexity). As this trend continues, the higher costs of maintaining a concierge service are better justified through its resulting improvement in freight distribution. Therefore, the lobby has become an essential dimension of city logistics by assuming the role of an [urban freight station](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=193). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/lobby-freight-station/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/lobby-freight-station/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/lobby-freight-station/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-logistical-challenges/lobby-freight-station/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.3 – The Diversity of Urban Freight Activities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/) **Published:** March 3, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue & Dr. Laetitia Dablanc > Urban areas have a diversity of freight profiles in terms of the freight they generate and how it circulates. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Logistics and the Global Urban Landscape](#1_Logistics_and_the_Global_Urban_Landscape) - [2. Urban Freight Profiles](#2_Urban_Freight_Profiles) - [3. City Logistics in World Cities](#3_City_Logistics_in_World_Cities) # 1. Logistics and the Global Urban Landscape Urban economies are evolving rapidly towards a **higher level of material intensiveness** as global incomes are rising. Moving freight within urban areas is a common urban transportation challenge that impacts many large metropolises. Such challenges were also prevalent in ancient times. For instance, the Roman emperor Julius Caesar proclaimed in 44 BCE an edict forbidding the delivery of goods in Rome during the daytime. It is likely that other cities throughout history were also having similar restrictions, underlining that supplying cities with goods remained an enduring challenge. What has changed is the scale and scope of the problem. The Industrial Revolution changed the urban landscape with manufacturing districts and new terminal facilities such as ports, rail yards, and public transit systems. Freight activities were scaled up. From the 1980s, globalism and trade liberalization further expanded freight as an element of the urban landscape by allowing cities in developing economies to participate further in global trade and manufacturing. Containerization had a particularly significant impact on the global freight landscape with intermodal terminal facilities and the associated distribution centers. The latest trend concerns the digitalization of the economy, where e-commerce created an entirely new landscape of urban freight activities. Freight transportation maintains a set of core relations with urban areas since a city is an entity where production, distribution, and consumption activities are used and competing for scarce land. Two relations are at the core of freight distribution and urban areas; freight land dynamics and freight distribution dynamics: - **Freight land dynamics**. Freight is an activity that consumes a substantial amount of land as an input, particularly at the aggregate level (routes, modes, and terminals). Since a city is at the same time a unit of production, consumption, and distribution, terminal facilities, such as ports, airports, railyards, and distribution centers, are particularly large consumers of urban land. Rights of way, such as roads, many of which are shared with passenger transportation, also consume a significant amount of land. The amount of land use devoted to freight varies in terms of the socio-economic function of a city (e.g. a service or a manufacturing center) and its role in the global freight distribution system. - **Freight distribution dynamics**. The support of freight as an urban activity relies on distribution strategies, including modal choice, that ensure an adequate level of service so that providers of city logistics are able to meet the needs of their customers. City logistics is commonly known as a “last mile” distribution strategy to ensure that the needs of the urban producer and consumer of freight (e.g. retail) are met. In urban areas, one of the scarcest resources remains the road, including parking areas. In the central areas of major urban areas, roads can account from 25% of the surface for high-density cities (e.g Paris) to 45% for low-density cities (Los Angeles). Elements of the urban landscape such as commercial districts are important [generators and attractors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/spatial-functional-structure-urban-logistics/ "The Spatial and Functional Structure of Urban Logistics") of freight movements. Further, freight distribution is often sharing the same road infrastructure as many passenger transport modes, with their [activity patterns](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5050) corresponding to periods of peaks and troughs. The global urban and economic system has also become functionally specialized, permitting a global division of production and its associated freight volumes. # 2. Urban Freight Profiles A city is supplied by an impressive variety of supply chains servicing a wide array of economic activities such as grocery stores, retail, restaurants, office supplies, raw materials and parts, construction materials, and waste. Each of these activities is associated with a specific **freight profile**; the freight that it attracts, consumes and, generates. The [level of economic development](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=145) is linked with the level of urban freight activity, as income and consumption levels are interdependent. Because of the divergence in built environments and the diversity of urban economic activities, each city around the world has different freight transport and logistics activities and levels of intensity. This brings the question about the specific size threshold after which urban freight distribution problems, such as delays and congestion, become more prevalent, which requires a concerted approach. Using the [United States](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5190) as evidence, congestion starts to be a serious issue once a threshold of about one million inhabitants is reached. For cities of less than one million, city logistics is less likely to be a problem and may be localized to specific areas such as the downtown, the port, or other terminal areas. The unique and often non-replicable conditions of each city are influencing the nature and intensity of congestion in its urban freight distribution system. The growth in truck use is driven by [economic and operational considerations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/factors-truck-traffic-metropolitan-areas/ "Factors Impacting Truck Traffic in Large Metropolitan Areas") that tend to be specific to each metropolitan area. A common characteristic of cities in developing economies is that motorized and non-motorized traffic share the same infrastructures, which leads to congestion and vehicle operation problems. The urban environment of many cities in the developing world is characterized by street vending (petty trade), supplying the urban population with a range of basic necessities. This is particularly the case for shantytowns that tend not to be well supplied by formal supply chains and are thus serviced by forms of urban freight distribution about which little is known. Collective forms of transportation and their terminals play a greater role, particularly bus stations, play an important role as The share of public transit use, land use pattern, and [density](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-density-mobility-commercial-freight-deliveries/ "Relationship between Urban Density, Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight Deliveries") and income levels are common factors relatively unique to each city. Considering the growing level of material intensiveness related to the functions of production, distribution, and consumption, [cities above 4 million inhabitants](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/global-urban-density/ "Population Density of the World’s Largest Metropolitan Areas, 2012") should have planning and circulation management schemes where urban freight distribution is preeminent. Cities of smaller sizes can also proactively be involved in mitigating specific and localized urban freight distribution activities. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/factors_truck_traffic_met.png?resize=900%2C520&ssl=1 "Factors Impacting Truck Traffic in Large Metropolitan Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Factors Impacting Truck Traffic in Large Metropolitan Areas![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/douala_bus_station.jpg?resize=776%2C514&ssl=1 "Intercity Bus Station, Douala, Cameroon | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Intercity Bus Station Douala Cameroon![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_density_mobility_commercial_deliveries.png?resize=900%2C426&ssl=1 "Relationship between Urban Density, Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight Deliveries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Relationship between Urban Density Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight Deliveries![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Urban-Density.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Population Density of the World's Largest Metropolitan Areas, 2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Population Density of the Worlds Largest Metropolitan Areas 2012# 3. City Logistics in World Cities The intensity of urban freight distribution depends on local economic, political, geographic, and cultural characteristics, which leads to different objectives, operational conditions, and constraints in urban freight distribution. Even if there is a wide variety of urban landscapes a typology underlines [five categories representing city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/global-city-logistics-typology/ "Global City Logistics Typology"). - **Large metropolitan areas of developed economies**. The logistics organization in such cities involves freight and logistics facilities in dense urban environments where mass retailing and distribution prevail. Such cities are usually dominated by the tertiary sector, implying that the function of consumption is more prevalent than production. The retailing landscape is rapidly changing through e-commerce and instant deliveries, with parcel transport companies providing finely tuned home delivery services or alternative pick-up points using information technology tools. The logistics organization in high-density cities presents several striking features, including the integration of freight and logistics facilities in very dense settings. These advanced logistics strategies are being adopted by other high-density Asian cities, such as in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and China. - **Large metropolitan areas in developing economies**. Large cities of fast-growing economies have a dual urban freight system. The logistics requirements of a modern economic sector coexist with an informal and largely unrecorded system of pick-ups and deliveries for home-based artisans or street vendors. A wide diversity of road conditions (from new to poorly maintained) accommodates a diversity of modes ranging from pushcarts to mopeds, vans, and trucks. - **Gateway cities**. Serving as gateways to import-based consumer-oriented economies, these urban regions concentrate on the growth of freight terminals, serving as distribution facilities for important local markets of urban consumers and businesses, as well as being regional hubs for the grouping and redistribution of goods to regional and national markets. A notable characteristic is a growth in the number and size of warehouse and distribution facilities located at the metropolitan periphery. - **Adaptive city logistics**. Innovative schemes of urban deliveries have emerged in many city centers with an emphasis on cleaner and more silent operations and consolidated deliveries. They represent an adaptation of city logistics to punctual circumstances, most of the time in medium-sized cities in developed economies. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-City-Logistics-Typology.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global City Logistics Typology | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global City Logistics Typology![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Urban-Congestion.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Traffic Index, Selected Metropolitan Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Traffic Index Selected Metropolitan Areas![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Cities-LPI.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World’s Major Cities and the Logistics Performance Index, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Major Cities and the Logistics Performance Index 2015![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_populations_lpi.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "National Urban Populations and the Logistics Performance Index | The Geography of Transport Systems ")National Urban Populations and the Logistics Performance IndexThe logistical performance of urban freight distribution requires a comparative framework and key performance indicators. However, such a framework does not yet exist, but one has been compiled at the national level by the World Bank; the [Logistics Performance Index](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/worlds-major-cities-logistics-performance-index/ "World’s Major Cities and the Logistics Performance Index, 2015") (LPI). While the LPI reflects global trade and supply chains, it can also be reflective, to some extent, of the logistical capabilities of cities. The national share of urbanization tends to be [proportional to the LPI](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-populations-logistics-performance-index/ "National Urban Populations and the Logistics Performance Index"), indicating that advanced economies are urban with logistical capabilities. More specifically, [world cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1427) have a diverse array of concerns: - **Paris** aims to limit the environmental footprint of freight distribution so that the quality of life of its residents can be maintained and improved. The city’s status as one of the world’s leading cultural and touristic hub has a notable impact on the strategies and priorities accorded to urban freight distribution to support the city’s image. - **Mexico City** tries to cope with the contradictory demands related to the dual presence of both modern (motorized) and traditional forms of urban distribution in terms of infrastructure provision and regulations. Modern logistics services are as vital to the urban economies of developing countries as are more basic freight activities serving street vendors or home-based manufacturing workshops. - **Chicago** aims at maintaining its role as a major rail hub and freight distribution platform for North America with a concentration of distribution and manufacturing activities. The metropolitan area is the point of convergence of the rail lines of the Class I carriers. Still, the different terminal facilities are in separate parts of the city and not well connected. This involves truck congestion as containers need to be carried from one terminal to the other. - **Los Angeles** is facing congestion and environmental issues such as noise and air pollution. The city is facing conflicts between its function as a major commercial gateway for the East Asian trade and other functions linked with touristic and cultural activities. Recent initiatives concern trucking associated with the main port facilities as well as nearby major import-based distribution centers. - **Shanghai** has become the largest cargo port in the world and acts as the main transport hub supporting China’s [export-oriented strategies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4103). A significant share of the freight circulating within the city is therefore linked with global distribution processes. Rising standards of living imply growing consumption levels and the setting of city logistics challenges common in advanced economies. - **Istanbul** is coping with rapid urbanization and economic growth, along with unique geographical constraints, namely a scarcity of flat land and the division of the city by the Strait of Bosporus. Its commercial function is being strengthened by its role as a platform between Middle Eastern, European, and Black Sea commercial interactions. The outcome has been severe constraints for freight circulation in an environment of accelerated economic and urban growth. The city is embarking on large infrastructure projects with a new mega airport and the relocation of manufacturing activities to exurban locations. --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [National Urban Populations and the Logistics Performance Index](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-populations-logistics-performance-index/) **Published:** March 4, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_populations_lpi.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "National Urban Populations and the Logistics Performance Index | The Geography of Transport Systems ")National Urban Populations and the Logistics Performance IndexThere is a level of proportionality between the share of the urban population and the Logistics Performance Index (LPI); the higher the share of the urban population, the higher the LPI (statistically significant R square of 0.37). The size of each observation is related to the national population living in cities of more than 1 million inhabitants. For instance, China, with an urban population of 46% of its total population, has a population of 224 million inhabitants living in cities of more than 1 million inhabitants with a national LPI of 3.49. The positive outliers (above the trend line) are countries having a high dependence on international trade and thus well-developed logistical structures (e.g. Germany, Japan, China, South Korea). The negative outliers (below the trend line) tend to be countries with more limited participation in international trade with deficient transport infrastructure and governance issues (e.g. Brazil, Russia, Nigeria). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-populations-logistics-performance-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-populations-logistics-performance-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-populations-logistics-performance-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-populations-logistics-performance-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World’s Major Cities and the Logistics Performance Index, 2015](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/worlds-major-cities-logistics-performance-index/) **Published:** March 4, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Cities-LPI.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World’s Major Cities and the Logistics Performance Index, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Major Cities and the Logistics Performance Index 2015*Source: World Bank, Logistics Performance Index (LPI). Urban population data from United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision Population Database.* By cross-referencing a dataset composed of the world’s 435 cities of more than 1 million inhabitants (totaling 1,257 million) with their respective national LPI values, it is possible to categorize cities by their nation’s LPI. 27% of the urban population lived in cities within countries with a low LPI (less than 3), while 47% lived in cities with below-average LPI conditions (between 3 and 3.5). Only 26% of the urban population was living in cities with adequate national LPI conditions (more than 3.5). In countries with high LPIs, such as the United States, supply chains tend to be extensive and covering large market areas, while in countries with low LPIs supply chains tend to be shorter and more unreliable. This is also reflected in city logistics with cities in high LPI countries having extensive urban freight distribution systems while cities in countries with low LPIs having urban freight distribution systems that a more simple and inefficient. Such an assessment should be interpreted with caution as significant differences may exist between cities of the same nation. For instance, port and airport cities tend to have more capabilities for city logistics because of their infrastructure and distribution capabilities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/worlds-major-cities-logistics-performance-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/worlds-major-cities-logistics-performance-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/worlds-major-cities-logistics-performance-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/worlds-major-cities-logistics-performance-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global City Logistics Typology](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/global-city-logistics-typology/) **Published:** March 4, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-City-Logistics-Typology.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global City Logistics Typology | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global City Logistics Typology*Source: Dablanc, L. and J-P Rodrigue (2017) “The Geography of Urban Freight”, in G. Giuliano and S. Hanson (eds) The Geography of Urban Transportation, 4th Edition, New York: The Guilfold Press. pp. 34-56.* Four general models of urban logistics can be identified: (MD) large metropolitan areas in developed and (ME) developing countries; (GD and GE) gateway cities (that can also be major metropolitan areas) providing a substantial interface function between national and global freight distribution. A fifth (MM), involves an array of medium-sized cities in developed economies, particularly in Europe, that have implemented city logistics schemes to deal with specific challenges. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/global-city-logistics-typology/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/global-city-logistics-typology/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/global-city-logistics-typology/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/global-city-logistics-typology/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Relationship between Urban Density, Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight Deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-density-mobility-commercial-freight-deliveries/) **Published:** March 4, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_density_mobility_commercial_deliveries.png?resize=900%2C426&ssl=1 "Relationship between Urban Density, Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight Deliveries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Relationship between Urban Density Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight DeliveriesUrban passenger and freight transport systems are separate systems sharing similar infrastructure, but impacted differently by density. The common perspective in urban planning is that higher densities are preferable since they generate economies for services and opportunities in the use of public transit. However, high concentration levels generate conflicts between freight and passenger transportation, induce congestion, pollution, noise, higher levels of energy consumption (lower speed and idling), and risks of accidents. This trend is a non-linear one. In a low-density setting, such as in rural or low-density suburban areas, delivery costs per unit are higher due to the same number of deliveries requiring longer distances. In a medium-density suburban setting, delivery costs are lower as shorter delivery distances are experienced while very few constraints are still impacting them. As density increases, however, a set of constraints becomes more prevalent, particularly as it relates to parking. Delivery costs thus increase rapidly. For retailing, higher densities are related to higher sales per floor space, but also less space available for storage. All this implies more frequent deliveries, which are taking place in an environment where there is limited parking available and competition for the use of road and curb space. This may also incite the usage of smaller delivery vehicles (either by choice or imposed by regulation), which results in more frequent deliveries and higher costs. This is the main reason why freight distribution in higher-density settings commonly requires mitigation strategies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-density-mobility-commercial-freight-deliveries/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-density-mobility-commercial-freight-deliveries/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-density-mobility-commercial-freight-deliveries/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/urban-density-mobility-commercial-freight-deliveries/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Intercity Bus Station, Douala, Cameroon](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/intercity-bus-station-douala-cameroon/) **Published:** March 4, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/douala_bus_station.jpg?resize=776%2C514&ssl=1 "Intercity Bus Station, Douala, Cameroon | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Intercity Bus Station Douala Cameroon*Photo: Dr. Esther Boupda, 2012.* Intercity passenger transportation is an important cluster of economic activities in developing economies since a automobile ownership tends to be low. Several personal and commercial interactions are therefore assumed by bus services, implying that a bus station is at the same time a passenger and a freight terminal. This incites the location of urban freight distribution activites around bus stations. On the above photo, an intercity bus station in Douala, Cameroon has high activity levels for passengers, but also for freight. In addition to offering long-distance passenger services, the bus company can also transport freight (parcels) on behalf of its customers. Due to its centrality and level of activity, many commercial activities are agglomerating in the vicinity. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/intercity-bus-station-douala-cameroon/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/intercity-bus-station-douala-cameroon/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/intercity-bus-station-douala-cameroon/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/intercity-bus-station-douala-cameroon/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Factors Impacting Truck Traffic in Large Metropolitan Areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/factors-truck-traffic-metropolitan-areas/) **Published:** March 3, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/factors_truck_traffic_met.png?resize=900%2C520&ssl=1 "Factors Impacting Truck Traffic in Large Metropolitan Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Factors Impacting Truck Traffic in Large Metropolitan AreasSeveral metropolitan areas are experiencing contradictory factors concerning the circulation of trucks, including delivery vans. Similar to passenger transportation, there are indications of emerging [peak mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1879) for trucks, but these trends are continuously been revised. This is the outcome of a conjunction of economic and operational factors related to truck freight distribution: - **Economics**. Many developed countries have been impacted by deindustrialization or at least by a substantial shift of the industrial base towards added-value activities. This results in fewer truck movements related to the distribution of raw materials and parts. Accordingly, the setting of global supply chains involves production taking place in other parts of the world, and the distribution more focused around major terminals (e.g. ports) and the road corridors connecting them. Several metropolitan areas have implemented various congestion pricing schemes (or restrictions for trucks), which include higher tolls. The cost of using local roads is increasing. Although higher tolls may have limited impacts on truck routing, particularly where there are limited alternatives, they are inciting a more rational utilization of the vehicles. - **Operational efficiency**. Distribution centers were conventionally located in proximity to central areas, particularly transport terminals, and tended to be of small size. The setting of large and high capacity supply chains incited the relocation of many freight distribution centers to suburban areas, or areas completely outside metropolitan areas, where land was cheaper and more available. These distribution centers have favored cargo consolidation into larger truckloads, requiring fewer truck trips. Technical and regulatory changes have permitted the usage of heavier and larger trucks on highways and some local roads. For instance, trailers of 53 feet are permitted on the majority of American highways. The consolidation of loads is also associated with backhaul opportunities where more efficient trucking fleet management enables fewer empty return trips. For instance, several large retailers are using backhauls to transport recyclable materials (e.g. cardboard) from their stores. Consequently, truck operators had several economic and operational incentives to improve the utilization level of their assets when circulating within or through metropolitan areas. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/factors-truck-traffic-metropolitan-areas/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/factors-truck-traffic-metropolitan-areas/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/factors-truck-traffic-metropolitan-areas/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/diversity-urban-freight-activities/factors-truck-traffic-metropolitan-areas/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Basic Land Economics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-economics/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_land_economics.png?resize=900%2C550&ssl=1 "Basic Land Economics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Basic Land EconomicsIn a market economy, most urban land can be freely sold or purchased. Thus, land economics is concerned with how the **price of urban land is established** and how this price will influence the nature, pattern, and distribution of land uses. The above figure provides some basic relationships between the **quantity of land and its price** and assumes that there is a free land market (most of the land is available for a transaction). The urban land market mechanism follows the standard relationship between supply and demand where an equilibrium price is reached; a quantity of land Q1 would be available at a price of P1. However, what is particular to cities is that the supply of land at any given location is fixed: - The central area of a city (central business district) is assumed by the location of the highest land price, but the lowest land availability. - Land available in a quantity Q1 will be priced at P1. - Moving towards the downtown the demand rises, the land becomes scarcer (Q2) and its price goes up (P2). - Moving towards the periphery, more land is available, demand drops (Q3), and so does the price (P3). Not every type of activity is willing to pay a price P1, and some activities may even need a price lower than P3. High land values incite a more **intensive usage of space** so that more activities can benefit from a central location. Therefore, the logic behind the construction of skyscrapers is obvious and takes place at locations with potentially high levels of competition for land. Different types of activities, each having its own land use, are willing to [pay different rents](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4934). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-economics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-economics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-economics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-economics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Delivery Truck at a Suburban Retail Store](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/delivery-truck-suburban-retail-store/) **Published:** February 26, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2018-05-31-144112.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Delivery Truck at a Suburban Retail Store | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Delivery Truck at a Suburban Retail Store*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2018.* The curb can be the object of contention for deliveries, even in suburban areas, which can lead to its constrained usage. In the above photo, the docking bay of a retail outlet was not well designed because no space was left for the parking of delivery vehicles. This was probably on purpose as it was judged that the loss of real estate was not worth the design of an appropriate docking bay. Parking impairments were externalized to the curb. Since the store generates a lot of inventory turnover (a drugstore selling household goods), frequent deliveries are required. In this case, consolidation was done in the smallest load that could be carried by a semi-truck; a 40-foot trailer. With this configuration and length, the semi-truck completely blocks the sidewalk and half the street for about the 10-15 minutes it takes for the delivery. Even a regular delivery van would completely block the sidewalk. Since local circulation is light, this type of activity does not impair it in a significant manner. If the density was higher, such infringement would not be tolerated. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/delivery-truck-suburban-retail-store/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/delivery-truck-suburban-retail-store/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/delivery-truck-suburban-retail-store/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/delivery-truck-suburban-retail-store/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Courier, Express and Parcel Markets](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/courier-express-parcel-markets/) **Published:** February 26, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/courier_express_parcel_markets.png?resize=900%2C476&ssl=1 "The Courier, Express and Parcel Markets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Courier Express and Parcel Markets*Source: Adapted from Accenture (2015). Adding Value to Parcel Delivery.* Freight can be carried as full truckloads (FTL), less than truckloads (LTL), and as individual units such as parcels and documents. The parcel delivery market, also called CEP (Courier, Express and Parcel), is characterized by the time sensitivity of its shipments with consignments usually less than 70 pounds (32 kg) delivered on a door-to-door basis. There are different levels of service, each associated with a cost structure. Same-day deliveries are usually costly and done by specialized air or road services under specific circumstances, such as within downtown areas. Next-day deliveries are offered in many metropolitan markets, again using specific and costly distribution channels. The most common parcel delivery service, deferred express, is when the carrier can provide an accurate delivery date once the point of pickup and delivery is known, usually between 3 to 7 days. Since parcel carriers have well-established distribution networks, they are able to provide accurate delivery estimates once a parcel has entered their network. Postal type deliveries commonly do not provide a specific delivery date but usually deliver within 2 weeks. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/courier-express-parcel-markets/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/courier-express-parcel-markets/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/courier-express-parcel-markets/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/courier-express-parcel-markets/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Distribution-Based Consumption](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/distribution-based-consumption/) **Published:** February 26, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distribution_based_consumption.png?resize=900%2C676&ssl=1 "Distribution-Based Consumption | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Distribution Based ConsumptionConsumption has always been dependent upon distributional capacity and capabilities. The [conventional retail model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4524) was to establish distribution systems efficient enough to supply stores, a model which in time became increasingly efficient with large retailers establishing a high command of logistics. The advance of e-commerce has pushed this model further with distribution-based consumption; personal consumption contingent upon physical distribution to a set location and within a set time frame. Distribution-based consumption is dependent upon: - **Procurement**. Online retailers are increasingly able to influence the procurement and manufacturing of consumption goods. In addition to the purchasing power online retailers have in commanding prices and volumes, e-commerce sets virtual marketplaces for suppliers and customers (B2B). The procurement process must be quick and flexible enough to match the accelerated pace of online purchases. - **Inventory management**. The backend of the e-fulfillment center (EFC) distribution center servicing e-commerce relies on complex inventory management for fast storage and retrieval of goods available for sale. Many large e-fulfillment centers are opting for a random storage strategy where items are stored in the nearest space available, which is paradoxically more efficient considering the nature of online orders (single items shipped in single parcels). An emerging trend is same-day or next-day deliveries, which require the pre-positioning of goods in regional or urban freight distribution centers as an inventory management strategy. - **Order processing and packaging**. The frontend of the distribution center servicing e-commerce relies on the fast retrieval and packaging of orders. This process is highly automated and takes place in specialized e-fulfillment centers. - **Deliveries**. Once they have reached a critical sales volume, some e-retailers enter the own account transport market using their dedicated delivery vehicles. This is done in order to have a higher control over the timing and frequency of deliveries, namely express and weekend deliveries. In addition to the standard home delivery of a parcel, deliveries are also taking new forms such as workplace deliveries as well as collection points such as locker boxes or nearby stores offering such a service. Customers have therefore several delivery options available to fit their constraints (not at home) or preferences. - **Tracking**. Customers want accurate time-in-transit information for the various shipping options. This challenges the distribution industry to implement information systems tracking parcels as well as vehicles. It requires sensors to collect positional information, such as once an action has been performed (order shipped) or when the parcel enters a specific location (a nearby sortation center), including a delivery notification. As the level of control and management of these activities include, a closer level of integration between consumption and distribution emerges. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/distribution-based-consumption/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/distribution-based-consumption/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/distribution-based-consumption/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/distribution-based-consumption/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Curbside Delivery at a Grocery Store](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/curbside-delivery-grocery-store/) **Published:** February 26, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2020-09-18-155533.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Curbside Delivery at a Grocery Store | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Curbside Delivery at a Grocery Store*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2020.* Many grocery stores located in urban areas do not have facilities such as bay doors to accommodate deliveries. Under such circumstances, the curb becomes the delivery platform. A common approach is to leave palletized orders on the sidewalk to be depalletized and brought into the store. In the above photo, store employees are depalletizing a curbside delivery onto dollies that are brought in-store right to the aisles for the goods to be shelved. The empty pallets are stored and handed back during the next delivery. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/curbside-delivery-grocery-store/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/curbside-delivery-grocery-store/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/curbside-delivery-grocery-store/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/curbside-delivery-grocery-store/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Forms of Urban Retail Goods Movements](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/forms-urban-retail-goods-movements/) **Published:** February 26, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/forms_retail_goods_movements.png?resize=900%2C252&ssl=1 "Main Forms of Urban Retail Goods Movements | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Forms of Urban Retail Goods Movements*Source: adapted from Visser, J. and T. Nemoto (2002) “E-commerce and the Consequences for Freight Transport” in E. Taniguchi and R.G. Thompson (eds) Innovations in Freight Transport, Southampton: WIT Press.* Up to the late 1990s, urban retail goods movements, particularly those concerning large retail stores, took place in a conventional manner where goods were brought to store outlets and consumers traveled to the stores to purchase them and bring the goods home on their own account. The emergence of online purchases added a new dimension to urban retail goods movements with the delivery of parcels directly to the consumer’s home. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/forms-urban-retail-goods-movements/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/forms-urban-retail-goods-movements/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/forms-urban-retail-goods-movements/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/forms-urban-retail-goods-movements/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Urban Freight Flows](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/types-urban-freight-flows/) **Published:** February 26, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_urban_freight_flows.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Types of Urban Freight Flows | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Urban Freight Flows*Source: Behrends and Rodrigue, 2015.* Urban logistics involves two main functional classes of flows: - **Producer-related flows** include industrial and terminal haulage, such as interregional and global freight flows, usually in unit loads such as containers and full truckloads, originating from or destined for terminals, manufacturing, or distribution facilities. These flows are usually taking place in a massified form, benefiting from economies of scale. - **Consumer-related flows** include intra-urban urban freight flows, usually as part loads and parcels originating from distribution facilities and destined for commercial facilities or residential households. Urban freight flows, like most freight flows, are imbalanced in their reciprocity. This is particularly the case for consumer-related flows that are usually unidirectional and related to empty backhauls. For instance, retail deliveries (most commonly from distribution centers) are one-way freight flows with the delivery vehicle returning empty or with small loads of returned goods or recyclables (e.g. cardboard boxes). Commercial to residential freight flows almost exclusively involve consumers carrying their purchases from stores to their place of residence by walking, car, public transit, or cycling. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/types-urban-freight-flows/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/types-urban-freight-flows/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/types-urban-freight-flows/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-distribution-channels/types-urban-freight-flows/?share=reddit) - --- ### [9.3 - Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Brian Slack > Safety and security issues concern both transportation modes and terminals that can be either a target for terrorism, a vector to conduct illegal activities, or even a form of warfare. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. A New Context in Transport Security](#1_A_New_Context_in_Transport_Security) - [2. Physical Security of Passengers](#2_Physical_Security_of_Passengers) - [3. Freight Security](#3_Freight_Security) # 1. A New Context in Transport Security While issues of safety and security have regularly preoccupied transport planners and managers, it is only recently that physical security has become an overriding issue. Over this, an important nuance must be provided between criminal activities and terrorism. While both seek to exploit the security weaknesses of transportation, they do so for very different reasons. Terrorism is a symbolic activity seeking forms of destruction and disruption to coerce a political, ideological, or religious agenda. In this context, transportation is mostly a **target**. Criminal activities seek an economic return from illegal transactions such as drugs, weapons, piracy, and illegal immigration. In this context, transportation is mostly a vector for illicit transactions. Concerns were already being raised in the past. Still, the tragic events of 9/11 thrust the issue of physical security into the public domain as never before and set in motion responses that have reshaped transportation in unforeseen ways. In addition, threats to health, such as the spread of pandemics, present significant challenges to transport planning and operations, as the COVID-19 pandemic underlined. As locations where passengers and freight are assembled and dispersed, **terminals** have particularly been a focus of concern about security and safety. Because railway stations and airports are some of the most densely populated sites anywhere, crowd control and safety have been issues that have preoccupied managers for a long time. Access is monitored and controlled, and movements are channeled along pathways that provide safe access to and from platforms and gates. In the freight industry, security concerns have been directed toward worker **safety and theft**. Traditionally, freight terminals have been dangerous workplaces. With heavy goods being moved around yards and loaded onto vehicles using large mobile machines or manually, accidents were systemic. Significant improvements have been made over the years, through worker education and better organization of operations, but freight terminals are still comparatively hazardous. The issue of **theft** has been one of the most severe problems confronting all types of freight terminals, especially where high-value goods are being handled. Docks have particularly been seen as places where organized crime has established control over local labor unions, particularly in the first half of the 20th century. With containerization, theft at port terminals declined substantially as the contents of containers remained hidden from those handling them. Further, access to freight terminals and distribution centers has been increasingly restricted, with workers screening and the deployment of security personnel helping control thefts. Most cargo thefts now occur during [transit and when vehicles are parked](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-location-world/ "Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location, World, 2019") in rest areas or streets. Thefts occurring in warehouses and terminals are less common but still [significant](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-united-states/ "Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location, United States, 2016"). The most visible emerging form of security threat is **cybersecurity,** to which transportation infrastructures and organizations are particularly vulnerable. The growth in information technologies and their associated networks has opened new forms of vulnerability as control and management systems can be remotely accessed. This has resulted in complex, interconnected corporate information networks that can be hacked and disrupted. There is a wide variety of [reasons behind cyberattacks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/main-sources-cyberattacks/ "Main Sources of Cyberattacks"), but financial gains remain the main objective. In 2017, malware named NotPetya was released from the hacked servers of a Ukrainian software firm servicing a management program used by some of the world’s largest corporations, causing an estimated USD 10 billion in damage. Transportation and logistics firms such as Maersk and TNT were severely disrupted. In some cases, terminals and distribution centers were forced to cease operations because of inoperable computers. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/thefts_cargo_location_world.png?resize=900%2C373&ssl=1 "Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location, World, 2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/thefts_cargo_location_world/)Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location World 2019[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/thefts_cargo_location_usa.png?resize=900%2C373&ssl=1 "Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location, United States, 2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-united-states/thefts_cargo_location_usa/)Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location United States 2016[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sources_cyberattacks.png?resize=900%2C515&ssl=1 "Main Sources of Cyberattacks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/sources_cyberattacks/)Main Sources of CyberattacksThe foundation of transport security includes several dimensions and potential measures: - [Dimensions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6374). Particularly concerning the integrity of the passengers or cargo, the route, and the information systems (IT security) managing the transport chain. - [Measures](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6379 "Transport Security Measures"). The set of procedures that can be implemented to maintain the integrity of the passengers or cargo, namely inspections, the security of facilities and personnel, as well as of the data and the supporting cybersecurity measures. The expected outcomes of these [measures](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-measures/ "Transport Security Measures") include: - **Reduced risk of travel or trade disruptions** in response to security threats. - **Improved security against theft** and cargo diversion, with reductions in direct losses (cargo and sometimes the vehicle) and indirect costs (e.g. higher insurance premiums). - Improved security against **illegal transport of passengers and freight** such as counterfeits, narcotics, weapons, and migrants. - **Improved reliance on information systems** supporting the complex transactions generated by transport activities. - Reduced risk of **evasion of duties and taxes**. - Increased **confidence in the international trading system** by current and potential shippers of goods. - **Improved screening process** (cost and time) and simplified procedures. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_security_dimensions.png?resize=900%2C544&ssl=1 "Transport Security Dimensions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-dimensions/transport_security_dimensions/)Transport Security Dimensions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_security_measures.png?resize=900%2C539&ssl=1 "Transport Security Measures | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-measures/transport_security_measures/)Transport Security MeasuresStill, despite the qualitative benefits, the setting and implementation of security measures **come at a cost** that must be assumed by the shippers and, eventually, by the consumers or the passengers. Airport security fees have become a standard component of airfares. It has been estimated that an increase of 1% in the costs of trading internationally would cause a decrease in trade flows in the range of 2 to 3%. Therefore, security-based measures could increase total costs between 1% and 3%, having a negative impact on international trade. Additionally, the impacts are not uniformly assumed as developing economies, particularly export-oriented economies, tend to have higher transport costs. A major goal is, therefore, to comply with security measures in the most cost-effective way. # 2. Physical Security of Passengers Airports have been the focus of security concerns for many decades. High-jacking aircraft came to the fore in the 1970s when terrorist groups in the Middle East exploited the lack of security to commandeer planes for ransom and publicity. Refugees fleeing dictatorships also found taking over aircraft a possible route to freedom. In response, the airline industry and the international regulatory body, ICAO, established screening procedures for passengers and luggage. This process seems to have worked in the short run with [reductions in hijackings](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/worldwide-aircraft-attacks/ "Worldwide Attacks Inside an Aircraft by Type, 1970-2009"). However, terrorists changed their tactics by placing bombs in unaccompanied luggage and packages. The Air India crash off Ireland in 1985, the Lockerbie, Scotland, and the crash of Pan Am 103 in 1988 are illustrative. Another unusual issue is the deliberate crash of a flight by pilots committing suicide. In 2015, Germanwings 9525 was crashed by its co-pilot in the French Alps. In the prior year, Malaysia Airlines 370 crashed in the Indian Ocean allegedly through a similar cause. Still, air travel remains the [safest transportation mode](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2507), with fatalities steadily decreasing over the years. The growth in passenger traffic and the development of the hub and spoke networks greatly strained the security process. There were wide **disparities in the effectiveness of passenger screening** at different airports. Because passengers were routed by hubs, the number of passengers in transit through the hub airports grew significantly. Concerns were being raised, but the costs of improving screening and the need to process ever-larger numbers of passengers and maintain flight schedules caused most carriers to oppose tighter security measures. The situation was changed irrevocably by the [events of September 11, 2001](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6388). The US government created the Department of Homeland Security, which established a Transportation Security Authority (TSA) to oversee the imposition of strict new security measures on the industry. Security can now account for between 20 and 30% of the operating costs of an airport. Security involves many steps, from restricting access to airport facilities, fortifying cockpits, and setting no-fly lists, to the more extensive security screening of passengers and their luggage. Screening includes restrictions on what can be personally carried in airplanes, such as gels and liquids. For foreign nationals, inspection employs biometric identification, which at present involves checking fingerprints and facial pattern recognition, but retinal scans may be implemented in the future. A new system, the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS II), was introduced. It required more personal information from travelers when they book their flights, which is used to provide a risk assessment of each passenger. Passengers considered to be high risk were further screened. However, this program was canceled in 2004, mostly because it created too many false positives. It was replaced by the **Secure Flight** program working under similar principles but is entirely managed by the TSA. From 2009, all flights originating, bound to, or flying over the United States, had their list of passengers cross-referenced by a central no-fly list managed by the TSA. To further focus on screening procedures, **trusted traveler programs** were introduced in which individuals who have volunteered information such as fingerprinting and background checks can undergo an expedited security procedure involving customs clearance. For instance, the **Global Entry** program that began in 2008 allows US citizens and permanent residents as well as citizens of 14 countries (e.g. Canada, South Korea, Netherlands, UK) who have submitted to an interview and background check to use fast processing lanes and kiosks at the majority of US ports of entry. Using kiosks has been expanded through customs, allowing passengers to have their documentation scanned and photos taken automatically, reducing processing time. The imposition of these measures has come at a considerable cost, estimated to be more than $7.4 billion annually by IATA in 2018. A significant factor has been the screening of passengers with the hiring and training of a workforce, the purchase of improved screening machines, and the re-designing of airport security procedures. **More space within transport terminals** is required to handle security procedures, including inspection areas and waiting lines. Further, aircraft design and operations have been changed, including the introduction of reinforced cabin doors. These measures also impacted passenger throughput, with an estimated 5% decline attributed to security measures. Clearing security has become the most important source of delays in the passenger boarding process. Passengers are expected to arrive 2 hours before departure at the terminal to clear security. It is therefore not surprising that there has been a modal shift to the road (and to some extent rail where services are available) for air travel involving shorter distances (500 km or less). This shift has been linked with additional road fatalities, an unintended consequence of additional security measures. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/attacks_aicraft_type.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Worldwide Attacks Inside an Aircraft by Type, 1970-2009 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/worldwide-aircraft-attacks/aicraft_attack/)Worldwide Attacks Inside an Aircraft by Type 1970 2009[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_transport_fatalities.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-fatalities/air_transport_fatalities/)Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes 1918 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US-Pre-Clearance-Airports.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Customs Pre-Clearance Airports for the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/pre-clearance-airports-united-states/map-us-pre-clearance-airports-png/)Customs Pre Clearance Airports for the United StatesSecurity issues have had a negative effect on the air transport industry as costs increased with delays and inconveniences to passengers increasing as well. However, these delays and inconveniences are now considered **part of contemporary air travel,** with passengers accustomed to security requirements. Further, airports have developed effective procedures, such as multiple security lanes and high throughput scanning, to speed up the process. The burden imposed by security and customs procedures at major ports of entry has also incited the expansion of [customs pre-clearance programs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3873). The COVID-19 pandemic brought forward a new dimension to passenger transportation security: **epidemiological security**. This is particularly the case for high-density forms of passenger transportation such as public transit, cruise shipping, and air travel. During the pandemic, people were reluctant to use such modes of transportation because of the perceived risks of being infected. Further, many countries initially prevented the entry of foreign residents and later imposed mandates related to vaccination and testing to be allowed entry. Each mode can be associated with an epidemiological risk that needs to be mitigated. For air transportation, this can involve screening passengers and the ongoing disinfection of facilities such as waiting areas and planes between flights. The outcome is additional costs and a decrease in the performance of air travel because of longer turnovers. # 3. Freight Security Security in the freight industry has always been a major problem. Illegal immigrants, drug smuggling, customs duty evasion, [piracy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6395), and the deployment of sub-standard vehicles (higher propensity to accidents) have been some of the most important concerns. In light of the emergence of **global supply chains**, the emphasis on freight transport security is gradually shifting into a more comprehensive but complex approach. However, as in the air passenger business, the events of 9/11 highlighted a new set of security issues. The scale and scope of these problems with freight are of an even greater magnitude. The **less-regulated** and **international dimensions** of the shipping industry, in particular, have made it vulnerable to security breaches. A large number of ports, the vast fleet of global shipping and the range of products carried in vessels, and the difficulty of detection have made the issue of security in shipping an extremely difficult one to address. For ports, vulnerabilities (unauthorized access to cargo and facilities) can be exploited from the land side as well as on the maritime side. The container, which has facilitated globalization, makes it extremely difficult to identify illicit and [dangerous cargoes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6401). In the absence of scanners that can scan the entire box, manual inspection becomes time-consuming and virtually impossible, considering the large volumes involved. **Hubbing** compounds the problem, as large numbers of containers are required to be handled with minimum delays and inconvenience. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Piracy.png?resize=768%2C384&ssl=1 "Global Maritime Piracy, 1993-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/global-maritime-piracy/map-global-piracy-2008/)Global Maritime Piracy 1993 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tianjin_explosion_2015.jpg?resize=850%2C685&ssl=1 "Site of the 2015 Tianjin Port Explosions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/tianjin-explosion-2015/tianjin_explosion_2015/)Site of the 2015 Tianjin Port ExplosionsIn the United States, the response was to enact the Maritime Transportation and Security Act in 2002. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the essential elements of this legislation as the International Ship and Port Security Code (ISPS), which began to be implemented in 2004. There are three important features of these interventions: 1. An **Automated Identity System** (AIS) is required for all vessels between 300 and 50,000 dwt. It requires vessels to have a permanently marked and visible identity number, and there must be a record maintained of its flag, port of registry, and address of the registered owner. 2. Each port must undertake a **security assessment**. This involves an assessment of its assets and facilities and an assessment of the effects of damages that might be caused. The port must then evaluate the risks and identify its weaknesses in features such as physical security, communication systems, and utilities. 3. All cargoes destined for the United States must receive **customs clearance before the departure of the ship**. Besides, biometric identification for seafarers was implemented and maintained in national databases. The ISPS code has been implemented in ports worldwide as, without certification, a port would have difficulty trading with the United States. Securing sites, undertaking risk assessments, and monitoring ships represent additional costs without commercial return. US ports have been able to tap funding from the Department of Homeland Security, but foreign ports must comply or risk the loss of business. In 2008, legislation in the United States required that all containers being shipped to the United States undergo screening. Foreign ports were expected to purchase expensive scanning equipment and undertake to screen all US-bound containers, regardless of the degree of security threat. This is a further financial and operational complication foreign ports must contend with. Like its passenger counterpart, the airline freight industry faces stringent security requirements. Since 2010, a TSA regulation has required screening all cargo carried by air within the United States or internationally before loading. The **Certified Cargo Screening Program** (CCSP) forces airlines, freight forwarders, and shippers to assume the costs of these security measures to establish a secure air freight transport chain. The measure imposed additional costs, delays, and disruptions, undermining the operational effectiveness of air cargo. Still, the air freight industry has adapted to these measures. Security has become an additional element in **determining competitive advantage** and part of the cost of doing business that carriers and terminal operators are contending with. --- ## Related Topics - [9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6279) - [9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6284) - [9.4 – Transportation, Disruptions and Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6295) - [B.19 – Transportation and Pandemics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8869) ## Bibliography - Federal Highway Administration (2018) Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Framework, 3rd Edition, FHWA-HEP-18-020. - Gillen, D. and W.G. Morrison (2015) “Aviation Security: Costing, Pricing, Finance and Performance”, Journal of Air Transport Management, Vol. 48, pp. 1-12. - OECD (2011) Future Global Shock – Improving Risk Governance, Paris: OECD Publishing. - Sivak, M. and M.J. Flannagan (2004) “Consequences for Road Traffic Fatalities of the Reduction in Flying Following September 11, 2001”, Transportation Research E, Vol. 7, pp. 301-305. - Transportation Research Board (2006) Critical Issues in Transportation, Washington, DC: The National Academies. - World Economic Forum (2012) New Models for Addressing Supply Chain and Transport Risk. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.5 - Graph Theory: Definition and Properties](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Cesar Ducruet > Graph theory is a branch of mathematics concerned about how networks can be encoded, and their properties measured. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Basic Graph Definition](#1_Basic_Graph_Definition) - [2. Links and their Structures](#2_Links_and_their_Structures) - [3. Basic Structural Properties](#3_Basic_Structural_Properties) # 1. Basic Graph Definition A graph is a **symbolic representation** of a network and its connectivity. It implies an [abstraction of reality](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5992) so that it can be simplified as a set of linked nodes. The origins of graph theory can be traced to Leonhard Euler, who devised in 1735 a problem that came to be known as the “Seven Bridges of Konigsberg”. In this problem, someone had to cross all the bridges only once, and in a continuous sequence, a problem the Euler proved to have no solution by representing it as a set of nodes and links. This led to the foundation of graph theory and its subsequent improvements. It has been enriched in the last decades by growing influences from studies of social and complex networks. In transport geography, most networks have a prominent **spatial foundation**, namely road, transit, and rail networks, which tend to be defined more by their links than by their nodes. This is not necessarily the case for all transportation networks. For instance, since they are often unclear, maritime and air networks are **more defined by their nodes than links**. A telecommunication system can also be represented as a network, while its spatial expression can have limited importance and be difficult to represent. Mobile phone networks or the Internet, possibly the most complex graphs to be considered, are relevant cases of networks having a structure that can be difficult to symbolize. However, cellular phones and antennas can be represented as nodes, while the links could be individual phone calls. Servers, the core of the Internet, can also be represented as nodes within a graph, while the physical infrastructure between them, namely fiber optic cables, can act as links. Consequently, all transport networks can be represented by graph theory in one way or the other. The following elements are fundamental to understanding graph theory: > **[Graph](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5998).** A graph *G* is a set of vertices (nodes) *v* connected by edges (links) *e*. Thus *G=(v, e)*. > **Vertex (Node).** A node *v* is a terminal point or an intersection point of a graph. It is the abstraction of a location such as a city, an administrative division, a road intersection, or a transport terminal (stations, terminuses, harbors, and airports). > **Edge (Link).** An edge *e* is a link between two nodes. The link (*i*, *j*) is of initial extremity *i* and of terminal extremity *j*. A link is the abstraction of a transport infrastructure supporting movements between nodes. It has a direction that is commonly represented as an arrow. When an arrow is not used, it is assumed the link is bi-directional. > **Sub-Graph.** A sub-graph is a subset of a graph *G* where *p* is the number of sub-graphs. For instance, *G’* = (*v’*, *e’*) can be a distinct sub-graph of *G*. Unless the global transport system is considered in its whole, every transport network is in theory a sub-graph of another. For instance, the road transportation network of a city is a sub-graph of a regional transportation network, which is itself a sub-graph of a national transportation network. > **Buckle (Loop or self edge).** A link that makes a node correspond to itself is a buckle. > **[Planar Graph](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6003).** A graph where all the intersections of two edges are a vertex. Since this graph is located within a plane, its topology is two-dimensional. This is typically the case for power grids, road and railway networks, although great care must be inferred to the definition of nodes (terminals, warehouses, cities). > **[Non-planar Graph](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6003).** A graph where there are no vertices at the intersection of at least two edges. Networks that can be considered in a planar fashion, such as roads, can be represented as non-planar networks. This implies a third dimension in the topology of the graph since there is the possibility of having a movement “passing over” another movement such as for air and maritime transport, or an overpass for a road. A non-planar graph has potentially much more links than a planar graph. > **[Simple graph](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6007)**. A graph that includes only one type of link between its nodes. A road or rail network are simple graphs. > **[Multigraph](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6007)**. A graph that includes several types of links between its nodes. Some nodes can be connected to one link type while others can be connected to more than one that are running in parallel. A graph depicting a road and a rail network with different links between nodes serviced by either or both modes is a multigraph. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/graph_representation_real_network.png?resize=900%2C500&ssl=1 "Graph Representation of a Real Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/graph-representation-real-network/graph_representation/)Graph Representation of a Real Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_graph_representation_transport_network.png?resize=900%2C564&ssl=1 "Basic Graph Representation of a Transport Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/basic-graph-transport-network/basic_graph_representation/)Basic Graph Representation of a Transport Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/planar_non_planar_graphs.png?resize=900%2C424&ssl=1 "Planar and Non-Planar Graphs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/planar-non-planar-graph/planar_non_planar_graph/)Planar and Non Planar Graphs[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/simple_multigraph.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Simple and Multigraph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/simple-multi-graphs/simple_multi_graph/)Simple and Multigraph# 2. Links and their Structures A transportation network enables flows of people, freight, or information, which are occurring along its links. Graph theory must thus offer the possibility of representing movements as linkages, which can be considered over several aspects: > **[Connection](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6013).** A set of two nodes as every node is linked to the other. Considers if a movement between two nodes is possible, whatever its direction. Knowing connections makes it possible to find if it is possible to reach a node from another node within a graph. > **[Path](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6013).** A sequence of links that are traveled in the same direction. For a path to exist between two nodes, it must be possible to travel an uninterrupted sequence of links. Finding all the possible paths in a graph is a fundamental attribute in measuring accessibility and traffic flows. > **Chain.** A sequence of links having a connection in common with the other. Direction does not matter. > **[Length of a Link, Connection or Path](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6018).** Refers to the label associated with a link, a connection or a path. This label can be distance, the amount of traffic, the capacity or any relevant attribute of that link. The length of a path is the number of links (or connections) in this path. > **[Cycle](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6023).** Refers to a chain where the initial and terminal node is the same and that does not use the same link more than once is a cycle. > **[Circuit](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6023).** A path where the initial and terminal node corresponds. It is a cycle where all the links are traveled in the same direction. Circuits are very important in transportation because several distribution systems are using circuits to cover as much territory as possible in one direction (delivery route). > **Clique**. A clique is a maximal complete subgraph where all vertices are connected. > **Cluster**. Also called community, it refers to a group of nodes having denser relations with each other than with the rest of the network. A wide range of methods are used to reveal clusters in a network, notably they are based on modularity measures (intra- versus inter-cluster variance). > **[Ego network](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6028)**. For a given node, the ego network corresponds to a sub-graph where only its adjacent neighbors and their mutual links are included. > **[Nodal region](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6032)**. A nodal region refers to a subgroup (tree) of nodes polarized by an independent node (which largest flow link connects a smaller node) and several subordinate nodes (which largest flow link connects a larger node). Single or multiple linkage analysis methods are used to reveal such regions by removing secondary links between nodes while keeping only the heaviest links. > **[Dual graph](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6038)**. A method in space syntax that considers edges as nodes and nodes as edges. In urban street networks, large avenues made of several segments become single nodes while intersections with other avenues or streets become links (edges). This method is particularly useful to reveal hierarchical structures in a planar network. > **Common neighbor**. For two or more nodes, the number of nodes that they are commonly connected two. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/connections_paths.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Connections and Paths | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connections-paths-graph/connections_paths_graph/)Connections and Paths[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/link_connection_path.png?resize=900%2C456&ssl=1 "Length of a Link, Connection or Path | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/length-link-connection-path/lenght_connection_path_graph/)Length of a Link Connection or Path[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cycles_circuits.png?resize=900%2C410&ssl=1 "Cycles and Circuits | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/cycles-circuits-graph/cycles_circuit_graph/)Cycles and Circuits[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ego_network2.png?resize=900%2C358&ssl=1 "Ego Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/ego-network-graph/ego_network/)Ego Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/nodal_region2.png?resize=900%2C357&ssl=1 "Nodal Region | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/nodal-region/nodal_region/)Nodal Region[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dual_graph2.png?resize=900%2C340&ssl=1 "Dual Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/dual-graph/dual_graph/)Dual Graph# 3. Basic Structural Properties The organization of nodes and links in a graph conveys a structure that can be described and labeled. The basic structural properties of a graph are: > **Symmetry and Asymmetry**. A graph is symmetrical if each pair of nodes linked in one direction is also linked in the other. By convention, a line without an arrow represents a link where it is possible to move in both directions. However, both directions have to be defined in the graph. Most transport systems are symmetrical, but asymmetry can often occur as it is the case for maritime (pendulum) and air services. Asymmetry is rare on road transportation networks, unless one-way streets are considered. > **Assortativity and disassortativity**. Assortative networks are those characterized by relations among similar nodes, while disassortative networks are found when structurally different nodes are often connected. Transport (or technological) networks are often disassortative when they are non-planar, due to the higher probability for the network to be centralized into a few large hubs. > **Completeness.** A graph is complete if two nodes are linked in at least one direction. A complete graph has no sub-graph and all its nodes are interconnected. > **[Connectivity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6043).** A graph considered connected if for all its distinct pairs of nodes, there is a linking chain. Direction does not have importance for a graph to be connected but may be a factor for the *level* of connectivity. If *p*>1 the graph is not connected because it has more than one sub-graph (or component). There are various levels of connectivity, depending on the degree at which each pair of nodes is connected. > **[Complementarity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6049).** Two sub graphs are complementary if their union results in a complete graph. Multimodal transportation networks are complementary as each sub-graph (modal network) benefits from the connectivity of other sub-graphs. > **[Root](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6054)**. A node *r* where every other node is the extremity of a path coming from *r* is a root. Direction has an importance. A root is generally the starting point of a distribution system, such as a factory or a warehouse. > **[Trees](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6060)**. A connected graph without a cycle is a tree. A tree has the same number of links than nodes plus one. (*e = v-1*). If a link is removed, the graph ceases to be connected. If a new link between two nodes is provided, a cycle is created. A branch of root *r* is a tree where no links are connecting any node more than once. River basins are typical examples of tree-like networks based on multiple sources connecting towards a single estuary. This structure strongly influences [river transport systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1782). > **[Articulation Node](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6065).** In a connected graph, a node is an articulation node if the sub-graph obtained by removing this node is no longer connected. It therefore contains more than one sub-graph (*p* > 1). An articulation node is generally a port or an airport, or an important hub of a transportation network, which serves as a bottleneck. It is also called a bridge node. > **[Isthmus](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6071).** In a connected graph, an isthmus is a link that is creating, when removed, two sub-graphs having at least one connection. Most central links in a complex network are often isthmuses, which removal by reiteration helps revealing dense communities (clusters). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/graph_connectivity.png?resize=900%2C600&ssl=1 "Connectivity in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connectivity/connectivity_graph/)Connectivity in a Graph[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/complementary_graph2.png?resize=900%2C391&ssl=1 "Complementary Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/complementarity-graph/complementary_graph/)Complementary Graph[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/root_node.png?resize=900%2C409&ssl=1 "Root Node | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/root-node-graph/root_node_graph/)Root Node[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tree_graph2.png?resize=900%2C569&ssl=1 "Tree Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/tree-graph/tree_graph/)Tree Graph[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/articulation_node.png?resize=900%2C451&ssl=1 "Articulation Node | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/articulation-node/articulation_node_graph/)Articulation Node[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/isthmus_connection.png?resize=900%2C482&ssl=1 "Isthmus Connection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/isthmus-connection-graph/isthmus_graph/)Isthmus Connection --- ## Related Topics - [The Geography of Transportation Networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=623) - [Graph Theory: Measures and Indices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5981) - [Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6741) - [Transportation and Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6945) - [Network Data Models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7585) ## Bibliography - Arlinghaus, S.L., W.C. Arlinghaus, and F. Harary (2001) Graph Theory and Geography: An Interactive View. New York: John Wiley & Sons. - Garrison, W. and D. Marble (1974) “Graph theoretic concepts” in Transportation Geography: Comments and Readings, New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 58-80. - Nystuen, J.D., and M.F.A. Dacey (1961) “A graph theory interpretation of nodal regions”. Papers of the Regional Science Association 7, 29-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01969070 ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Number of Units and Weight of Consumption Goods Carried by a 20-Foot Container](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-weighting-cubing-out/) **Published:** November 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/number_units_weight_20_foot_container.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Units and Weight of Consumption Goods Carried by a 20-Foot Container | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Number of Units and Weight of Consumption Goods Carried by a 20 Foot Container*Source: adapted from T. Toikka (2006) “The Real Price for Container Transportation between Asia and Europe”, Lappeenranta University of Technology, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management.* Shippers try to use the volume and weight limits of the container in the most optimal way. Depending on the characteristics of the goods being carried, namely the weight-to-volume ratio, a 20-foot container may not be the optimal load unit. For instance, twice as many cell phones, flat-screen televisions, or shoes could be carried on a 40-foot container without infringing weight restrictions of around 25,000 kilograms. The cargo runs out of available volume before running out of available weight (“**weighting out**” versus “**cubing out**“). Since the costs of handling a 40-footer are not much higher than a 20-footer, there are notable advantages to using this load unit (or better, a high cube 40-foot) instead. For ponderous goods such as copying paper, the 20-footer is the optimum load unit as about 1,700 units weighing just over 20,000 kilograms can be carried, which is the maximum permissible weight. Using a 40-footer for such a load, which is twice the volume, would carry only 2,150 units (27.6% more). Yet, a 20-footer may be a suitable unit for goods with a low weight-to-volume ratio if the demand of the consignee is not high enough to justify a more efficient load (40 feet) or if freight distribution is more dependent on a higher frequency and smaller batches. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-weighting-cubing-out/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-weighting-cubing-out/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-weighting-cubing-out/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-weighting-cubing-out/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A380 at John F Kennedy Airport, New York](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/a380-paris-airport/) **Published:** November 13, 2017 **Author:** John Bowen **Content:** ![A380 Jfk New York](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/a380_jfk_new_york.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "A380 at the John F Kennedy Airport, New York | The Geography of Transport Systems ")A380 at the John F Kennedy Airport New York*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2013.* The first A380 was delivered in 2007 and represented the first complete double-deck commercial plane with a capacity of 525 passengers in a three-class configuration (more if two or single-class configurations are used). Like preceding wide-body aircraft (e.g. B747, B777, A330), the main purpose of the A380 was to link major hub airports with high-capacity long-haul services such as New York, London, Paris, Dubai, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Due to its large size, the A380 offers more options for seating configuration (e.g. first, business, premium economy, and economy), enabling maximization of revenue. It was not uncommon to have the whole second deck devoted to first and business classes (e.g. Emirates). Due to its large number of passengers, an A380 commonly required at least two sky bridge ramps (three more effective), which needed expanded air terminal infrastructure. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Air France mothballed its fleet of 10 A380, and by 2022 the aircraft was retired from the carrier’s operations. However, other airlines restarted A380 flights as traffic levels recovered. The last A380 to be built was delivered to Emirates Airlines in December 2021. The carrier purchased 123 A380s, by far the largest number for any airline, and by mid-2022 about 70 were in active service. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/a380-paris-airport/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/a380-paris-airport/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/a380-paris-airport/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/a380-paris-airport/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.14 - The Logistics of Global Food Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/) **Published:** February 1, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Food systems are a sequence of processes to fulfill the demand for food, from farming, processing, and distributing to final use. Global freight distribution systems have enabled a broader scale and scope for commercializing agricultural goods. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Food Systems](#1_Food_Systems) - [2. Food Distribution Systems](#2_Food_Distribution_Systems) - [3. Cold Chain Food Systems](#3_Cold_Chain_Food_Systems) - [4. Emerging Vulnerabilities in Food Systems](#4_Emerging_Vulnerabilities_in_Food_Systems) # 1. Food Systems Historically, food production was the **dominant focus of human activities**, with most of the time and labor assigned to growing, harvesting, processing, and preparing food. Agriculture would account for 80 to 90% of the gross domestic product of a pre-industrial society. Such activity was dominantly for subsistence and local in scale. It was rare that food was produced for trade, with notable exceptions when a political entity such as an [empire](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1060) was able to build communication infrastructures, including roads, canals, and shipping lanes, and ensure the security of strategic trade flows. Food was a small composition of trade, and what was traded over long distances tended to be of high value and not easily perishable. Historical trades such as spices, salt, wine, and olive oil were salient examples of goods that could be transported over long distances. It was not until the Industrial Revolution that substantial transformations took place in food production, processing, and distribution, allowing for productivity gains, specialization, and commercialization in agriculture. The outcome was a sharp increase in food production concomitantly with a decline in the share of the population in agriculture. This share is quickly declining worldwide, and in most advanced economies, less than 5% of the population is still involved in agriculture. The concept of food systems has been introduced to deal with the contemporary complexity of food production. > A [**food system**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12835) is a sequence of processes and the supporting infrastructure involving the growing, harvesting, storing, processing, packaging, transporting, warehousing, distribution, consumption and disposal of food. It considers a wide variety of tasks from the inputs of agriculture to the final demand, including technological, environmental, economic, political and social factors. A food system can be articulated as a supply chain that reveals much about the global structure of production and consumption, particularly the [actors involved](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12852). Understanding the significance of food supply chains requires a comprehensive approach since they include much more than a simple transport consideration; an array of coordinated activities are involved. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Roman-Empire-125AD.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Roman Empire, c125 AD | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/map-roman-empire-125ad-png/)The Roman Empire c125 AD[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/food_system2.png?resize=900%2C464&ssl=1 "The Food System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-food-system/food_system2/)The Food System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/agri_food_supply_chain.png?resize=900%2C501&ssl=1 "The Agri-food Supply Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-agri-food-supply-chain/agri_food_supply_chain/)The Agri food Supply Chain[![Lenght Growing Period](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Lenght_Growing_Period.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "Lenght of Growing Period | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/length-growing-period-days/lenght-of-growing-period/)Length of Growing Period LGP in Days[![Suitability For Agriculture](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Suitability_for_Agriculture.png?resize=900%2C470&ssl=1 "Suitability for Agriculture | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/most-suitable-cereal/suitability-for-agriculture/)Most Suitable Cereal[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_agricultural_area.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Agricultural Area, 1961-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/world-agricultural-area/world_agricultural_area/)World Agricultural Area 1961 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/products_world_merchandise_trade.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Product Groups in World Merchandise Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/product-groups-global-trade/products_world_merchandise_trade/)Share of Product Groups in World Merchandise Trade 1900 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/main_commodity_price_indexes.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Main Commodity Price Indexes, 1992-2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/commodity-prices-index/commodity_price_indexes/)Main Commodity Price Indexes 1992 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fao_food_price_index2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "FAO Food Price Index, 1990-2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/fao-food-price-index/fao_food_price_index/)FAO Food Price Index 1990 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/food_prices_relatives_hourly_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Food Prices Relative to Average Hourly Wages, United States, 1919-2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-prices-relative-average-wages-united-states/food_prices_1919_2019/)Food Prices Relative to Average Hourly Wages United States 1919 2019Food systems are dealing with the biophysical reality of the world, implying a geographical disparity in terms of [growing period](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12891) and the associated suitability for [different forms of crops](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12904) and agricultural systems. The most prevalent agricultural models include: - **Subsistence farming**. Characterizes most of the practiced agriculture throughout human history where food was local in scale and output, mainly grown to support families, tribes, and communities. A variety of plants and animals were cultivated, adapting to and taking advantage of local climate and soil conditions. Surpluses were sold on local markets, often to pay taxes and buy simple goods. Although subsistence farming is based on extensive knowledge and know-how accumulated through long phases of trial and error, it requires limited levels of technology and capital investment by contemporary standards. - **Commercial farming**. Like subsistence farming, it is mainly owned by a small group, such as a family or collective. However, the significant difference is that the food output is mainly grown to be sold on national markets, some of which will be exported. Commercial agriculture needs to be competitive and relies on the specialization of crops to achieve economies of scale, implying a higher dependence on technology (farming equipment, seeds, fertilizers) and capital investments. The specialization of commercial agriculture reveals a high level of diversity with the development of expertise in niches such as fruits, olives, poultry, and winemaking. It usually relies on a temporary workforce hired during peak season (harvest). - **Corporate farming**. Owned by corporate entities with a vast portfolio of farms and related activities, some of which are multinationals. The food is grown for global markets, but in many cases, the markets are regional due to regulations or preferences. Commercial farms can act as subcontractors for corporate farming. Food multinationals emphasize product development, branding, and marketing. Several have a long-standing specialization in cash crops (coffee, bananas, cacao, sugar, etc.) through a network of plantations. They can control specific elements of the supply chain (seeds, processing), enabling them to capture value. Such activities require high levels of technology and capital investments. The move from subsistence agriculture towards commercial and corporate agriculture has involved multiple benefits, such as more stable food supply systems, but required the setting of distribution systems vulnerable to disruptions. The main characteristics of contemporary agriculture involve the following: - [Large surfaces of land](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/world-agricultural-area/ "World Agricultural Area, 1961-2021") have been **modified to suit agriculture**, but land conversion for agricultural purposes appears to have leveled. About 37% of the world’s land surface is allocated to agriculture, which includes 68% for pastures and 32% for cropland. - **Food has become a commodity** traded on markets and subject to important commercial interests in terms of ownership of the modes of production and distribution. The price of food [varies according to market forces](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=23661 "FAO Food Price Index, 1990-2020") and external events. Over time, the relative [price of food has declined](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=13221 "Food Prices Relative to Average Hourly Wages, United States, 1919-2019"), making it increasingly affordable. About 10% of the value of global trade concerns agricultural goods. - **Mechanization and capital intensiveness** are prevalent with a growing reliance on farm equipment, genetically engineered seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. # 2. Food Distribution Systems The quantity, quality, and safety of food are often taken for granted, but these important attributes rely on the efficiency of food distribution systems. In the 20th century, food systems that were regional and national in scale and scope have evolved to include an increasingly global dimension. This was particularly the case in the second part of the 20th century, with massive investments in transport infrastructure and technological developments such as refrigeration, containerization, and air transport. The current context is particularly prone to the setting of food distribution systems: - **Global urbanization**. Results in the setting of [large urban agglomerations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7754) where the regional agricultural system cannot provide enough food to supply the demand. As an economy becomes increasingly urbanized, it must rely on food distribution systems beyond its region. - **Regional specialization**. Allows for improved agricultural productivity by focusing on specific agricultural outputs. This is generally the outcome of agricultural systems trying to take advantage of regional climatic and soil conditions to maximize outputs. - **Seasonality**. Substantial temporal variations in the production and availability of food products. Long-distance food distribution systems enable to establish a constant supply between regions of the world within different stages of their harvesting cycles. The production of the northern and the southern hemispheres is better synchronized. This is particularly the case for the southern hemisphere, where areas are producing goods to compensate for seasonal shortages in the northern hemisphere. Seasonality combined with regional specialization thus incites a latent demand for food distribution between regions of the world at a massive scale. Irrespective of the context, the average distance at which food products are being carried is increasing. The term **[food mile](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/food-mile-yogurt-supply-chain/ "The Food Mile: Yogurt Supply Chain, Germany")** has been brought forward as a concept to articulate the weight-distance ratio factor in food distribution. The higher it is, the more energy needs to be spent to maintain food supplies. However, due to improvements in transportation technology and constantly shifting sourcing strategies taking advantage of seasonality and price changes, food miles are complex to assess and do not necessarily reflect inefficiencies in food distribution. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Urban-Regions.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's Largest Urban Regions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/world-urban-regions/map-world-urban-regions/)Worlds Largest Urban Regions[![Grain Elevator Halifax](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/grain_elevator_halifax.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Grain Elevator Complex, Port of Halifax | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/grain-elevator-port-halifax/img_1854/)Grain Elevator Complex Port of Halifax[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_7283.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Grain Elevator Rail Terminal, Regina, Saskatchewan | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/grain-elevator-rail-terminal-regina/img_7283/)Grain Elevator Rail Terminal Regina Saskatchewan[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Well-Travelled-Yogurt-Pot.png?resize=900%2C971&ssl=1 "The Food-Mile: Yogurt Supply Chain, Germany | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/food-mile-yogurt-supply-chain/yogurtsupplychain/)The Food Mile Yogurt Supply Chain Germany[![Kroger Automated Dc Paramount](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/kroger_automated_dc_paramount.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Kroger Automated Distribution Center, Paramount, California | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/kroger-distribution-center-paramount/2013-10-10-14-40-41/)Kroger Automated Distribution Center Paramount California[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_average_food_losses.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Average Food Losses by Food Type, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/global-average-food-losses-food-type/average_food_losses/)Global Average Food Losses by Food Type 2010In the earlier stages of distribution, many food products, such as grains, are moved in a massified form with infrastructures such as grain elevators and bulk carriers such as rail and ships. Once bulk food arrives near major markets, it is often processed into primary (transforming an agricultural product into food) and secondary food items. These outputs are purchased by actors involved in the later stages of food distribution: - **Wholesalers**. Many individual food sellers and purchasers do not have the opportunity to negotiate directly with their counterparts because of the time, effort, and complexity transactions entail. The volume and diversity of the required supplies may also vary. Wholesalers are large intermediaries in the food distribution system, allowing them to reconcile the supply and demand in terms of volume, quantity, geography (markets), and time. Warehouses are used to store purchased food items made available on the market. Wholesalers can specialize in food products, such as seafood, produce, or fruits. - **Grocers**. Since they are involved in selling food directly to final consumers, grocers maintain an extensive food distribution network from [distribution centers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4458) to individual outlets. Several large-scale grocers act as wholesalers for themselves as they purchase food in large quantities and can be involved in manufacturing their food (store brands). Smaller grocers usually purchase their supplies from wholesalers. An important trend is that several retailers are becoming grocers since it allows them to expand their customer base in a highly competitive retail environment. - **Restaurants**. Restaurant chains are large buyers of food items from wholesalers and have built an extensive distribution network. The fast-food industry is particularly active in setting food distribution systems where the restaurant is the last assembly stage along the supply chain. An emerging trend concerns the home deliveries of prepared or ready-to-cook food, which requires a command of logistics, particularly the cold chain. Inefficient food supply chains generate a larger amount of waste in terms of food that is [lost during harvesting, storage, transportation, preparation, distribution, and consumption](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=13142). Food losses are the highest for fruits and vegetables, where, on average, 50 to 60% of all the production is lost along the supply chain, implying that only 40 to 50% of what is being harvested ends up consumed. These figures are around 40% for cereals, 25% for meats, and 40% for seafood. Consequently, several aspects of food distribution systems can be improved, particularly at the processing, distribution, and consumption levels. One of the core aspects of these improvements relies on cold chain logistics. # 3. Cold Chain Food Systems Any major grocery store will likely carry tangerines from South Africa, apples from New Zealand, bananas from Costa Rica, and asparagus from Mexico. Thus, a cold chain industry has emerged to service these food commodity chains. Before the development of the cold chain, fresh food products were locally or regionally produced. The application level of cold chain technology varies substantially according to the level of development. The cold chains handle about 70% of all the food consumed in the United States. For China, less than 25% of the meat and about 5% of the fruits and vegetables are, but this share is rapidly climbing. The United States imports about 30% of all its fruits and vegetables, and 20% of its food exports can be considered perishables. The cold chain serves to keep food fresh for extended periods and eliminate doubts over the quality of the food products. Still, about 25% of all food products transported in the cold chain are wasted each year due to breaches in integrity, leading to fluctuations in temperature and product degradation. There are a variety of methods for transporting food products. The banana accounts for the world’s most significant commodity transported in the food cold chain, with [20% of all seaborne reefers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6651) trade. Land, sea, and air modes have different operations for keeping food fresh throughout the transport chain. Depending on their speed, different modes will service different cold chain markets with a clear segmentation between air and maritime services. Innovations in packaging, fruit and vegetable coatings, bioengineering (controlled ripening), and other techniques reducing the deterioration of food products have helped shippers extend the reach of perishable products. For food products such as fruits and vegetables, the time after they were harvested directly impacts their shelf life and, therefore, the potential revenue a consignment may generate. A standard truckload of strawberries has a market value of $50,000, while the same load in blueberries can reach $100,000. Concomitantly, new transport technologies have permitted the shipment of perishable products over longer distances. For instance, improved roads and intermodal connections along the African coast reduced food transport time to European markets from 10 days to 4 days. Moving away from ice refrigeration has allowed for much greater distances to be traveled and has greatly increased the size of the global food market, enabling many developing countries to capture [new opportunities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6684). Another efficient mode for transporting foodstuffs is air travel. While this is a preferred form of travel for highly perishable and valuable goods due to its ability to move much faster over longer distances, it lacks the environmental control and ease of transfer that ground and sea transport provide. Also, during the flight, the cargo is stored in a 15°C – 20°C environment, but close to 80% of the time, the package is exposed to exterior weather while waiting to be loaded onto the plane or being moved to and from the airfield. This is troubling, considering the value of the food and the importance placed on quality and freshness. In order for this form of food transport to experience growth among market users, more uncompromising strategies and regulations will have to be embraced and enacted. Food transportation is an industry that has fully adapted to the cold chain and can, despite the problems with air transport, be considered the most resilient, particularly since a large majority of food products have a better tolerance to temporary variations of transport temperatures. The [cold chain distribution center](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6613) represents one of the most efficient links in cold chain logistics by providing facilities where a vast amount of perishable food products can be received from a large number of suppliers, stored, sorted, and assembled into loads bound for respective grocery stores. These facilities usually have several storage areas with different temperature settings to handle regular grocery goods at ambient temperature, such as produce, dairy, meat, and frozen products. As a result, small errors can be compounded without the concern of irreversible damage. Yet, there is a limit to this compounding. For instance, in the transportation of produce, for every hour of delay in the pre-cooling of shipments, an equivalent one-day loss of shelf life must be accounted for. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/large_scale_grocery_cold_chain_dc.png?resize=900%2C728&ssl=1 "Large Scale Grocery Cold Chain Distribution Center | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-cold-chain-distribution-center-schema/grocery_cold_chain_dc/)Large Scale Grocery Cold Chain Distribution Center![Grocery Food Distribution Center](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/grocery_food_distribution_center.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Grocery Section of a Large Food Distribution Center | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Grocery Section of a Large Food Distribution Center[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fresh_frozen_cargo_transport_mode.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Preponderance of Fresh and Frozen Cargo by Transport Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/fresh-frozen-cold-chain-transport-mode/fresh_frozen_mode/)Preponderance of Fresh and Frozen Cargo by Transport Mode[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Reefers-1024x631.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "| The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/?attachment_id=18923)Number of Reefer Slots per Container Port[![Source Loading Chilled Meat](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/source_loading_chilled_meat.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Source Loading of Chilled Meat in a Reefer | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/source-loading-meat-reefer/img_0212-jpg/)Source Loading of Chilled Meat in a Reefer[![Banana Ripening Room](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/banana_ripening_room.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Banana Ripening Room | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/banana-ripening-room/img_0164-jpg/)Banana Ripening RoomThe usage of refrigerated containers has particularly helped since they account for more than 50% of all the refrigerated cargo transported in the world. **[Source loading](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6694)** can be an important factor in extending the shelf life of a cold chain product since it is loaded in a reefer directly at the place of production without additional handling and risks for further breaches in the chain of integrity. For instance, source loading into a reefer can expand the shelf life of [chilled meat](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6698) by about 25 days (from 30-35 days to 55-60 days) from conventional methods and thus considerably expand the market potential of the product. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fresh_produce_season_region.png?resize=300%2C136&ssl=1 "Availability of Fresh Produce by Season and Region | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Availability of Fresh Produce by Season and Region The efficiency and reliability of temperature-controlled transportation have reached a point that allows the food industry to take advantage of **[global seasonable variations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6702)**, meaning that during the winter, the southern hemisphere can export perishable goods to the northern hemisphere while an opposite trade, generally of smaller scale, takes place during the summer. Countries such as Chile have substantially benefited from this and have developed an active agricultural and food transformation industry, mainly servicing the North American market during the winter but also with several niche markets such as wine. A similar issue concerns some African countries, such as Kenya, that have developed fresh produce and flower industries catering to the European market. The fast-food industry is also an active user of cold chain logistics as every outlet can be considered as a factory, with dozens of workers with schedules and shifts, inventory management, and the supply chain of components (many of which are temperature sensitive), and which are assembly lines producing quality-controlled and high-volume products. Cold chain management is also linked to product quality and competitiveness. For instance, the global fast-food chain McDonald’s switched from frozen to fresh beef patties for its core burger products, a strategy that could not be effective without cold chain logistics. # 4. Emerging Vulnerabilities in Food Systems > A regional dairy industry could be disrupted by a lack of paperboard. Disruptions in food systems and the associated shortages and [famines are increasingly uncommon](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=13087) to the point that they have almost disappeared. However, as the above statement underlines, food systems are complex, and the lack of an ancillary element such as paperboard could be a source of vulnerability. How could milk and butter be distributed to markets if their containers are not available? Global food systems have developed a resilience that is based on three major characteristics: - A **complex geography of agriculture** that produces a variety of food products across a multitude of regions and seasons. Pastures remain the agricultural activity having the largest footprint with about 68% of the world’s agricultural land. There are still opportunities to expand agricultural land, but these areas are mainly found in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa. Only large-scale natural or anthropogenic events can have a notable impact on the global availability of food. - **Storage and distribution capabilities** to move agricultural goods and food from surplus to demand areas are extensive. Outside international food aid, there are market mechanisms that create incentives to distribute food. A shortage in an area is associated with a price increase that incites an increase in food supply and redistribution from low-cost areas (surplus) to high-cost areas (shortage). - **Diet substitution** where a population can temporarily switch to alternative food sources in case of scarcity in usual food sources. Thus, a diet based on rice can be substituted for other grains if required. Further, through globalization, [diets have become more homogeneous](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=13117), implying more opportunities for economies of scale in the food supply. Each of these resilience factors needs to be carefully considered when evaluating the vulnerability of global food systems. Yet, these vulnerabilities cannot be dismissed since food production and distribution are complex systems with the risk of cascading effects in case of disruptions. The main risks and vulnerabilities to food systems include: - **Biological risks**. A focus on a limited high-yield plant and animal species has allowed an increase in productivity. About 93% of the vegetable varieties have gone extinct because their cultivation was abandoned for species that were judged more suitable for human consumption. However, this induced productivity comes with higher risks related to disease, pests, and pathogens. Food systems should maintain a level of biological diversity to limit the risks of a large-scale shortage if a disease was to impact a plant or an animal species. - **Natural risks**. Agriculture accounts for about 70% of all freshwater anthropogenic use and is therefore highly vulnerable to changes in water cycles. The conventional risks of floods, storms, and droughts are likely to be exacerbated by climate change, which may involve a shift in the forms of cultivation and agricultural ranges. Food systems should show greater resilience to natural risks through improvements in plant resistance, irrigation techniques, and sustainable use of vast pastures. - **Technological risks**. Food systems depend on a wide range of infrastructure and equipment. Information and communication technologies have also become more prevalent, namely in terms of weather information and market prices. Infrastructure failures remain a risk, particularly if they involve the storage and distribution of food. From ports to distribution centers, food distribution infrastructures are considered strategic assets. - **Political risks**. Food systems are vulnerable to a wide range of political risks, including conflicts, corruption, theft, and trade restrictions. All these factors increase the unreliability of food systems since mechanisms such as stable prices, safety, and security of distribution and the capability to predict supply (food output) accurately and demand are severely disrupted. Food systems require mechanisms able to mitigate political disruptions. - **Economic risks**. Food systems are substantially impacted by economic risks, such as supply and demand shocks caused by price fluctuations. Price volatility for basic food items is often a factor of social unrest when food is available but at a price not affordable for a large share of the population. The combination of price volatility and unaffordable food is considered a market failure. Inversely, price controls can lead to food shortages since market prices could be lower than the cost of production and distribution. Food systems must have suitable pricing mechanisms that ensure profitability for the suppliers of food and agricultural inputs, affordability for the consumers, and the capability to handle disruptions. Food systems remain one of the core foundations of human activities. Evidence underlines that food production has been able to keep up with the substantial growth in demand over the last century. The current context is subject to additional risks, some of which have been enduring throughout human history, while others are brought forward by contemporary technological, economic, political, demographic, and environmental changes. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/famine_victims_history.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Estimated Famine Victims since the Mid-19th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/estimated-famine-victims-since-mid-19th-century/famines/)Estimated Famine Victims since the Mid 19th Century[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/food_consumed_selected.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Food Consumed per Capita, Selected Countries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-consumed-selected-countries-per-capita/food_consumed_selected/)Food Consumed per Capita Selected Countries--- ## Related Topics - [B.9 – The Cold Chain and its Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6585) - [7.4 – Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3928) ## Bibliography - Dani, S. (2021) Food Supply Chain Management and Logistics: Understanding the Challenges of Production, Operation and Sustainability in the Food Industry, London: Kogan Page. - Tallec, F. and L. Bockel (2005) Commodity Chain Analysis: Constructing the Commodity Chain Functional Analysis and Flow Charts, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - Thompson, J.F., P.E. Brecht, T. Hinsch, and A.A. Kader (2000) Marine container transport of chilled perishable produce, University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 21595. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.9 - The Cold Chain and its Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Theo Notteboom > The cold chain involves the transportation of temperature-sensitive products along a supply chain through thermal and refrigerated packaging methods and the logistical planning to protect the integrity of these shipments. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Cold Chain](#1_The_Cold_Chain) - [2. The Emergence of Cold Chain Logistics](#2_The_Emergence_of_Cold_Chain_Logistics) - [3. Providing Temperature Controlled Environments](#3_Providing_Temperature_Controlled_Environments) - [4. Cold Chains Operations](#4_Cold_Chains_Operations) # 1. The Cold Chain While globalization has made the relative distance between regions of the world much smaller, the physical separation of these same regions is still a very important reality. The greater the physical separation, the more likely freight can be damaged in one of the complex transport operations involved. Some goods can be damaged by shocks, while undue temperature variations can damage others. For a range of goods labeled as perishables, particularly food (produces), their quality degrades with time since they maintain chemical reactions, which rate can be mostly mitigated with lower temperatures. It takes time and coordination to move a shipment efficiently, and every delay can have negative consequences, notably if this cargo is perishable. To ensure that cargo does not become damaged or compromised throughout this process, businesses in the pharmaceutical, medical and food industries are increasingly relying on the [cold chain](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6592). > The **cold chain** involves the transportation of temperature-sensitive products along a supply chain through thermal and refrigerated packaging methods and the [logistical planning](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6598) to protect the [integrity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4343) of these shipments. There are several means in which cold chain products can be transported, including refrigerated trucks and railcars, refrigerated cargo ships, reefers, and air cargo. The cold chain is thus a science, a technology, and a process. It is a science since it requires an understanding of the chemical and biological processes linked with perishability. It is a **[technology](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6603)** since it relies on physical means to ensure appropriate temperature conditions along the supply chain. It is a **process** since a series of tasks must be performed to prepare, store, transport, and monitor temperature-sensitive products. The main elements of a cold chain involve: - **Cooling systems**. Bringing commodities such as food to the appropriate temperature for processing, storage, and transportation. - **Cold storage**. Providing facilities for the storage of goods over a period of time, either waiting to be shipped to a distant market, at an intermediary location for processing and distribution, and close to the market for distribution. - **Cold transport**. Having conveyances available to move goods while maintaining stable temperature and humidity conditions as well as protecting their integrity. - **Cold processing and distribution**. Providing facilities for the transformation and processing of goods as well as ensuring sanitary conditions. Consolidating and deconsolidating loads (crates, boxes, pallets) for distribution. From an economic development perspective, the cold chain enables many developing economies to take part in the global perishable products market either as producers or as consumers. The [growth in income](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6608) is associated with a higher propensity to consume fruits, vegetables, fish, and meat products. Increasing income levels are associated with a change in diet with, among others, growing demand for fresh fruit and higher value foodstuffs such as meat and fish. People with higher socioeconomic status are more likely to consume vegetables and fruit, particularly fresh, not only in higher quantities but also in greater variety. Consumers with increasing purchase power have become preoccupied with healthy eating. Therefore producers and retailers have responded with an array of exotic fresh fruits originating from around the world. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/element_cold_chain.png?resize=900%2C683&ssl=1 "Elements of the Cold Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-elements/element_cold_chain/)Elements of the Cold Chain[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/operational_conditions_cold_chain.png?resize=900%2C726&ssl=1 "Operational Conditions of Cold Chain Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-operational-conditions/cold_chain_operational_conditions/)Operational Conditions of Cold Chain Logistics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/temperature_integrity.png?resize=900%2C303&ssl=1 "Maintaining Temperature Integrity along a Cold Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/cold-chain-integrity/temperature_integrity/)Maintaining Temperature Integrity along a Cold Chain[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cold_chain_technology-e1604771555461-1024x450.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "cold_chain_technology | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-techology/cold_chain_technology/)The Cold Chain Technology[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/income_perishables.png?resize=850%2C514&ssl=1 "Income per Capita and Perishable Share of Food Imports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/income-perishables-share-imports/income_perishables/)Income per Capita and Perishable Share of Food Imports[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cold_storage_dc_regina.jpg?resize=776%2C582&ssl=1 "Grocery Chain Cold Storage Facility, Regina | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-storage-facility-regina/cold_storage_dc_regina/)Grocery Chain Cold Storage Facility ReginaFrom a geographical perspective, the cold chain has the following impacts: - **Global**. Specialization of agricultural functions permitting the transport of temperature-sensitive food products to distant markets. It enables the distribution of vaccines and other pharmaceutical or biological products from single large facilities to any market around the world. - **Regional**. It can support the specialization of production and economies of scale in distribution. This could involve large [cold storage facilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6613) servicing regional grocery markets or specialized laboratories exchanging temperature sensitive components. - **Local**. Timely distribution to the final consumer of perishables, namely grocery stores and restaurants. Some domestic or transnational supply chains may only require one transportation mode, but many times, ground shipments are only one link in a combination of transport modes. This makes intermodal transfers critical for the cold chain. Intermodal shipments typically use 40-foot refrigerated containers that are capable of holding up to 26 tons of food. The container makes loading and unloading periods shorter and less susceptible to damage on the container and its cargo. The environments in these containers are controlled electronically by either plugging into a generator or power source on the ship or truck, as well as terminals and distribution centers. The efficiency of cold chain logistics permitted the consolidation of cold storage facilities to service large market areas. # 2. The Emergence of Cold Chain Logistics Since the 1950s, third-party logistics providers began to emerge and institute new methods for transporting global cold chain commodities. Before their emergence, cold chain processes were mostly managed in house by the manufacturer or the distributor. In the United States, Food and Drug Administration restrictions and accountability measures over the stability of the cold chain incited many of these companies to rely on specialty couriers rather than completely overhauling their supply chain facilities. Specialization has led many companies not only to rely on major shipping service providers such as the United Parcel Service (UPS) and FedEx but also to a more focused industry that has developed a niche logistical expertise around the shipping of temperature-sensitive products. The potential to understand local rules, customs, and environmental conditions, as well as an estimation of the length and time of a distribution route, making them an important factor in global trade. As a result, the logistics industry is experiencing a growing level of specialization and segmentation of cold chain shipping in several potential niche markets within global supply chains. Whole [new segments of the distribution industry](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/fresh-frozen-cold-chain-transport-mode/ "Preponderance of Fresh and Frozen Cargo by Transport Mode") have been very active in taking advantage of the dual development of the spatial extension of supply chains supported by globalization and the significant variety of goods in circulation. The reliance on the cold chain continues to gain importance. Within the pharmaceutical industry, for instance, the testing, production, and movement of drugs rely heavily on controlled and uncompromised transfer of shipments. A large portion of the pharmaceutical products that move along the cold chain are in the experiment or developmental phase. Clinical research and trials are a major part of the industry that costs millions of dollars, but one that also experiences a failure rate of around 80%. About 10% of medical drugs are temperature-sensitive. If these shipments should experience any unanticipated exposure to variant temperature levels, they run the risk of becoming ineffective or even harmful to patients. In all the supply chains it is concerned with, cold chain logistics favor higher levels of integration since maintaining temperature integrity requires a higher **level of control of all the processes involved**. It may even incite third-party logistics providers to acquire elements of the supply chain where time and other performance factors are the most important, even farming. This may involve the acquisition of produce farms (e.g. orange groves) to ensure supply reliability. Temperature control in the shipment of foodstuffs is a component of the industry that has continued to rise in relation to international trade. As a growing number of countries focus their export economy around food and produce production, the need to keep these products fresh for extended periods of time has gained importance for commercial and health reasons. The command of cold chain logistics has become so efficient that it involves fragile niche markets such as [fresh flowers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/flowers-ecuador-united-states/ "Fresh Flowers Cold Chain, Ecuador-United States") that can be sourced from Ecuador, Kenya, and Ethiopia. The cold chain is also a public health issue since the proper transport of food products will reduce the likeliness of bacterial, microbial, and fungal contamination of the shipment. Also, the ability to transport medical goods over long distances enables more effective responses to healthcare issues (e.g. distribution of vaccines). This was particularly important during the COVID-19 pandemic, with the massive distribution of vaccines reliant on cold chain logistics. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fresh_flowers_cold_chain.png?resize=900%2C541&ssl=1 "Fresh Flowers Cold Chain, Ecuador-United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fresh Flowers Cold Chain Ecuador United States![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fresh_frozen_cargo_transport_mode.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Preponderance of Fresh and Frozen Cargo by Transport Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Preponderance of Fresh and Frozen Cargo by Transport Mode# 3. Providing Temperature Controlled Environments The success of industries that rely on the cold chain comes down to knowing how to ship a product with temperature control adapted to the shipping circumstances. Cold chain operations have substantially improved in recent decades, and the industry can answer the requirements of a wide range of products. Different products require the maintenance of different temperature levels to ensure their integrity throughout the transport chain. The industry has responded with the setting of temperature standards that accommodate the majority of products. The most common [temperature standards](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6636) are “banana” (13 °C), “chill” (2 °C), “frozen” (-18 °C), and “deep-frozen” (-29 °C), each related to specific product groups. Staying within this temperature range is vital to the integrity of a shipment along the supply chain, and for perishables, it enables to ensure [optimal shelf life](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6640). Any divergence can result in irrevocable and expensive damage; a product can lose any market value or utility. Ensuring that a shipment will remain within a temperature range for an extended period of time comes down largely to the type of container that is used and the refrigeration method. About 20% of all the energy consumed in cold chain logistics involves cargo refrigeration. Factors such as duration of transit, the size of the shipment, and the ambient or outside temperatures experienced are important in deciding what type of packaging is required, and the related level of energy consumption. They can range from small insulated boxes that require dry ice or gel packs, rolling containers, to a 53 footer reefer with its own powered refrigeration unit. The major cold chain technologies in providing a temperature-controlled environment during transport involve: - **Dry ice**. Solid carbon dioxide is about -80°C and is capable of keeping a shipment frozen for an extended period of time. It is particularly used for the shipping of pharmaceuticals, dangerous goods, and foodstuffs and in refrigerated unit load devices for air cargo. Dry ice does not melt. Instead, it sublimates when it comes in contact with air. - **Gel packs**. Large shares of pharmaceutical and medicinal shipments are classified as chilled products, which means they must be stored in a temperature range between 2 and 8°C. The standard method to provide this temperature is to use gel packs or packages that contain phase changing substances that can go from solid to liquid and vice versa to control an environment. Depending on the shipping requirements, these packs can either start off in a frozen or refrigerated state. Along the transit process, they melt to liquids, while at the same time capturing escaping energy and maintaining an internal temperature. - **Eutectic plates**. They are also known as “cold plates”. The principle is similar to gel packs. Instead, plates are filled with a liquid and can be reused many times. Eutectic plates have a wide range of applications, such as maintaining cold temperatures for rolling refrigerated units. They can also be used in [delivery vehicles](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/meat-cold-chain/ "Meat Cold Chain") to keep the temperature constant for short periods of time, a process that can be suitable for deliveries in noise-sensitive areas or for night deliveries. - **Liquid nitrogen**. An especially cold substance, of about -196°C, used to keep packages frozen over a long period of time and mainly used to transport biological cargo such as tissues and organs. It is considered as a hazardous substance for the purpose of transportation. - **Quilts**. Insulated pieces that are placed over or around freight to act as a buffer in temperature variations and to maintain the temperature relatively constant. Thus, frozen freight will remain frozen for a longer time period, often long enough not to justify the usage of more expensive refrigeration devices. Quilts can also be used to keep temperature-sensitive freight at room temperature, while outside conditions can substantially vary (e.g. during the summer or the winter). - **Reefers**. The generic name for a temperature-controlled transport unit can be a van, small truck, semi-trailer, or standard ISO container. These units, which are insulated, are specially designed to allow temperature-controlled air circulation maintained by an attached and independent refrigeration plant. A reefer is, therefore, able to keep the cargo temperature cool and even warm. The term reefer increasingly applies to [refrigerated forty-foot ISO containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2659), with the dominant size being 40 high-cube footers (45R1 being the size and type code). The cold storage facility is the most commonly used in cold chain logistics. It can range from a single temperature-controlled room servicing a single user and function to a [large dedicated distribution center](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=13764) servicing multiple users and functions. There are also punctual examples, such as [converting mines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6720) into cold storage facilities. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/temperature_standards_cold_chain.png?resize=900%2C316&ssl=1 "Temperature Standards for the Cold Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/temperature-standards-cold-chain/cc_temperature_standards/)Temperature Standards for the Cold Chain[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/meat_cold_chain.jpg?resize=600%2C369&ssl=1 "Meat Cold Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/meat-cold-chain/meat_cold_chain/)Meat Cold Chain[![Palletized Bananas](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/palletized_bananas.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Palletized Bananas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/palletized-bananas-at-a-cold-chain-warehouse/2019-06-04-12-27-20/)Palletized Bananas at a Cold Chain Warehouse[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_3632.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Reefer Containership entering the Zeebrugge Harbor | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/reefer-containership-zeebrugge/img_3632/)Reefer Containership entering the Zeebrugge Harbor[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/subtropolis.jpg?resize=851%2C639&ssl=1 "Subtropolis Underground Warehousing Facility, Kansas City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/subtropolis-warehouse-kansas-city/subtropolis/)Subtropolis Underground Warehousing Facility Kansas City# 4. Cold Chains Operations Moving a shipment across the supply chain without suffering any setbacks or temperature anomalies requires the establishment of a comprehensive logistical process to maintain **shipment integrity**. This process concerns several phases ranging from the preparation of the shipments to the final verification of the integrity of the shipment at the delivery point: - **Shipment preparation**. When a temperature-sensitive product is being moved, it is vital first to assess its characteristics. A key issue concerns the [temperature conditioning and the packaging](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6698) of the shipment, which should already be at the desired temperature. Cold chain devices are commonly designed to keep the temperature constant, but not to bring a shipment to this temperature, so they would be unable to perform adequately if a shipment is not prepared and conditioned. A notable exception concerns bananas, which are transported around a temperature of 13o Celsius, for which it is possible to use a reefer to cool down the shipment. Other concerns include the destination of the shipment and the weather conditions for those regions, such as if the shipment will be exposed to extreme cold or heat along the transport route. Using a reefer with its own power unit usually mitigates such concerns. The load unit carrying the temperature-sensitive cargo must also be prepared. For instance, a refrigerated container must be steam cleaned to remove the risk of bacterial contamination and brought to the specified conditions of the shipper, namely temperature and humidity. Another issue concerns atmospheric control, which is maintaining appropriate oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, helping control (delay) the ripening. This control can apply to the whole conveyance (reefer) but commonly involves wrapping products in polyethylene bags, which controls how gases permeate during transport. - **Modal choice**. Several key factors play into how the shipment will be moved. Distance between the origin and the final destination (which often includes a set of intermediary locations), the size and weight of the shipment, the required exterior temperature environment, and any time restrictions (perishability) of the product all affect the available transportation options. Short distances can be handled with a van or a truck, while a longer trip may require an airplane or a container ship. In this case, the cost/perishability ratio becomes a factor in the modal choice. - **Custom procedures**. If the freight crosses boundaries, custom procedures can become very important, since cold chain products tend to be time-sensitive and more subject to inspection than regular freight (e.g. produce, pharmaceuticals, and biological samples). The difficulty of this task differs depending on the nation (or economic bloc) and the gateway since there are variations in procedures and delays. A common issue relates to [sanitary inspection](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/crownless-pineapples-in-cold-chain-inspection-room/ "Crownless Pineapples in Cold Chain Inspection Room") that may require fumigation. Customs issues are commonly identified as the most crucial in establishing reliable international cold chains. - **The “Last Mile”**. The last stage is the actual delivery of the shipment to its destination, which in logistics is often known as the “last mile”. When arranging a final delivery, key considerations concern not only the destination but the timing of the delivery, so the critical labor and warehousing space is available. [Trucks and vans](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/refrigerated-urban-delivery-truck/ "Refrigerated Urban Delivery Truck"), the primary modes of transportation for this stage, must meet the specifications necessary to transfer the cold chain shipment. Since many deliveries of cold chain products, particularly groceries, are taking place in an urban setting, they are impeded by congestion and parking difficulties. Also important is the final transfer of the shipment into the cold storage facilities as there is potential for a breach of integrity and damages to fragile goods such as produce. - **Integrity and quality assurance**. After the shipment has been delivered, temperature recording devices or known temperature anomalies must be recorded and made known. This step of the logistical process creates trust and accountability, particularly if liability for a damaged shipment is incurred. If problems or anomalies compromise a shipment, an effort must be made to identify the source and find corrective actions. This is particularly relevant to the high value of cold chain goods. While a standard container load can have a value between $50,000 and $100,000, a reefer load can reach $1 million. In the case of pharmaceuticals, the value of the cargo can reach $50 million. - **Post-processing**. Some cold chain products may require final preparation at the destination site, such as a cold storage facility. It can involve preparation (for food), packaging, and, in some cases, [fruit ripening](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/banana-ripening-room/ "Banana Ripening Room") (or aging meats). [![Source Loading Chilled Meat](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/source_loading_chilled_meat.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Source Loading of Chilled Meat in a Reefer | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/source-loading-meat-reefer/img_0212-jpg/)Source Loading of Chilled Meat in a Reefer[![Crownless Pineapples Cold Chain Inspection](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/crownless_pineapples_cold_chain_inspection.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Crownless Pineapples in Cold Chain Inspection Room | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/crownless-pineapples-in-cold-chain-inspection-room/2019-06-04-12-26-26/)Crownless Pineapples in Cold Chain Inspection Room[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2019-06-08-14.19.29.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Refrigerated urban delivery truck | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/2019-06-08-14-19-29/)Refrigerated Urban Delivery Truck![Banana Ripening Room](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/banana_ripening_room.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Banana Ripening Room | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Banana Ripening RoomTherefore, the setting and operation of cold chains are dependent on the concerned supply chains since each cargo unit to be carried has different requirements in terms of location, demand, level of concentration, load integrity, and transport integrity. Because of the additional tasks involved, as well as the energy required for the refrigeration unit, transportation costs for cold chain products are much higher than for regular goods. The ongoing rise in living standards and economic specialization will remain important drivers for years in the growing demand for perishable goods and the cold chain logistics supporting their transport. --- ## Related Topics - [Value Chains and Freight Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3924) - [Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3928) - [The Logistics of Global Food Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12791) - [Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3919) - [The Containerization of Commodities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8394) - [Port Cold Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-cold-chains/) (PEMP – External Link) ## Bibliography - Coyle, W. W. Hall, and N. Ballenger (2001) “Transportation Technology and The Rising Share of U.S. Perishable Food Trade”, Economic Research Service/USDA, Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption and Trade / WRS-01-1. - FAO (2011) Global Food Losses and Food Waste. - Rees, J. (2013) Refrigeration Nation: A History of Ice, Appliances, and Enterprise in America, Johns Hopkins University Press. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Source Loading of Chilled Meat in a Reefer](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/source-loading-meat-reefer/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Source Loading Chilled Meat](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/source_loading_chilled_meat.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Source Loading of Chilled Meat in a Reefer | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Source Loading of Chilled Meat in a Reefer*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2013.* Chilled meat represents a significant export market, particularly for countries with active livestock farming, such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Argentina. However, meat exporters are usually located long distances from major consumption markets. Conventionally, meat was exported to foreign markets in a frozen form. However, this state implies a loss of quality because ice crystals are forming during the freezing process (blast freezing reduces this risk), which can damage tissue. Thus, there is a strong business case to export unfrozen meat at chilled temperatures (usually at -2 Celsius for meat), with [source loading](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6694) the most convenient strategy. Its main advantages involve no additional handling of the perishable contents once the container has been loaded, implying lower risks of damage or spoilage. Additionally, the integrity of a shipment is guaranteed since it is sourced at only one location, locked, and only to be “touched” at customs and the customer’s receiving facility. The above photo depicts pallets of premium pork ready to be source loaded into a maritime reefer container at a medium-sized meat processing plant in Trochu, Alberta (Sunterra). This plant produces about 4-5 source loaded reefer loads per week bound for Japan, a country with very high standards for quality. The meat is prepared and cut to the specifications of the customer, inspected, then vacuum sealed, boxed, palletized, and brought to the loading bay. The whole facility is refrigerated, so once slaughtered, the meat is not exposed to a temperature different from that of chilled. Once vacuum-packed, chilled pork has a shelf life of about 50 days if the storage temperature is continuously maintained. About 17,500 kg of pork can be shipped per reefer container. The reefers are usually floor loaded, which takes more loading time (about two hours), but confer a better weight distribution so that boxes do not move and damage their content during transport. Reefers are usually brought to the source loading facility on a “drop and swap” basis, implying that an empty reefer is brought in, and the driver then takes a full shipment out. From the facility in central Alberta, reefers are trucked directly to the port of Vancouver (2 days of driving). They will reach Japan (Tokyo or Yokohama) in about 21 days, leaving about 30 days of shelf life for the chilled pork to be sold on the Japanese market. Without source loading and the reefer container, such an export opportunity would not exist. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/source-loading-meat-reefer/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/source-loading-meat-reefer/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/source-loading-meat-reefer/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/source-loading-meat-reefer/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Isochrone Map of Manchester, 1917](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/isochrone-map-manchester/) **Published:** September 29, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/isochrone_manchester_1917.jpg?resize=900%2C862&ssl=1 "Isochrone Map of Manchester 1917 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Isochrone Map of Manchester 1917By the early 20th century, many cities were being transformed by the streetcar, leading to linear developments along radiating lines. This is apparent on the above map depicting the isochrones of travel time from the city center of Manchester. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/isochrone-map-manchester/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/isochrone-map-manchester/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/isochrone-map-manchester/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/isochrone-map-manchester/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Hall of Humberto Delgado Airport, Lisbon](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/main-hall-humberto-delgado-airport-lisbon/) **Published:** November 11, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/main_hall_lisbon_airport.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Main Hall of Humberto Delgado Airport, Lisbon | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Hall of Humberto Delgado Airport Lisbon*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2023* The Airport of Lisbon is among Europe’s largest and most congested, with a traffic of above 28 million passengers in 2022, from a pre-pandemic level of around 30 million. It has two locational advantages. The first is being only 7 km from downtown Lisbon, making the facilities [easily accessible](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-location-factors/ "Airport Location Factors"). Second, the airport is well-positioned for transatlantic flights, being the closest European airport to Central and South America. In particular, Brazil represents a substantial market, in part because of the linguistic commonalities between them. However, the location of the airport generates several externalities due to its proximity to residential areas as approaching flights cross over them. There have been plans for several decades to find an alternative site, but this decision has been subject to recurring delays, in part because of high costs. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/main-hall-humberto-delgado-airport-lisbon/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/main-hall-humberto-delgado-airport-lisbon/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/main-hall-humberto-delgado-airport-lisbon/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/main-hall-humberto-delgado-airport-lisbon/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Jet Bridge, Warsaw Airport](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/jet-bridge-warsaw/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Jet Bridge Warsaw Airport](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/jet_bridge_warsaw_airport.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Jet Bridge, Warsaw Airport | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Jet Bridge Warsaw Airport*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2012.* A jet bridge (jetway or sky bridge) is an enclosed ramp that connects the gate of an air terminal to the door of an aircraft. They are designed to accommodate a wide range of aircraft, from large wide-body planes such as the B777 or A330 to small regional jets such as the E170 (as pictured in the above photo; E175?). They offer the convenience of protecting the embarking or disembarking passengers (and crew) from weather conditions and provide added security and safety by preventing passengers from walking around the airfield between the aircraft and the terminal. However, they have the drawback of consuming a specific amount of space regardless of the type of aircraft being used. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/jet-bridge-warsaw/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/jet-bridge-warsaw/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/jet-bridge-warsaw/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/jet-bridge-warsaw/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Kroger Automated Distribution Center, Paramount, California](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/kroger-distribution-center-paramount/) **Published:** November 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Kroger Automated Dc Paramount](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2013-10-10-14.40.41.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Kroger Automated Distribution Center, Paramount, California | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Kroger Automated Distribution Center Paramount California*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2013.* The grocery sector is characterized by a particular set of challenges for freight distribution. Demand is constant and of high volume, but since each store meets a local demand (different incomes and preferences), distribution centers of large grocery chains must meet complex orders of hundreds of separate items for each delivery. As a result, grocery freight distribution can be a highly labor-intensive operation, which, coupled with lower profit margins (often less than 2%), provides an incentive to improve its operational efficiency. A growing number of grocery distribution centers are being automated. The above photo depicts the Kroger distribution center located in Paramount in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Kroger is America’s largest grocery retailer (the world’s fourth-largest), with southern California stores under the Ralphs and Food 4 Less banners. The Los Angeles metropolitan area and Southern California represent substantial markets that the chain serves, with more than 250 stores. The 500,000-square-foot facility was completed in 2008 and is a strategic regional warehouse and distribution facility. It acts as a cross-docking facility that only handles dry grocery goods (specific distribution centers for cold chain goods such as produce, dairy, and meat are operated elsewhere in the metropolitan area). The automated facility receives full pallets of only one item (SKU) on the inbound side (this means that suppliers must abide by a set of rules concerning pallet dimensions and load configuration). The pallets are then loaded into a conveyor where their contents will be automatically de-palletized, put on individual trays, and then stored in high tray or bay warehouses (bays are for full pallets stored until they need to be depalletized). Once individual store orders are received, the operations center will build a model of a delivery pallet and then order individual trays that are brought to a palletizing machine. Pallets can be composed to optimize the shelving since the composition process takes account of the grocery store layout. The pallets containing a wide array of goods are then conveyed to the loading docks, where they will be loaded into delivery trucks bound for the receiving store(s). The current facility is running close to capacity (around 85%), and higher throughput involves extended hours of operation. Distribution center automation, including high bays, is effective when there are land constraints with limited room for horizontal expansion in accessible (central) areas. It is also suitable in the context of high-volume throughput, where the demand is stable and predictable. However, such facilities are capital-intensive and require a high level of technical expertise to manage. It is expected that as automation technology matures, a growing number of distribution centers will become partially or fully automated. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/kroger-distribution-center-paramount/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/kroger-distribution-center-paramount/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/kroger-distribution-center-paramount/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/kroger-distribution-center-paramount/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Omnibus, London, Circa 1895](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/omnibus-london-19th-century/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Omnibus London 1895](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/omnibus_london_1895.webp?resize=900%2C473&ssl=1 "Omnibus, London, Circa 1895 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Omnibus London Late 19th Century*Source: London Transport Museum.* Although the first omnibus services appeared in Nantes in 1826 and Bordeaux in 1827, the first wide-scale commercial public transit ventures began in 1828 in Paris. Stanislas Baudry, a retired French general, had been experimenting with a scheme to draw new customers to his steam bath venture outside Nantes. Baudry introduced a type of stagecoach operation, which, as it turned out, did not benefit his steam bath, but did prove popular as a means of transportation. This transport service was given the name omnibus as a play on words. The city terminus for the service was located adjacent to a hatter named Omnes, whose sign read “Omnes Omnibus”. The term seemed appropriate since Omni (Latin for all people) could use the service for a fee, regardless of class. These early buses carried up to fourteen passengers. By 1836, there were 16 omnibus operators in Paris, covering 35 routes. The innovation was carried to London in 1829 by George Shillibeer, a successful English coach maker who worked in Paris. As in France, the omnibus was primarily used by middle-class commuters. By 1854, more suburban commuters used the omnibus than steamboat and railroad combined. The North American experience with the omnibus, although less enduring than in France, proceeded at a quicker pace. Abraham Brower, a Manhattan stagecoach operator who had started business in 1827, created the first omnibus venture in the United States. The innovation was soon adopted elsewhere, for example, in Philadelphia and Boston in the 1830s and Baltimore in the 1840s. In Canada, omnibus services flourished in the larger cities of Toronto, Montreal, and Halifax during the middle of the nineteenth century. The omnibus was first adapted to a fixed rail system in 1832 by John Mason, president of the Chemical Bank of New York and operator of the N.Y. & Harlem Railroad. The smooth ride and low floor of these new horse-cars provided passengers with superior comfort. The widespread adoption of this technology to other cities was limited until engineers could design a rail that could be installed flush with the street surface. In 1853 New York opted to replace the elevated rails with this new, obstruction-free design, and other cities followed suit: - 1832 New York. - 1835 New Orleans. - 1856 Boston. - 1858 Philadelphia. - 1859 Baltimore, Pittsburgh and Chicago. - 1861 Toronto. The adoption of this new technology was less rapid in Europe. Paris approved their first streetcar railway in 1854 after considerable grumbling by skeptical officials. A six-fold increase in ridership between 1855 and 1890 eventually confirmed the popularity of the horse-drawn railway among the citizens of Paris. Rail-based horse cars were introduced in England in 1860, but adoption was never widespread. By 1882 the North American transit industry had ballooned to include 415 street railway firms, 35 000 workers, 18 000 cars, 100 000 horses and mules, over 3 000 miles of track, and a total capital investment of $150 million. The time was right for forming a professional trade association to represent the young industry. The American Street Railway Association was therefore formed in Boston in December 1882 by representatives from across the United States and Canada. The founding of this new trade organization coincided with a period of technical innovation in public transit. Both San Francisco and Chicago had opened cable-car lines to address the many deficiencies of horse-drawn travel, including the need to have large stables to supply fresh horses and the need to remove both snow and manure from the tracks. Cable cars were quickly adopted in a number of cities. In 1893, cable-car trackage peaked at 305 miles spread among 59 companies operating in 27 cities. No Canadian systems converted from horse cars to cable cars, which is just as well since the successful application of electricity quickly rendered the cable systems obsolete, with the notable exception of San Francisco. Within a few years of its initial introduction in 1888, most major cities in North America had adopted the electric streetcar, including Ottawa (1890); Winnipeg (1891); Toronto, Montreal, and Hamilton (1892); and Halifax (1896). Outside North America, the streetcar is commonly referred to as a *Tram*. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/omnibus-london-19th-century/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/omnibus-london-19th-century/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/omnibus-london-19th-century/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/omnibus-london-19th-century/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.11- Freight Distribution Clusters (Logistics Zones)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/) **Published:** January 7, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Logistic zones are a grouping of activities related to freight distribution such as distribution centers, transportation, and supporting services within a defined and often planned area. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Clustering of Logistics](#1_The_Clustering_of_Logistics) - [2. Typology of Logistics Zones](#2_Typology_of_Logistics_Zones) - [3. Site Selection and Location Dynamics](#3_Site_Selection_and_Location_Dynamics) - [4. Functions and Added Value](#4_Functions_and_Added_Value) # 1. The Clustering of Logistics Logistics tend to **agglomerate** at specific locations, mainly because of the accessibility they confer, the availability of land, and the benefits logistics activities derive from being close to one another. This clustering takes place within a defined area that can be subject to regulatory and financial support. There is a wide array of benefits derived from [improved logistics capabilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/benefits-logistics-improvements/ "The Benefits of Logistics Improvements"), such as increased integration into global trade and supply chains, accessibility to regional markets, better utilization of national transport assets, more competitive exports, lower costs for imports, and employment opportunities. The development of logistics has been an important component of global supply chains since the growth in international trade and the related material flows require activities supporting their consolidation, deconsolidation, storage, transloading, and light transformation. There is a general lack of consensus about the definition that an area containing logistics activities and establishments can have. A wide variety of terms have been put forward, including freight distribution clusters, logistics zones, logistics activity centers, distribution hubs, or logistics parks. At a high level, the term global logistics hub describes a cluster managing a large amount of cargo, particularly maritime, and over long distances. Such variety is the outcome of the geographical contexts, the functions, the actors, the governance and ownership models, and even the marketing strategies advocated. Here the term **logistics zone** is retained. The range of functions of logistics zones is wide, from simple cargo consolidation to advanced logistics services. Many locations have assumed a significant number of traditional cargo handling functions and services. They have attracted many related services, such as distribution centers, shipping agents, motor carriers, forwarders, container repair facilities, and packing firms. Two drivers have been particularly prevalent in the emergence of logistics zones: - **Complexity of freight distribution**. Due to the long distances over which supply chain management is carried, intermodal and distribution strategies must be accommodated at strategic locations, such as gateways and hubs. Also, due to complex supply chain practices, additional operations must be performed on the cargo and the loads while in transit. - **Massification**. The quantity of cargo being handled, as well as its concentration at specific gateways and along corridors, has favored the emergence of large logistic zone complexes at strategic locations that can provide the necessary infrastructures to ensure large-scale operations as well as future traffic expectations. The [evolution and taxonomy of logistics zones](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8290) are ambiguous since they relate to various economic, political, and even geographical contexts. The concept of logistics zones is well-advanced in Europe. In the late 1960s and 1970s, logistics zones appeared in France, Italy, and Germany by following the concept of extended inland intermodal terminals. In the 1980s and 1990s, the number of such zones multiplied. Logistics zones are usually created within the framework of regional development policies as joint initiatives by firms, intermodal operators, regional and local authorities, central governments, or chambers of commerce. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/benefits_logistics_improvements2.png?resize=900%2C452&ssl=1 "The Benefits of Logistics Improvements | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/benefits-logistics-improvements/benefits_logistics_improvements/)The Benefits of Logistics Improvements[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_scope_taxonomy_logistics.png?resize=900%2C546&ssl=1 "The Evolution of the Scope and Taxonomy of Logistic Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-zones-evolution/evol_logistics_scope_taxonomy/)The Evolution of the Scope and Taxonomy of Logistic Areas[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-Zones.png?resize=900%2C657&ssl=1 "China's Special Economic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/special-economic-zones-china/map-china-special-economic-zones-png/)Chinas Special Economic ZonesIn [North America](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/intermodal-terminals-logistics-zones-north-america/ "Intermodal Terminals and Selected Co-Located Logistic Zones Projects in North America"), the emergence of planned logistics zones came later as governments rarely placed much attention on these activities outside zoning regulations at the municipal level. The general availability of land and the private nature of rail and truck operations involved a freight distribution industry that was self-regulated in its locational choices. Cluster formation was mainly a ‘natural’ process strongly conditioned by national and regional market accessibility. A variety of private real estate promoters, often in partnership with local or state governments, built logistics or industrial parks on an ad hoc basis where land was available, inexpensive, and near major highways. Although such a speculative strategy of providing warehousing space can help attract customers since their entry costs are lower, it also comes at a risk that the landlord must bear if the expected customer base does not materialize or if some customers decide to move elsewhere. In developing economies, logistics zones were initially associated with transnationalism, as the setting of foreign trade and export-oriented zones often took place near port and airport facilities. In this matter, the case of China is illustrative as its [special economic zones](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/special-economic-zones-china/ "China’s Special Economic Zones") became de facto logistics zones having a strong export orientation. With the growing level of involvement of developing economies in international trade as well as the ongoing growth of internal demand, the development of logistics zones is taking a form more in line with developed economies. # 2. Typology of Logistics Zones Large distribution centers tend to develop on the principle of **internal economies of agglomeration** (within the distribution center). The larger the distribution center, the lower its operational costs, particularly if accessible, low-cost land is available. Logistic zones expand these advantages through external economies of agglomeration, implying that the concentration of distribution centers within the cluster, even if they concern different supply chains, has the potential to reduce an array of costs. Logistics zones can be [classified](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8295) according to their modal orientation, geographical scope, or function. A [modal taxonomy of logistic zones](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8301) suggests four major forms; port-centric logistics zones, inland ports, logistics zones, and freight villages. A **port-centric logistics zone** has been planned in co-location or [proximity to a port terminal facility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8304). It supports freight distribution activities directly related to maritime shipping and has a dominant international trade orientation. The common value proposition of port-centric logistics zones is land availability next to a port terminal and the convenience of tapping the labor pool generally available in a port city. From a freight distribution perspective, inventory management tends to be improved since containers can be easily picked up or dropped off at the terminal facility. Empties can immediately be returned to the terminal, improving container utilization levels. Container weights are not bound to national road restrictions, implying higher container load factors and related shipping economies. The added security a port-centric logistics zone offers is also a positive factor, particularly in developing economies. Port-centric logistics zones also have some drawbacks, particularly since they involve higher land costs with potentially more restrictive labor regulations if they are within the jurisdiction of labor unions. They also lock the shipping options of their customers to the port, which may not be the most suitable if shipping lines revise their service network configurations. Port authorities tend to be proactive in developing port-centric logistics since it supports added value to port activities and allows them to diversify their involvement in regional freight distribution. Satellite terminals supporting port activities, such as off-dock rail facilities and empty container depots, can also be developed. Still, these activities tend to be more transport than freight distribution intensive. Port-centric logistics zones can be export-oriented or import-oriented, depending on the trade structure they are embedded with. Intermediary locations, namely transshipment hubs, aim to develop port-centric logistics zones, but rather unsuccessfully, as the transshipment role is difficult to reconcile with a logistics function where a container needs to be unloaded, de-stuffed, and reloaded. Most of [China’s special economic zones](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4103) are export-oriented port-centric logistics. [Savannah](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8309), Georgia, is a notable example of a gateway that has experienced significant development in import-oriented port-centric logistical activities with the growth of all-water services between Pacific Asia and the East Coast through the Panama Canal, including in the aftermath of its expansion in 2016. **Airport-centric logistics zones** work on a similar principle where logistics activities are co-located and often directly accessible to runways. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/taxonomy_logistics_clusters.png?resize=900%2C517&ssl=1 "Taxonomy of Logistics Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-clusters/taxonomy_logistics/)Taxonomy of Logistics Clusters[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/typology_logistics_zones.png?resize=900%2C363&ssl=1 "Types of Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistic-zones/taxonomy_logistics_zones/)Types of Logistic Zones[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/advantages_port_centric.png?resize=900%2C342&ssl=1 "Main Advantages of Port-Centric Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/port-centric-logistics-advantages/port_centric_advantages/)Main Advantages of Port Centric Logistic Zones[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/advantages_logistics_zones2.png?resize=900%2C490&ssl=1 "Advantages of Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-zones-advantages/advantages_logistics_zones/)Advantages of Logistic Zones[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/functional_integration_clusters.png?resize=900%2C564&ssl=1 "Functional Integration of Freight Distribution Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/freight-clusters-integration/functional_integration_clusters/)Functional Integration of Freight Distribution ClustersAn **inland port** is an intermodal terminal (commonly rail) built or updated concomitantly with the development of adjacent logistical and service activities (inland ports are covered more extensively in [this section](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139)). An inland port can also be serviced by trucks, which often occurs in developing countries, but this does not represent an efficient strategy as massification cannot be implemented. The inland terminal is directly integrated into co-located distribution activities, one of the main advantages of such facilities as they become their respective customers. The term “dry port” is often used to label them since it refers to a facility that performs a similar intermodal function to a port, is not directly serviced by deepsea maritime services, is a factor of agglomeration, but is not linked with a maritime function (except for fluvial ports). The inland port is the most advanced form of a logistics zone since it links co-located freight distribution activities to a gateway through a rail (or fluvial) corridor. In North America, [Chicago](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8219), [Kansas City](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8237), and [Columbus](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8315) have large inland port complexes. A **logistics park** is a planned zone comprising distribution centers and light manufacturing activities. It provides geographical advantages in terms of accessibility, land availability, and infrastructures, as well as operational advantages regarding favorable regulations and economies of agglomeration. However, accessibility varies depending on the array of intermodal terminals available in the vicinity. Logistics parks in proximity to an intermodal rail terminal are often labeled as intermodal logistics parks. Logistics parks tend to be independently planned. It is common to see them emerge after constructing an intermodal terminal (or other logistics zones) as a promoter seizes an opportunity to provide land for logistics. A common logistics park is only serviced by road and does not require significant planning, but simply a change in zoning and some basic amenities (e.g. road access to a lot and utilities). They also tend to [appear spontaneously at locations with good accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistic_centric_industrial_park/ "Logistic Centric Industrial Park, Wheatland, Pennsylvania") and where promoters can secure land for development. [![Logistic Wheatland Pa](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistic_wheatland_pa.jpg?resize=300%2C190&ssl=1 "Logistic Centric Industrial Park, Wheatland, Pennsylvania | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistic_centric_industrial_park/wheatland_industrial_park/)Logistic Centric Industrial Park Wheatland Pennsylvania A **freight village** is an integrated cluster of support activities for freight distribution, such as office space, fueling stations, hotels, and restaurants. A freight village mostly focuses on the service and transactional dimensions of freight distribution. It could exist in a context where limited freight distribution occurs and does not require an adjacent intermodal terminal, but this terminal is commonly in the vicinity. A freight village can also be linked with an airport terminal since air cargo is high-value freight intensive in transactions. The definition of a freight village is subject to different interpretations as, in some cases, logistics parks are labeled as freight villages. The term should still be applied where a high intensity of freight-related services has clustered within a logistics zone. It can be said that a freight village is a cluster of supporting services activities within a cluster of distribution activities. A logistics zone could thus contain a freight village. [Raritan Center](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/raritan-center-new-jersey/) in New Jersey includes one of the oldest freight villages in North America since extensive service activities have emerged within a standard logistics park. The level of [functional integration](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3202) between the distribution activities located within a cluster varies from small, where they share a location and its accessibility, to significant, where activities have a high level of integration. # 3. Site Selection and Location Dynamics Because of their characteristics, logistic zones have an array of requirements for site selection. First, the site offers a number of **geographical advantages**: - **Labor**. Labor costs are usually considered the most important site selection criteria since distribution centers tend to be labor-intensive, and many rely on relatively low-skilled workers. However, labor is a multidimensional factor since several managerial and operational tasks require a skilled workforce, particularly as distribution centers tend to be increasingly automated. Thus, proximity to a large labor pool is an added advantage since it enables to tap into the whole labor spectrum. - **Accessibility**. Transportation costs are a dominant factor in total logistics costs, with accessibility a standard factor based on the proximity to terminals (rail and port) and customers. Co-location with an intermodal rail terminal is crucial for logistic zones attempting to fulfill an inland port role. The notion of accessibility tends to vary based on if the logistics zone is mainly import or export-oriented. Import-oriented logistics zones tend to be at intermediary locations along corridors toward main consumption markets. Export-oriented logistics zones tend to be in proximity to major transport terminals, particularly ports. An important factor is that the region must be an important market from a production and consumption perspective. A logistic zone with a limited local market presents a higher risk since it services a more contestable market. In the context of higher energy prices, accessibility has become even more important as final distribution costs (“last mile”) tend to increase exponentially with distance because of empty backhauls. Another important criteria in site accessibility concern its temporal accessibility, implying that a logistic zone is open around the clock, enabling it to better match the flexibility of supply chain management. - **Land**. One important aspect behind a managed distribution cluster is the availability of land already zoned for such use. Logistic firms are very sensitive to the availability and the cost of land because they consume a large amount of space, implying that land is one of the highest costs in their operations. For a user, land acquisition (or renting) costs are thus reduced, particularly in relation to a standalone initiative. A careful analysis of the demand can lead to the provision of a mix of functional parcel sizes, reflecting the needs of the industry. Local and regional governments can also establish preferential taxation procedures if a logistical cluster fits regional development policies. - **Infrastructures**. Another common factor is the provision of utilities (electricity, water, sewage, etc.) as well as roads, such as a dedicated highway ramp, as a locational incentive. FDCs also offer developers the opportunity to provide warehousing space for various term leases (spec developments) and equipment supporting logistics and distribution activities. LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) certification is becoming mandatory for buildings in logistics zones, implying that logistics zones are increasingly compliant with environmental standards. - **Anchor tenants**. The presence of large logistic firms or the distribution branch of a large firm such as a retailer is fundamental. A large firm brings substantial capital investment, expertise, and, more importantly, a cargo volume. It shows to other potential users the commitment of an industry leader and that the logistic zone thus has a value proposition. It can also go the other way around as a site selection by a large distributor, such as a “big box” retailer, can incite the development of a logistic zone. Second, the site of a logistic zone offers **operational advantages**: - **Planning and regulations**. A managed logistics zone can provide a “fast track” process for constructing and operating freight distribution activities. It thus has the support of various levels of government. Procedures granting permits are already in place in addition to ensuring compliance with safety, security, and environmental regulations. Since the logistics zone is part of a planning process (commonly a public-private partnership), there are provisions for expansions and additional infrastructures as it develops and expands. One important attribute that can assist logistics zones in attracting added value activities and consolidating their role and function is the status of a foreign trade zone (FTZ). This can include customs clearance and flexibility for importers and exporters about which added value can be performed. - **Economies of agglomeration**. The principle of economies of agglomeration for a logistics zone implies a variety of cost reductions since a critical mass is attained. Because of the volume of freight being handled within a specific area, there is a potential for consolidation of loads from various users into shuttles, particularly between the logistic zone and major transport terminals. There are thus more full truckloads (FTL), improving the efficiency of distribution. Thus, a logistics zone can become a logistical market in itself, with various service providers bidding for outsourced contracts. This can include shared services such as labor, transloading or information technologies, and telecommunications. - **Internal multiplying effects**. The proximity effect involving several logistical firms within a logistics zone also leads to the diffusion of best practices related to management, information technologies (e.g. software), and compliance with rules and regulations. This promotes the training of a labor pool leading to an array of productivity gains. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/proximity_intermediacy_distribution_clusters.png?resize=900%2C534&ssl=1 "Proximity and Intermediacy for Distribution Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/proximity-intermediacy-distribution-clusters/intermediacydc/)Proximity and Intermediacy for Distribution Clusters[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_added_logistics_zones.png?resize=900%2C456&ssl=1 "Value-added Activities Performed at Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/value-added-logisitcs-zones/value_added_logistics_clusters/)Value added Activities Performed at Logistic Zones[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_logistics_costs_function_mode.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "Global Logistics Costs by Function and Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-logistics-costs-function/global_logistics_costs/)Global Logistics Costs by Function and Mode 2018With these location factors in mind, three major forms of logistic cluster dynamics have emerged: - **Near gateways** where logistic zones are strongly conditioned by warehousing parks in the vicinity of container port terminals as well as in suburban settings nearby ring roads. This is prone to the usage of port-centric logistic zones and satellite terminals. - **Around inland rail terminals** with new facilities designed in a suburban setting, away from the more traditional locations nearby central business districts. This reinforces the emergence of load centers. - Along major **highway corridors** that can service a large metropolitan area or a [group of metropolitan areas](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4535). # 4. Functions and Added Value The concept of added value is often based on the **capitalization of inefficiencies** within transportation and distribution. For instance, a port draws revenue from transferring cargo from one mode to another. Simultaneously, a distribution center exists because supply cannot be perfectly coordinated with demand along supply chains, thus the need to maintain inventory buffers. A logistic zone offers an opportunity to mitigate these inefficiencies through various economies of agglomeration. They can act as functional intermediaries between terminals (or regional suppliers) from which parts and goods are received and cargo owners (manufacturers and retailers). For exports, a freight distribution cluster is also an intermediary linking regional production with national and global markets. There are two major types of freight distribution functions performed at logistic zones. - The first involves performing an activity that **improves the efficiency** of freight distribution, particularly in terms of lower costs, better time performance, and reliability. The added value thus results in benefits for the carriers or cargo owners. This leads to a wide array of [specific functions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistics-zones-functions/ "Functions Performed at Logistic Zones") to be carried out, including processing, distribution, customs clearance, or container depots. - The second is **extracting rent** from the existing flows, notably through wages, tolls, and taxes. Added value results in financial gains for the regional workforce and various government levels, which can be used to fund infrastructure projects and improve competitiveness. However, there is a risk of rent-seeking behavior where freight activities are targeted strictly in terms of a source of revenue. The added value they generate for the rent-seekers thus comes at the expense of supply chain productivity. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/functions_logistics_zones.png?resize=900%2C544&ssl=1 "Functions Performed at Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Functions Performed at Logistic Zones![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economic_benefits_costs_logistics_zones.png?resize=900%2C331&ssl=1 "Economic Benefits and Costs of Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Economic Benefits and Costs of Logistic Zones![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_services_logistics_zone.png?resize=900%2C384&ssl=1 "Freight Services Offered by a Logistics Zone | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Freight Services Offered by a Logistics Zone![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistical_activities_containerization.png?resize=900%2C331&ssl=1 "Logistical Activities Related to Containerization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistical Activities Related to Containerization![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/information_technology_drivers_freight.png?resize=900%2C394&ssl=1 "Key Information Technology Drivers in Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Key Information Technology Drivers in Freight DistributionThe logistic zone is a **value proposition** for freight distribution that goes well beyond the function of warehousing with distinct [economic benefits](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8327), such as job creation and capital investment, but also costs, such as environmental externalities. An [array of services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8330) are required as they support the functions of a logistics zone and provide employment. The goal is often to create a service market within a logistics zone since it strengthens local expertise and improves the performance of freight distribution. This market is related to three main categories of services: - **Freight services**. Specialized services that are rarely found outside the freight distribution industry. They include freight transportation, warehousing, and light fabrication services. They also include an array of freight operations taking place in a distribution center that can be subcontracted. Since the majority of freight shipments are containerized, logistical activities servicing [containerization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8168) are particularly significant. - **Corporate services**. General services that focus on the operation of enterprises. Several of these services can be specialized since logistics enterprises have specific needs. Many of these services are performed within the corporation, with a growing share being subcontracted (lower costs and higher quality through specialization). A logistics zone thus offers the possibility to develop a specialized service market. - **Personal services**. An array of services for the concentration of workers in a logistics zone. While they are unrelated to freight distribution, they are complementary since they contribute qualitatively to the performance of a logistics zone. Another important component of the value proposition of a logistic zone concern [information technologies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4322), where there is an opportunity to create a freight management system that encompasses several distributors as well as nearby intermodal terminals. Last, the sheer size and organizational complexity of logistic zones require a form of [governance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8187) that either falls into private, public, or joint interests. --- ## Related Topics - [Inland Ports / Dry Ports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139) External link to PEMP - [Freight Transportation and Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3924) - [Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3928) - [Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3919) - [The Containerization of Commodities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8394) - [The Port of Savannah Logistics Clusters](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8490) ## Bibliography - Boile, M., S. Theofanis and A. Strauss-Wieder (2009) “Feasibility of Freight Villages in the NYMTC Region: Task 3 – Description of How a Typical Freight Village Works”, New York Metropolitan Transportation Council. - Porter, M. E. (2000) “Location, competition, and economic development: Local clusters in a global economy”, Economic development quarterly, 14(1), 15-34. - Sheffi, Y. (2012) Logistics clusters: delivering value and driving growth, Cambridge, MA: MIT press ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Hinterland Connectivity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-connectivity/) **Published:** November 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hinterland_connectivity2.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "Types of Hinterland Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Hinterland ConnectivityAlthough the world’s most significant cities are located along the coast and act as [gateways to global trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1416), many cities are located in the hinterland, which acts as major economic centers, servicing markets and organizing the collection and transformation of regional resources. This is particularly the case of the [United States, Europe, and China](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3146), which have an active coastal system, but also a large number of important inland centers. Economies of scale and the development of containerized maritime shipping have improved the connectivity of gateways, leaving inland centers with connectivity challenges. An inland center is fulfilling three main types of connectivity: - **A (Gateway connectivity)**. Represents the array of transport infrastructure and logistics services that enable an inland center to be connected to a maritime trade gateway. This is particularly the case of rail and river barge services. Such connectivity has been actively pursued by ports that have developed hinterland accessibility strategies to expand their market and secure traffic. - **B (Regional connectivity)**. Since an inland center is based on servicing its regional market and resources, the strengthening of its regional connectivity is a core economic development strategy. This particularly involves road connectivity and logistics activities interacting between regional, national, and global supply chains. This connectivity imbed the inland center within its regional economic system. - **C (Landbridge connectivity)**. A form of connectivity that involves long-distance inland corridors and where the inland center acts as a connector between inland systems of circulation. This form of long-distance connectivity almost exclusively covers rail transportation, such as the setting of rail landbridges across [North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7251) and [Eurasia](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7197). The development of hinterland connectivity is expected to expand opportunities for inland centers by building new complementarities with gateways and the international supply chains they connect to, but also with other inland centers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-connectivity/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-connectivity/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-connectivity/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/hinterland-connectivity/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.3 - Gateways and Transport Corridors in North America](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The North American economy is articulated along major corridors that connect commercial gateways to their hinterlands. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Spatial Structure of Corridors](#1_The_Spatial_Structure_of_Corridors) - [2. North American Integration](#2_North_American_Integration) - [4. North American Gateways](#4_North_American_Gateways) - [5. Corridors and Inland Freight Distribution](#5_Corridors_and_Inland_Freight_Distribution) # 1. The Spatial Structure of Corridors Transport corridors are considered the backbones of transportation networks, linking major gateways and hubs through a convergence of freight and passenger flows. Most often, they lie at the intersection of economic, demographic, and geographic processes as they perform both [market-serving and market-connecting](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7296) functions. Thus, the corridor as a notion is neither temporally nor spatially immutable but rather dynamic, contingent on such key factors as economic context (e.g. trade liberalization), investments in infrastructures, and technological changes (e.g. information corridors) and policies. Corridors come in two main categories: - **Formal corridors**. They are constructs trying to expand the planning and investment framework of the involved public and private actors. They can be imaginary, depicting the intention of linking a set of locations. Occasionally, a form of governance, or at least a forum, has been set in place to address some of its challenges, such as articulating investments. - **Functional corridors**. They represent an existing structure of flows along some infrastructure. The corridor is thus an operational reality involving a sequence of infrastructure, terminals, and modes. The most structured corridors are obviously those that **combine formal and functional characteristics**. Transport corridors can also display physical variations on a modal basis as infrastructure layout becomes a determining factor. While airline flow configurations show greater autonomy, rail, road, and maritime transport rely more on accessible physical infrastructures. Being a spatial notion, transport corridors are observable throughout the entire spectrum of geographic scales: from an urban setting to a regional level (e.g. Boston-Washington), to a national (e.g. the [Interstate](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1864) and the TransCanada Highway) and an international scale (e.g. the Trans-European transport network, the [Eurasian landbrige](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7197)). As such, corridors are a fundamental structure shaping economic development. They involve an exchange between firms in order to achieve greater efficiencies in their production systems and supply chains, a process commonly supported by various stakeholders, such as regional governments, promoting economic development. The main **economic rationale** underlining the economic efficiency of corridors is based on: - The greater **capacity** of corridors in supporting trade volumes is based upon the principle of **economies of scale** in transportation. This is likely to be the single most important factor behind the creation of corridors. - Better **integration between production and distribution** due to cost and time efficiency along corridors. The corridor becomes an intermodal supply chain composed of gateways and inland ports. - Greater **reliability of distribution** because of transport performance, but also because of more coordinated governance (such as identifying critical infrastructure) and more efficient cross-border flows (for transnational corridors). There is also a risk common to most corridors to reach various **diseconomies**. The most prevalent is congestion, as the heavy usage of infrastructures leads to capacity limits. Another concern is higher costs due to real estate pressures since the land along the corridor is more valuable because of its accessibility and commercial potential. This can be an issue along high-density corridors in Asia (e.g. Tokaido in Japan), Western Europe, or the Eastern Seaboard in North America. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_corridors_regional_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C557&ssl=1 "Transport Corridors and the Regional Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transport-corridors-spatial-structure/transport_corridors_regional_spatial_structure/)Transport Corridors and the Regional Spatial Structure[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Interstate-System-1.png?resize=900%2C612&ssl=1 "The Interstate Highway System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/interstate-highway-system/map-interstate-system/)The Interstate Highway System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-New-Silk-Road.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "The Trans-Asian Railway (Eurasian Landbridge) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/aurasian-landbridge/map-new-silk-road/)The Trans Asian Railway Eurasian Landbridge# 2. North American Integration The scale and scope of globalization have created an environment where the transport sector is adapting to an expanded geography of distribution. This is particularly the case for North America, where large distances are involved because of the scale and scope of the production, distribution, and consumption taking place. Historically, North America, mostly at the national level, was developed as a lattice of **gateways and corridors**, enabling market expansion and access to the resources of the continent. The outcome was a set of functional regions with respective levels of specialization and comparative advantages, leaving the North American economy an integrated system of global and regional supply chains structured by networks linking production centers and distribution hubs across the continent. These supply chains depend on an efficient infrastructure and on a coherent and consistent system of regulations. Therefore, and more than anywhere else in the world, North American integration is not necessarily about trade but about **functionally integrated supply chains**. Liberalization and globalization of trade have made restructuring North American transport corridors necessary as the commercial environment changed. These include three main longitudinal (north, central, and south) and four latitudinal (west coast, central, NAFTA, and east coast) axes. Ongoing [deregulation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6316) combined with the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) concluded in 1994 following the Canada-USA Trade Agreement (CUSTA) in 1991 have had some impact on North American transport corridors. First, by [increasing overall transborder freight traffic](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7660) and, secondly, by emphasizing North-South regional corridors at the expense of long-haul East-West intra-national routes. In 2020, NAFTA was reformed into USMCA, which included additional clauses concerning copyrights, intellectual property, and some protective measures over key resource sectors. The most prevalent [transborder corridors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7665) are: - The **Toronto-Windsor-Detroit-Chicago** corridor is one of the densest and most integrated. The geography of the Great Lakes creates a funnel effect, with the Niagara peninsula and the Windsor-Sarnia region being the only outlets. At the other end of the mid-continent (NAFTA) corridor is the Laredo inland port, a major gateway into Mexico. About a third of the volume involves auto parts produced in Southern Ontario and in the border regions of Mexico, which are used for low-cost car manufacturing in the Southeast states. The mid-continent corridor also has an extension reaching Winnipeg. - The **Vancouver-Seattle** corridor in the Pacific Northwest and its counterpart, the **Los Angeles-San Diego-Tijuana** corridor. - The **Montreal-New York** corridor, which connects the Quebec-Windsor corridor to the [Boston-Washington megalopolis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7741). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/NAFTA_trade_value.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "Monthly Value of Surface Trade between the United States, Canada and Mexico, 1993-2016 (USD) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/nafta-trade-value/nafta_trade_value/)Monthly Value of Surface Trade between the United States Canada and Mexico 1993 2016 USD[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US-Ports-of-Entry-Truck.png?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Main North American Trade Corridors, Gateways and Inland Freight Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/gateways-corridors-inland-ports-north-america/usatradeareas/)Main North American Trade Corridors Gateways and Inland Freight Clusters[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Corridors.png?resize=900%2C684&ssl=1 "Selected North American Trade Corridor Initiatives | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/trade-corridor-initiatives-north-america/map_na_corridors/)Some North American Trade Corridor Initiatives[![The Boston - Washington Urban Corridor](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-BostWash-Horizontal.png?w=900&ssl=1 "The BostWash Corridor | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/boston-washington-corridor/bostwash/)The BostWash CorridorThe [NAFTA Corridor](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7692) links the two largest land gateways of North America, Detroit, Michigan, and Laredo, Texas. It dominantly relies upon trucking as about 65% of the value of the NAFTA trade is serviced by this mode. However, it is far from being a continuous corridor as northbound flows of Mexican imports, and the southbound flows of Canadian imports dwindle as the distance from their respective borders increases. The threshold is around the Tennessee / Kentucky range, past which the respective flows are very small. A transfer of freight traffic and activities from traditional East-West corridors to regional North-South axes is in process. This is not to say that the role of traditional latitudinal routes is to be neglected. Firstly, they are of prime importance to internal freight and passenger movement, and, secondly, the Quebec-Chicago and Boston-Washington corridors remain core regions of North American transport activities. # 4. North American Gateways Gateways remain a relatively constant component in the [global space of flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1416). They can be seen as semi-obligatory points of passage linking the global with the regional and the local. Gateways come in three major categories linked with the mode of entry, whether land, maritime, or air. In North America, there is a high level of concentration of economic activities along coastal areas (East and West coasts) with significant resources and manufacturing hinterlands. Gateways tend to be the dominant markets on the East and the West coasts. From the start, it was mainly commercial considerations that shaped the setting of North American gateways and corridors, which have remained quite stable in time, albeit with an ongoing trend of traffic concentration. Like other gateway systems around the world, [North American gateways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7672), particularly maritime and air gateways, have been quite stable in time, implying that the dominance of gateways such as Los Angeles or New York is not much challenged. Still, this does not prevent new gateways from emerging and consolidating, such as Savannah (maritime) or Laredo (land). North America relies on [relatively few small number of gateways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7677) and less developed port ranges have few chances to fully take part in international shipping networks. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Gateways-Index-2018.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "Global Gateways Index, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/map-global-gateways-index-2010-png/)Global Gateways Index 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/usagateways.png?resize=850%2C596&ssl=1 "Traffic Handled at Major North American Gateways, 2007 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/north-america-gateways-traffic/usagateways/)Traffic Handled at Major North American Gateways 2007Land gateways are those that have experienced the most changes, as NAFTA helped restructure commercial flows in North America. They commonly have a simple transit function with some nearby logistics and manufacturing activities, particularly when there are significant wage and regulatory differences, such as in the case between the United States and Mexico. The Maquiladoras, a border region system of manufacturing activities mostly servicing North American supply chains, are interfacing with the North American transport system through a series of land gateways, mainly centered around Southern California, El Paso, and Laredo. They are dominantly servicing an import function, expanded under NAFTA trade, and connected to corridors of continental freight circulation. Manufacturing tends to take place on the Mexican part, and logistical activities managing this freight take place on the US part. The US-Canada border shows a different dynamic as the gateway, in this case, is simply a point of transit for medium/long-distance truck traffic (some rail) between manufacturing and consumption areas. The border region itself, even near gateways, has not seen a significant accumulation of logistical activities, particularly because the Canadian and American economies are already fairly integrated, and the bulk of the Canadian economic activities are located within 150 km of the border anyway. The last geographical characteristic has not induced significant development close to border locations, as opposed to what took place along the US-Mexican border. Air gateways are linked with major metropolitan areas and tend to have more inland locations as they are not bound to strong transshipment constraints but to the rationale of moving air freight as close as possible to its final destination. Maritime gateways are large terminals with strong high capacity inland connections (rail and road). Due to congestion and lack of space for logistical activities near maritime terminals, the emergence of inland ports (such as satellite terminals) appears to be a significant trend, well developed in Europe but emerging in North America. An important characteristic of North American gateways, particularly maritime gateways, is the imbalanced traffic, a reflection of the negative trade balance that has endured in the United States since the 1990s. For instance, of the total value of trade handled in 2007 by American maritime gateways, imports accounted for a staggering 73%. The structure of global trade thus impacts heavily on the operations of North American gateways. From a planning perspective, North American gateways fill three major roles: - **Infrastructure**. They provide the infrastructure and therefore the capacity to undertake trade; import and export flows alike. So, gateway capacity issues are often part of national trade facilitation strategies by trying to mitigate bottlenecks, whether they be at terminals or specific segments. For North America, the West Coast was particularly prone to such strategies because the surge in the transpacific trade placed pressure on port and rail infrastructures. - **Integration**. It mostly deals with regulatory issues related to trade, namely customs procedures and border crossing. Therefore, flows within a supply chain are more fluid, which is particularly important for cross-border flows, like those taking place in the North American Midwest, since they are coordinated within a much tighter time sequence than maritime international trade flows coming through the East and the West coasts. - **Market**. Gateways are market development tools, either on the maritime foreland (expansion of services) or on the hinterland. The latter is particularly important as it reorganizes corridors and inland freight distribution. # 5. Corridors and Inland Freight Distribution Although North America has a [lattice of highways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7665) connecting all the major metropolitan areas, it is the long-distance rail corridors supported by an [intermodal rail system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6446) that plays the most significant role in commercial flows. This implies that each gateway has a different [modal split](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3429) depending on the density of the regional market and railway connectivity to the hinterland. From coastal gateways, longitudinal long-distance rail corridors, often taking the form of a landbridge, are servicing a continental hinterland articulated by major transportation and industrial hubs such as Chicago and Kansas City. The structure of the North American urban system underlines the Midwest as the [most accessible location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7684) for trucking to service a large segment of the American population. Rail freight in the United States has experienced remarkable growth since deregulation in the 1980s (Staggers Act), with a 77% increase in tons-km between 1985 and 2003. The double-stack trains are having unit capacities of up to 400 TEU and a total length of well above 2 km. Intermodal rail accounts for close to 40% of all the ton-miles transported in the United States, while in Europe, this share is only 8%. The main growth factors for rail activity in recent years have been linked with a surge in international containerized trade, particularly across the Pacific, a growth in the quantity of utility coal moving out of the Powder River basin, and a growth of the Canadian and Mexican transborder trade. Intermodal and coal represent the two most important sources of income for most rail operators. The two largest North American railroads, UP and BNSF, derive a sizable share of their operating revenue from long-distance intermodal movements (landbridge) originating from the Pacific Coast. The construction and upgrade of [intermodal rail terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6446) have been a prevalent trend to support this system of freight distribution. The emergence of landbridges is a good example of the setting of an intermodal freight distribution system relying on long-distance rail freight corridors. A landbridge has many definitions but can be summarized as a long-distance rail corridor connecting two major port gateways on different maritime facades. The main [North American landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7251) links two major gateway systems; Southern California and New York/New Jersey via Chicago. Thus, the North American landbridge is mainly the outcome of growing transpacific trade and has undergone the containerized revolution; container traffic represented approximately 85% of all rail intermodal moves. Landbridges are particularly the outcome of cooperation between rail operators eager to get lucrative long-distance traffic and maritime shippers eager to reduce shipping time and costs, particularly from Asia. Long-distance intermodal rail corridors are also planned in Mexico. Kansas City Southern de Mexico (KCSM, a subsidiary of Kansas City Southern) is building an intermodal terminal next to the port of Lazaro Cardenas. KCSM plans to establish a new international intermodal corridor stretching 1,300 miles across Mexico to the border crossing at Laredo, Texas. At Laredo, the Kansas City Southern system that connects to major American rail hubs, namely Chicago and Kansas City, takes over. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US-Ports-of-Entry-Truck.png?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Main North American Trade Corridors, Gateways and Inland Freight Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/gateways-corridors-inland-ports-north-america/usatradeareas/)Main North American Trade Corridors Gateways and Inland Freight Clusters[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Intermodal_System.png?resize=900%2C750&ssl=1 "The North American Intermodal Rail System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-north-america/na_rail_intermodal_system/)The North American Intermodal Rail System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA-Metropolitan-Freight-Centers_Pop-500-miles.png?resize=900%2C643&ssl=1 "Market Accessibility of Major North American Freight Distribution Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/market-access-freight-clusters-north-america/na_market_500_miles/)Market Accessibility of Major North American Freight Distribution Clusters[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA-Landbridge.png?resize=900%2C666&ssl=1 "The North American Landbridge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transcontinental-bridges/north-america-landbridge/map-na-landbridge/)The North American Landbridge[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Corridor-Projects.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Major North American Rail Corridors Improved since 2000 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-corridors-north-america-improvement/map-rail-corridor-projects/)Major North American Rail Corridors Improved since 2000A number of factors, such as road congestion, [infrastructure capacity issues](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1970), and higher fuel prices, challenge the advantages of the landbridge, particularly for long-distance trade. For instance, in 2007, shipping a forty-foot container from New York to Korea costs about $3,000 if the all-water maritime route through the Suez Canal is used and $9,000 if shipped by rail to a West Coast port and then across the Pacific. Thus, this form of rail intermodalism appears to have reached a phase of maturity. Still, the market segment of domestic (North American) rail intermodalism is expected to grow substantially as the only available alternative to long-distance trucking. This will lean on the setting of a variety of [inland terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139) acting as load centers for the respective market areas. --- ## Related Topics - [Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1006) - [Intermodal Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1768) - [Transcontinental Bridges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7237) - [Rail Transportation and Pipelines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1759) - [Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3123) - [Inland Ports (Terminals)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139) - [Transportation and Mega Urban Regions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7705) - [The St. Lawrence Seaway and Regional Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9071) ## Bibliograhpy - Blank, S. (2008) “Trade Corridors and North American Competitiveness”, American Review of Canadian Studies, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 231-237. - Bradbury, S. (2002) “Planning Transportation Corridors in Post-NAFTA North America,” Journal of American Planning Association, Vol. 68, No.2, pp. 137-150. - Brooks, M. (2008) North American Freight Transportation: The Road to Security and Prosperity, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. - Primus, H. and W. Zonneveld (2003) “What are corridors and what are the issues? Introduction to special issue: the governance of corridors”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 11 (3), pp. 167-177. - Rodrigue, J-P (2004) “Freight, Gateways and Mega-Urban Regions: The Logistical Integration of the BostWash Corridor”, Tijdschrift voor Sociale en Economische Geografie, Vol. 95, No. 2, pp. 147-161. - Rodrigue, J-P (2021) Constraints in the Canadian Transport Infrastructure Grid, SPP Research Paper, Vol 14:6 . - US Department of Transportation (1994) Assessment of Border Crossings and Transportation Corridors of North American Trade; Report to Congress, Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Administration. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Market Accessibility of Major North American Freight Distribution Clusters](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/market-access-freight-clusters-north-america/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA-Metropolitan-Freight-Centers_Pop-500-miles.png?resize=900%2C643&ssl=1 "Market Accessibility of Major North American Freight Distribution Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Market Accessibility of Major North American Freight Distribution Clusters[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA-Metropolitan-Freight-Centers_Pop-500-miles.pdf) The extent of the market area of an inland freight distribution cluster is related to the supply chains being serviced, as each supply chain has different requirements in terms of lead time as well as the volume and frequency of deliveries. Many supply chains, particularly in retail, rely on daily deliveries, implying that the market area is mainly a function of the average length of domestic truck freight haul, which is around 500 miles (800 km). An approximate way to assess market accessibility relates to a simple Euclidean distance radius. Thus, 500 miles is considered to be the upper limit of an operational daily radius for trucking, although shorter distances are generally preferred. 500 miles is a proxy for travel time, but a day of trucking can vary depending on the congestion level, which also impacts the reliability of deliveries. Additionally, new safety regulations for trucking have been implemented in the United States since 2008 (CSA; Compliance Safety Accountability), which will impose more stringent monitoring of driving hours. The likely outcome is a reduction in the average length of domestic truck hauls. On the above map, the share of the total American population within a 500-mile radius of each major freight distribution cluster is depicted. From this standpoint, the optimal location (points of highest accessibility) is in the vicinity of Columbus, Ohio, with 47% of the US population accessible within a day of trucking. Most locations within the Midwest have a share above 35%. Still, since a significant share of retail goods are imported through container ports, it is important to also consider port throughput as a factor in concordance with market accessibility. It underlines the difference between regionally anchored and long-distance logistic functions. For instance, for Los Angeles / Long Beach, only 15% of the US population is within 500 miles, while for New York, this share is double (30%). Thus, a great share of the logistical activities performed at LA/LB concern long-distance freight distribution along the Los Angeles / Kansas City / Chicago rail corridor, as the regional market is not large enough to support such a volume. This involves, for instance, an active transloading function where the contents of maritime containers are transloaded into domestic containers. For New York, more than 80% of all the traffic is bound to the immediate hinterland, implying that transloading is less prominent since most maritime containers will be brought directly to the customers. On the Canadian side, the two most important container ports stand at two extremes; Montreal covers 23% of the American population within 500 miles, while Vancouver covers only 4%. The importance of the freight distribution cluster along the US-Mexico border is underrepresented on the above map. For instance, Laredo is within reach of major Mexican population centers like Monterrey. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/market-access-freight-clusters-north-america/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/market-access-freight-clusters-north-america/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/market-access-freight-clusters-north-america/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/market-access-freight-clusters-north-america/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main North American Trade Corridors, Gateways and Inland Freight Clusters](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/gateways-corridors-inland-ports-north-america/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US-Ports-of-Entry-Truck.png?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Main North American Trade Corridors, Gateways and Inland Freight Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main North American Trade Corridors Gateways and Inland Freight Clusters[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-US-Ports-of-Entry-Truck.pdf) A North American lattice of trade corridors where freight distribution is coordinated by major gateways (container ports) and inland freight distribution clusters (IFDC) has emerged in recent decades. While gateways and IFDCs are significant markets, they also command distribution within the market areas they serve and the corridors they are connected to. They thus have a significant concentration on logistics and intermodal activities. The extent of the market area of an IFDC is mainly a function of the average length of domestic truck freight haul, which is around 500 miles (800 km). Like many segments of the North American economy and territory, globalization and integration processes, namely NAFTA, have impacted the nature and function of continental production, consumption, and distribution. For international trade, the gateways of this system are major container ports along coastal areas from which long-distance trade corridors are accessed. About a third of the American trade took place within NAFTA, mainly through land gateways (ports of entry) that are gateways because they are obligatory points of transit commanding access to the United States. For truck and rail flows, virtually no intermodal activities occur at land gateways, although several distribution centers are located near borders and along corridors. Laredo and El Paso, Texas, and the Detroit / Windsor complex are notable exceptions with significant freight distribution activities linked with crossborder trade. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/gateways-corridors-inland-ports-north-america/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/gateways-corridors-inland-ports-north-america/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/gateways-corridors-inland-ports-north-america/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/gateways-transport-corridors-north-america/gateways-corridors-inland-ports-north-america/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Corridors and the Regional Spatial Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transport-corridors-spatial-structure/) **Published:** December 27, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_corridors_regional_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C557&ssl=1 "Transport Corridors and the Regional Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Corridors and the Regional Spatial Structure*Source: adapted from Rodrigue, J-P (2004) “Freight, Gateways and Mega-Urban Regions: The Logistical Integration of the BostWash Corridor”, Tijdschrift voor Sociale en Economische Geografie, Vol. 95, No. 2, pp. 147-161.* Three spatial models relate urbanization, transportation, and corridors: - The **location and accessibility model (A)** considers an urban region as a hierarchy/order of services and functions and the corridor as a structure organizing interactions within this hierarchy. The **urban system and central places theory** mainly view cities as structurally independent entities that compete on overlapping market areas (also known as hinterland). Transport costs are considered a dominant factor in the spatial structure as the hinterland of each center is the outcome of the consumer’s ability to access its range of goods and services. Because of higher levels of accessibility along the corridor, market areas are smaller, and the extent of goods and services being offered is broader. Thus, market accessibility is the highest along the corridor. - The **specialization and interdependency model** **(B)** considers that cities have a level of interaction and that transportation can be more than a factor of market accessibility, but also of regional specialization and comparative advantages. The Megalopolis concept introduced by Gottmann in 1961 underlines the creation of large urban corridors structured by transportation infrastructures and terminals. Accessibility and economies of scale, both in production and consumption, are factors supporting the development of such entities where urban areas are increasingly specialized and interdependent. The main assumption is that the accessibility provided by the corridor reinforces territorial specialization and interdependency along its main axis, and, consequently, the reliance on a regional transport system. However, the cost structure tends to be higher in metropolitan areas and along corridors servicing them. This provides an incentive for low added-value and land-consuming activities to locate the more peripheral areas. - The **distribution/flow model** **(C)** considers that a major gateway of an urban region acts as the main interface between global, national, and regional systems. Under such a paradigm, three core structural elements define a regional corridor. The first are gateways regulating freight, passengers, and information flows, including flows at the international level, an issue that was not considered by the previous models. The second is transport corridors with a linear accumulation of transport infrastructures servicing a set of gateways. They provide for the physical capacity of distribution. The third are flows, their spatial structure, and the underlying production, circulation, and consumption activities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transport-corridors-spatial-structure/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transport-corridors-spatial-structure/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transport-corridors-spatial-structure/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transport-corridors-spatial-structure/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Triple Crown Intermodal Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/triple-crown-intermodal-network/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Triple-Crown.png?resize=900%2C784&ssl=1 "Triple Crown Intermodal Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Triple Crown Intermodal Network*Note: Service network as of 2012.* Inaugurated in 1986, Triple Crown (TC; a subsidiary of Norfolk Southern), was a bi-modal transport network servicing the eastern part of the United States, including southern Ontario, Canada. It uses a hybrid technology since it combines specifically designed trailers with rail bogies (called RoadRailers) to form unit trains that can be composed of up to 150 trailers. Although Triple Crown is a form of intermodalism, the term bi-modal appears more suitable in this case since the load units are not transferred from road to rail (and vice-versa) in the standard sense of a load break where intermodal equipment is required (e.g. RTGs or side-loaders). The load units (trailers) are simply assembled in rail convoys at the origin and disassembled at the destination. From an initial service of 150 trailers between California and Chicago, the network has grown to a fleet of 7,000 trailers servicing 14 dedicated terminals and accounting for more than 700,000 movements annually in 2012. Also, about 850 drivers are used for regional drayage. The network is structured in a classic hub-and-spoke design, with Fort Wayne, Indiana, acting as the hub. Trailers are picked up from customers and brought to the nearest TC terminal, generally over a distance of fewer than 200 miles (325 km). At the terminal, trailers are assembled into convoys by being latched onto bogies to form an intermodal unit train that will be forwarded to the hub (Fort Wayne). At the hub, trailers are rearranged into convoys for their respective destinations, where trailers will be unlatched and hauled to the final customer. One of the main advantages of this type of service is that it uses less intermodal infrastructure than a regular TOFC or COFC intermodal service. Terminals are simpler and smaller, requiring less capital investment while conferring an intermodal service over shorter distances. It thus tends to complement intermodal rail services since it dominantly focuses on the domestic market. In contrast, intermodal rail tends to be more of a port gateway/hinterland access service. Drayage distances are also reduced as long-distance haulage is done by rail. Still, specifically designed trailers are required, and the service takes longer than a direct road connection. In 2015, NS started to scale down the Triple Crown network, particularly because of shifts in the domestic demand dependent on the automotive sector. The long-term goal is to switch to a fully containerized system (domestic and ISO containers). In 2020, only one service was left, connecting Detroit and Kansas City, and by 2022, it was discontinued, marking the end of roadrailers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/triple-crown-intermodal-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/triple-crown-intermodal-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/triple-crown-intermodal-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/triple-crown-intermodal-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Contact](https://transportgeography.org/contact-us/) **Published:** October 26, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** For queries: Home page: ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contact-us/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contact-us/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contact-us/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contact-us/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Economic Rationale of Rail Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-transport-economics/) **Published:** November 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economic_rationale_rail_transportation.png?resize=900%2C323&ssl=1 "Economic Rationale of Rail Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Economic Rationale of Rail TransportationThe economic rationale for rail transportation can be summarized as follows: - **Market area**. Rail transportation enables the transportation of raw materials over long distances (paper, wood, grain, chemicals, metallic products, etc.) and moving passengers and freight (cars, agricultural equipment, etc.). The average length of a domestic rail freight haul was 1,300 km in the United States, compared with 700 km for trucks. Intermodal integration has favored a market segmentation and a specialization of rail transportation. Intermodal rail tends to operate on a sub-system linking major port gateways to inland centers. - **Capacity**. No other land transportation mode has the capacity of rail as a wagon can carry up to 100 tons of freight, more than three times that of a truck. Another important attribute relates to economies of scale since unit trains can be assembled, and that container can be doublestacked if clearance permits. - **Costs**. Rail transportation has high construction and maintenance costs, but shipping costs decrease with distance and load. Its increasing returns enable it to absorb traffic peaks and growths. Transshipments (loading and unloading) and train assembly also increase costs. Rail operating costs are divided according to labor (up to 60%), locomotives (16%), and wagons, fuel, maintenance, and equipment (24%). - **Benefits**. It accelerated the industrialization process, as in several countries, the emergence of rail transportation was concomitant to an industrial take-off. It also accelerated economic development and human settlements, especially in North America, where rail transportation was a dominant factor in territorial expansion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Furthermore, rail transportation consumes about four times less energy per ton-km or passenger-km than road transportation. Rail transportation is an important source of employment. Industrial activities range from the construction of the rolling material, the installation of rails, the maintenance of the material, the operations of the rolling material, and management. Rail transportation also has multiplier effects on industrial activities such as steel and transportation engineering. Safety is also a fundamental attribute of the rail transport system as it is, after air transportation, the safest mode. - **Regulation**. Rail transportation used to be highly dependent on government subsidies in several countries. Governments funded most rail projects, mainly for national economic imperatives. This has created several rail monopolies with integrated infrastructure management but with several imposed routes. However, many rail systems underwent deregulation with private operators. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-transport-economics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-transport-economics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-transport-economics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-transport-economics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Articulation Node and Transport Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/articulation-node-transport-chains/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/articulation_node_transport_chain.png?resize=900%2C625&ssl=1 "Articulation Node and Transport Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Articulation Node and Transport ChainsAn articulation node is a location that **promotes the continuity of circulation** in a transportation system by supporting transport chains and providing the added value that such flows require. It is an interface, a gateway, between different spatial systems (e.g. global market and regional economy) that includes terminal facilities, but also the numerous activities supporting these facilities. For passenger transport chains, this could involve hotels, parking lots, restoration, and access to local transportation. They tend to be simple in function. For freight transport chains, which are more complex, it concerns activities such as distribution centers, warehouses, and third-party logistics providers. The agglomeration of terminal and related added value activities takes the form of a cluster such as a port complex or an [aerotropolis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3878). The different [scales and functions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1411) of articulation nodes are linked with different transport terminals. Major international articulation nodes are associated with port and airport terminals, while regional articulation points nodes are linked with inland transport terminals, such as rail. If it connects a global and regional circulation system through intermodalism, the articulation node acts as a **gateway**. If it connects the same geographical scales, such as two regional systems of circulation, within the same mode, then the articulation node acts as a **hub**. Conventionally, geographical factors linked to the site and situation of terminals (especially for maritime terminals) influenced the location of articulation nodes. Around these facilities agglomerated many freight handling and distribution activities and served as a core to urban areas. The emergence of intermodal transportation systems reinforces articulation nodes as major locations of convergence and transshipment and has modified their geography with increased locational flexibility. While major terminals have expanded and relocated to more peripheral locations, namely port facilities, many distribution centers have relocated even further away along corridors. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/articulation-node-transport-chains/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/articulation-node-transport-chains/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/articulation-node-transport-chains/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/articulation-node-transport-chains/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Home-to-Work Trips Modes, United States, 1985-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states-2/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/home_to_work_trips_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Home-to-Work Trips Modes, United States, 1985-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Home to Work Trips Modes United States 1985 2022*Source: US Census, American Community Survey, Commuting Characteristics.* Surveys of people’s mobility revealed that the automobile accounts for the large majority of commuting trips in the United States, around 75%. In contrast, public transit only accounted for a long-term average of 5% of commuting trips, which can be perceived as marginal. The modal distribution of commuting in the United States is showing remarkable stability with no significant changes in a period of about 25 years. The most significant change is within the usage of the automobile as a carpool, which has experienced a slight decline to the advantage of driving alone. This obviously reflects higher levels of car ownership. The COVID-19 pandemic represented a paradigm shift in mobility, with a substantial increase in the share of work-from-home (trip substitution) associated with lockdowns and adaptation of segments of the service sector, particularly education and management. Mass transit and carpooling experience a substantial decline, particularly because of epidemiological concerns. Figures for 2022 underline that commuting patterns have, to some extent, reverted back to their historical trend, but with a higher share of work-from-home substituted trips. This represents a new dimension for commuting as working from home will likely remain around 15%. This has an impact on commuting transport demand as well as office footprint. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states-2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states-2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states-2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states-2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Urban Spatial Pattern in East Asia](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/east-asia-urban-pattern/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_spatial_pattern_east_asia.png?resize=900%2C614&ssl=1 "Urban Spatial Pattern in East Asia | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Spatial Pattern in East Asia*Source: adapted from McGee, T.G. (1991) “The Emergence of ‘Desakota’ Regions in Asia: Expanding a Hypothesis”, in N. Ginsberg (ed) The Extended Metropolis: Settlement Transition in Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 3-26.* Asian urbanization is focused on the emergence of [urban regions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7754) composed of extended metropolitan regions (EMRs) and mega-urban regions (MURs). The components of such regional urban spatial structures include: - **Metropolitan area**. A major gateway with significant accumulation of infrastructures and playing a coordination role in the national economy as a transshipment center for goods and resources, a transiting place for people, and a distribution/accumulation point of capital. The conventional city (often with a strong historical and cultural role) has been transformed by intense rural-to-urban migration and the development of financial, commercial, residential, and manufacturing districts. In a matter of decades, the traditional Asian city developed on the principle of relative autarky and was transformed into a city driving global economic changes. To such an extent, many gateways are port cities, a trade function that is being complemented by a fast growth of air transportation as economic functions become more related to international transactions. - **Peri-urban area**. New urban developments, including residential estates, commercial areas as well as manufacturing and logistics zones, are often interwoven with rural activities that supply urban markets. Globalization has been an important driver in the of peri-urban development that are offering additional real estate that could not be accommodated by the metropolitan area. For instance, the setting of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in China has dominantly impacted per-urban areas through the development of large tracks of real estate, the setting of residential complexes and the intensification of traffic flows. The expansion of the SEZ status to delta areas (Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, and Min River Delta) in 1985 favored the emergence of the first Chinese mega-urban regions. The regionalization of SEZs was coupled with the regionalization of urbanization. For the first time, external corporations were allowed to invest in the countryside, which became integrated into global supply chains. This reach into the countryside and its related interactions incited the construction of road transport infrastructure that increasingly focused on improving regional accessibility with highway corridors and a fast motorization of the Chinese society. Since 2007, high-speed rail corridors have been established to reinforce the accessibility of China’s main urban regions. Since this growth often takes place in high-density rural areas, it represents a challenge in terms of land ownership and agricultural sustainability. - **Areas in transformation** (Desakota areas; a neologism derived from the Malay language where “desa” means village and “kota” means town). Rural areas in transformation (a form of rural urbanization) where manufacturing and traditional agriculture exist concomitantly. Economic development mainly takes place in those territories, creating a strong growth in the mobility of people and freight. These areas are highly impacted by their gradual incorporation within regional and international transactional networks. As economic development occurs, desakota regions become important production and consumption centers with increasing linkages with metropolitan areas and urban centers. This form of transformation is rather unique to Asia because of the high rural population densities. In other parts of the world, such forms of development tends to be more clusterized. - **High density rural areas**. They mainly supply commodities (food, energy, raw materials) to the metropolitan areas. Technological change, investment in extraction techniques (e.g. equipment) and the consolidation of farmland has freed a substantial amount of labor. This labor either migrates to EMRs or engages in non-rural activities which gradually transforms these areas into desakota regions. - **Urban centers**. A set of urban centers performing some production, consumption, transportation and management activities as part of their commercial role within the national economy. They represent regional production and distribution nodes having control over an administrative division (e.g. seats of provincial or county governments). Some centers can exchange goods and resources with the international market via small intermodal centers, but the exchanges are mostly of small scale and of a very specific nature. - **Frontier**. Remote and sparsely populated regions representing major physical challenge for the settlement of human activities; cold or arid climate, mountainous landscape. Several punctual locations provide raw materials, mainly minerals. Although the above representation can be applied to other parts of the world, the population density level in rural areas (mostly because of rice cultivation) is unique to the Asian context. Desakota and high density rural areas are usually not found outside Asia. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/east-asia-urban-pattern/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/east-asia-urban-pattern/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/east-asia-urban-pattern/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/east-asia-urban-pattern/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.2 - Transportation and Mega-Urban Regions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The mega-urban region is a complex regional entity articulated along transport corridors linking a series of metropolitan areas. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Large Scale Urbanization and the Mega Region](#1_Large_Scale_Urbanization_and_the_Mega_Region) - [2. The Structure and Articulation of Mega-Urban Regions](#2_The_Structure_and_Articulation_of_Mega-Urban_Regions) - [3. Modal Corridors in Mega Urban Regions](#3_Modal_Corridors_in_Mega_Urban_Regions) # 1. Large Scale Urbanization and the Mega Region Globalization, urbanization, and the emergence of urban regions are intractably [linked](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4986). Up to the 20th century, several factors prevented the setting of large cities above 1 million inhabitants, and even more so of urban regions. One of the most salient constraints was the technical inability to support the large volume of people and merchandise flows such an entity would generate, particularly food supply. Prior to 1950, only two cities surpassed 8 million inhabitants; New York and London. Thus, large-scale urbanization is a process that began or at least started to be acknowledged after World War II when the [global urban population](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4665) entered a phase of accelerated growth and when new technical means became available. Through a [series of stages](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/mega-region-development/ "Mega-Region Development"), motorization, particularly the diffusion of the automobile, the construction of highway systems, and regional air transport networks, all favored the geographical expansion of the urban real. Despite its spatial diffusion, urbanization was able to maintain a level of cohesion with increased interactions. The distribution of urban-related activities over a large territory created a new transactional space and a new frame of reference for what could be considered urban. The result was a fundamental change in the spatial structure of what can be considered a city at the global, regional, and local scales: - **Globally**, a complex [network of gateways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1416) is interacting in a system of flows of people, freight, and information, composing spheres of production, consumption, and circulation. Conventionally, urbanization is considered the outcome of socioeconomic processes occurring nationally, but global economic processes are among the strongest forces shaping contemporary urbanization. This has been accompanied by expanded forms of global mobilities, including migration, business travel, and leisure. Distribution networks have expanded, namely through the division of production, manufacturing, and consumption. This has been accompanied by a growth in the quantity of freight being shipped and more complex supply and distribution chains. These are derived from strategic considerations where issues such as production and subcontracting planning and the choice of hubs and routes are considered for implementing global supply chains. - **Locally**, the urban structure of most cities has evolved from a nodal single-center structure to a [multi-nodal one](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4760), with suburbanization being the dominant paradigm. Additional demands for space and lower locational costs have been leading forces behind this process. This has often resulted in a fragmented system of movements and a complex lattice of interactions within a metropolitan area. Many activities related to freight distribution have been impacted by the construction of new transport terminals and distribution centers in response to growing space requirements as well as from the imperatives of fragmented supply chains. From their traditional location around central areas with prevalent port and rail linkages, transport terminals, and distribution centers have shifted to peripheral locations where road and airport linkages are more predominant. - **Regionally**, a functional specialization of interconnected urban centers has emerged with a division of economic activities regulated by hubs and regional transport infrastructures. The prevailing spatial structure of regional accumulation and distribution is thus articulated by a corridor dotted by major urban centers. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mega_region_development2.png?resize=900%2C389&ssl=1 "Mega-Region Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/mega-region-development/mega_region_development2/)Mega Region Development[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_urban_population2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Urban Population, 1950-2015 with Projections to 2050 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-urban-population/world_urban_population2/)World Urban Population 1950 2015 with Projections to 2050[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Gateways-Index-2018.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global Gateways Index, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/map-global-gateways-index-2018/)Global Gateways Index 2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C453&ssl=1 "Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-spatial-structure-city/evolution_spatial_structure/)Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a City[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_dichotomy_continuum.png?resize=900%2C503&ssl=1 "Perspectives about the Urban Spatial Structure: From Dichotomy to Continuum | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/dichotomy-continuum-urban-spatial-structure/urban_dichotomy_continuum/)Perspectives about the Urban Spatial Structure From Dichotomy to ContinuumThe regionalism of urbanization implies that some cities have become metropolitan areas, but that individually or as a group, they have become a complex functional regional entity, the mega-region. It is the outcome of a historical process of urban expansion and interconnection, as a mega-region cannot exist without an underlying urban system that defines its structure and interactions. However, the term mega-region requires some nuances because of the size and spatial scale it may take and because it usually does not discern between single and multiple metropolitan areas regions. They are dynamic entities linked with economic, infrastructural, and technological processes. Three scales can therefore be suggested to describe the mega-region: - **Metropolitan Area**. A single large city is often officially defined and named a jurisdictional and statistical unit that functions as a labor, consumption, and production market. It can be considered as the basic economic unit of the global economy. The metropolitan area is not necessarily continuously developed and can include rural, non-urban (when there is no agriculture), or discontinuous urban development areas. Although a metropolitan area is composed of multiple jurisdictions, it is structured by the commuting range of the core city, from which radiates highways and urban transit lines. - **Extended Metropolitan Region (EMR)**. A continuum of urban activities, often interwoven with rural activities, that includes a large urban agglomeration (several million) and a network of secondary (satellite) cities. It combines many different economic activities and land uses, including agricultural activities, large-scale housing projects, and industrial estates. The EMR usually extends beyond the standard definition of a metropolitan area to include rural areas. - **Mega-Urban Region (MUR)**. A large-scale corridor is composed of several metropolitan areas (some of which are EMRs) structured by transportation infrastructures and terminals supporting an intense system of regional economic and social interactions. The term **megalopolis** has also been used to characterize such an entity spanning several hundreds of kilometers. MURs also have a substantial rural population, but agricultural activities are highly conditioned by the proximity of large urban markets. Although there is no formal convention about the minimum size, MURs have at least 10 million inhabitants, mostly concentrated in a few large multimillion metropolitan areas (or EMR). The MUR is a specialized and interdependent entity that acts as a comprehensive system of production, consumption, and distribution. It serves as the main gateway between global, national, and regional systems of accumulation and distribution. Urban regions form an extended but cohesive territory, creating a new transactional and circulation space that has become a **global competitive unit** internally and externally. Internally, the vast accessible market it confers incites competing firms to service the urban region with goods and services efficiently. Externally, the mega-region becomes a more efficient production unit because of its economic, innovative, and labor potential coupled with access to global markets through large-scale transport terminals. A share of the competitiveness of an urban region can thus be attributed to its transport infrastructure that supports its internal flows as well as its relations with external markets. # 2. The Structure and Articulation of Mega-Urban Regions The emergence of mega-urban regions as a distinct spatial structure began to be acknowledged in the 1950s as they appeared in the developed world, namely in North America, Western Europe, and Japan. More recently mega urban regions have emerged in the developing world, particularly in East Asia. Megaregions have become a common pattern of global urbanization, which reflects a homogenization of infrastructure, production, and consumption. The structure of mega-urban regions can be better understood through the concepts of articulation **nodes**, **corridors**, and **flows**: - **[Articulations nodes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7730)** are where the organization and regulation of passenger transportation and freight distribution are taking place through a set of terminals and related added-value activities. As hubs or gateways, they provide an interface between global and regional flows and are built upon the convergence of transport networks. - **[Corridors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7296)** with a linear accumulation of transport infrastructures servicing a set of articulation nodes. They support by their physical capacity the mobility of passengers and freight. Corridors usually emerge in [phases of infrastructure and economic development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1451), creating an increasingly interconnected region. - **Flows** are the expression of work, production, distribution, consumption, and social activities. An urban region has a complex web of flows ranging from metropolitan commuting ranges to intermodal flows connecting the market of an urban region to global supply chains. An articulation node is a concrete geographical node within a wide variety of transport chains servicing global and regional transport systems. It involves a concentration of transport terminals, each hub servicing its respective transport chain. The hierarchy and sequence of global, regional, and local mobility are reflected in the hierarchy and sequence of articulation nodes. The importance of an articulation node is measured by the volume and the nature of the traffic it handles and the geographical extent of the mobility it supports. For instance, an international articulation node (gateway) handles a substantial amount of maritime, land, and air traffic and has a hinterland that encompasses several regional articulation nodes. The world’s largest articulation nodes are usually the anchor points of large urban regions. A regional articulation node will handle traffic mostly related to land transportation and will be characterized by a smaller hinterland. For urban regions, freight articulation nodes are particularly important in shaping their dynamics and spatial structure through three functions: - **Freight Transshipment**. Involves a set of intermodal activities transshipping freight from one mode to the other. Dominant articulation nodes handle substantial amounts of freight through their transport terminals. This function is particularly important for gateways providing an interface between urban regions and the global economy. - **Freight Integration**. Involves activities related to the logistics of freight circulation, the most common being the composition, warehousing, and decomposition of freight shipments. Distribution centers are the common expression of this function of articulation, often linked with transshipment activities taking place at major terminals. It underlines the role of the articulation node as a distribution platform for the urban region. - **Freight Transit**. Involves freight flows bound to another location but transiting through an articulation node because of its intermediacy within a regional transport network. A commonality of many mega-urban regions is their orientation and development along corridors where transport, economic, and demographic processes are linearly articulated and integrated. Corridors offer better accessibility and connectivity and have consequently shaped urbanization in many parts of the world. This involves [three dimensions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7296): - A mega-urban region is considered to be a **hierarchy of functions,** and the corridor is a structure organizing interactions within this hierarchy, from large metropolitan areas to small satellite towns. - Cities can have a level of interaction and transportation could be more than a factor of market accessibility, but also of regional specialization and comparative advantages. The main assumption is that the accessibility provided by the corridor reinforces **territorial specialization and interdependency** along its main axis, and, consequently, the reliance on a regional transport system. - The mega-urban region is a **system of flows** reflecting local, regional, and global passenger and freight mobilities. The corridor is the structure regulating these flows. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_spatial_pattern_east_asia.png?resize=900%2C614&ssl=1 "Urban Spatial Pattern in East Asia | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/east-asia-urban-pattern/east_asia_spatial_pattern/)Urban Spatial Pattern in East Asia[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/articulation_node_transport_chain.png?resize=900%2C625&ssl=1 "Articulation Node and Transport Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/articulation-node-transport-chains/articulationpoint/)Articulation Node and Transport Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_corridors_regional_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C557&ssl=1 "Transport Corridors and the Regional Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transport-corridors-spatial-structure/transport_corridors_regional_spatial_structure/)Transport Corridors and the Regional Spatial Structure[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/conceptual_corridor_development.png?resize=900%2C541&ssl=1 "Conceptual Corridor Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/corridor-development/conceptual_corridor_development/)Conceptual Corridor DevelopmentWhile passenger flows are derived from economic and social interactions, freight flows are dominantly derived not only from the location of production and consumption activities but from the complex web of intermediate activities, such as warehousing and transshipment. Combined, they form a regional transactional space in which many actors in the supply chain, from producers to consumers, interact. These elements place the emphasis on the intermodal capacity of hub centers having an interface with multimodal transportation systems as well as with the logistical management of this complex distribution system where the local is integrated with the global. The corridor is then a sequence of distribution activities supporting a vast array of functions within the urban region; a **logistically integrated axis**. # 3. Modal Corridors in Mega Urban Regions The mega-urban region is interfacing with the global economy mainly through its port and airport terminals and regionally organized through [modal corridors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7736) including road, rail, and on some occasion, fluvial systems: - The **maritime corridor** operates at a scale that is very different than those of land-based modes and usually does not play an important role in the internal structure of urban regions, with the exception of those along a coastal area serviced by short sea shipping (e.g. Tokaido). Maritime corridors are structured by the integration of port cities (maritime services and transshipment functions) into port systems (maritime distribution functions), forming a global trade network. Containerization has particularly impacted maritime corridors with the emergence of global maritime trade routes servicing the world’s largest markets (urban regions). However, the growth in the size of ships tends to favor the concentration of traffic at large gateways, which is shaping the development of maritime shipping networks. - The **fluvial / coastal corridor** corresponds to waterways linking markets, industrial areas, and resource-producing regions. For many urban regions, the fluvial corridor is the main defining spatial structure (e.g. Shanghai-Nanjing, Pearl River Delta, Rhine / Scheldt Delta) as it historically the river was the main trade corridor. This support is relatively less important in the current context, but the structuring effect of the fluvial corridor created a spatial structure that was reinforced with land corridors. Other urban regions are structured along a coastline (e.g. [BostWash](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7741), [Tokaido](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7748), Southern California) as they initially emerged as a system of independent port cities that eventually became interconnected through land corridors. - **Land corridors** can be divided into two modes having separate but often integrated logistics; road and rail. Land transportation infrastructures are the core contemporary element structuring mega urban regions, mostly by connecting major articulation nodes. Rail corridors and highway systems have a strong spatial imprint in shaping corridors, a force that has been more recently reinforced by the setting of high-speed rail systems. However, the structuring effects of rail vary because mega-urban regions have a different modal split between passenger and freight rail. - **Air corridors** have lesser structuring effects because they were more recently established (particularly in developing countries) and concern smaller volumes than their road and rail counterparts. Due to the shorter distances within the mega-urban region, regional air transportation involves only the largest urban centers. Yet, the development of high-frequency air shuttles is salient between large city pairs in relative proximity (300 kilometers or more), but also with smaller centers large enough to justify services. Thus, air traffic within mega urban regions can be extensive since it is related to business interactions and the demand has steadily risen. However, the development of high-speed train networks has been able to successfully compete with air corridors in several mega-urban regions, such as in Europe, Japan, South Korea, and China. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_corridor_urban_region.png?resize=900%2C545&ssl=1 "Modal Corridors in an Urban Region | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/modal-corridors-urban-region/modalcorridors/)Modal Corridors in an Urban Region[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Urban-Regions.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's Largest Urban Regions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/world-urban-regions/map-world-urban-regions/)Worlds Largest Urban Regions[![The Boston - Washington Urban Corridor](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-BostWash-Horizontal.png?resize=900%2C498&ssl=1 "The BostWash Corridor | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/boston-washington-corridor/bostwash-horizontal-basic/)The BostWash Corridor[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tokaido-megalopolis.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "The Tokaido Megalopolis | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/tokyo-osaka-corridor-tokaido/tokaido/)The Tokaido Corridor[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-HSR.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World High Speed Rail Systems, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/map-world-hsr/)World High Speed Rail Systems 2014Corridors have become the object of [intense modal competition](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1832) with the growth of movements of passengers and freight. For passengers, highways, (high speed) rail and air transportation respectively have a market share that is a function of the distances involved, the capacity of the corridors, cost, and convenience. Conventionally, freight flows within corridors tended to be fragmented and segmented since each mode tried to exploit its own advantages in terms of cost, service, reliability, and safety. In many cases, trucking benefited, taking a significant share of regional freight transportation. More recently, as congestion increased along corridors and as productivity and efficiency improvements were sought within supply chains, modal complementarity improved. Because of the intensity of the interactions they support and their concentration along corridors congestion, delays and pollution are common **externalities** associated with mega urban regions. Corridors represent a setting where **integrated transport systems** are particularly suitable to improve the mobility of passengers and freight. As either distance or congestion increases, the efficiency of road transportation along corridors is challenged. Improvements can be achieved by shifting passengers and freight to other modes that are less congested or by using existing modes in a combination where they are respectively the most efficient. The later opens opportunities for **freight diversion** where a terminal located along the corridor is used to transfer freight to a mode that lessens congestion inbound or outbound a metropolitan area. Such strategies are already been used by distributors that are opting for a strategic location along a corridor to [service a whole urban region](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4535). The mega-urban region has become a fundamental component of the global economy since they account for a large account of production and consumption. While their development appears to have peaked in developed economies (a process linked with their demographic profiles), the developing world will continue to see the emergence of regional urbanization structures that will condition future investment in transport infrastructure along corridors. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_competition_complementarity_shift.png?resize=900%2C301&ssl=1 "Modal Competition, Complementarity and Shift along a Corridor | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-competition-complementarity-corridor/modal_competition_complementarity_shift/)Modal Competition Complementarity and Shift along a Corridor[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/proximity_intermediacy_distribution_clusters.png?resize=900%2C534&ssl=1 "Proximity and Intermediacy for Distribution Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/proximity-intermediacy-distribution-clusters/proximity_intermediacy_distribution_clusters/)Proximity and Intermediacy for Distribution Clusters--- ## Related Topics - [Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4617) - [Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621) - [Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1006) - [Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1498) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Modal Corridors in an Urban Region](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/modal-corridors-urban-region/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_corridor_urban_region.png?resize=900%2C545&ssl=1 "Modal Corridors in an Urban Region | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Modal Corridors in an Urban RegionCorridors are multimodal entities as they represent the accumulation of transport infrastructures concerning several modes. Thus, within an urban corridor, there is an overlay of modal corridors, each having a market share depending on the basic geography of the region, the respective level of infrastructure investment, and the types of flows involved (passengers or freight): - The **maritime corridor** is a set of non-discrete paths (maritime routes) between regional maritime hub centers, which are places of transshipment and logistics. - **Fluvial corridors** are a mix of discrete and non-discrete paths, depending on whether canals, rivers, and seacoasts are considered individually. They are an overlay of canals, waterways, and fluvial ports along an axis corresponding to a natural penetration corridor like a major river or a set of interlinked coastal cities. Containerization has enabled the development of new forms of fluvial shipping and enabled several ports (mostly in Western Europe and China) to service their hinterlands through barge services. - **Land corridors** are the foundation of a regional economy and provide support to land movements through discrete paths. - **Air corridors** correspond to the navigation lanes of air traffic. Important components of modal corridors are [articulation nodes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7730), which regulate flows. Modal corridors interact with one another as some are directly competing while others are complementary. For instance, in a specific region, fluvial and land corridors could compete to attract freight traffic while road and rail could be complementary (focusing on passengers and freight, respectively). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/modal-corridors-urban-region/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/modal-corridors-urban-region/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/modal-corridors-urban-region/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/modal-corridors-urban-region/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Components to Price Reductions by the Chinese Manufacturing Sector, 2005](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/china-manufacturing-price-reduction/) **Published:** November 26, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/components_manufacturing_china_price_reductions.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Major Components to Price Reductions by the Chinese Manufacturing Sector, 2005 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Components to Price Reductions by the Chinese Manufacturing Sector 2005*Source: Navarro, P. (2006) Report of “The China Price Project”, Merage School of Business, University of California-Irvine.* Through the 2000s, among manufacturers, the “China Price” became known as a frame of reference that could be 50% lower than other competitors. Although lower wages in China were an important factor behind lower prices, accounting for close to 40% of the price reductions, other factors, many of which are perceived as unfair trading practices, are at play. A whole range of export subsidies is provided, including subsidized energy, raw materials, and land, but also tax exemptions and loans (for state enterprises) that “do not need to be repaid”. Industrial clusters, particularly in the toy and apparel industries, have emerged, conferring net productivity advantages by having related activities located nearby. This was particularly the case for the Pearl River Delta, where manufacturers are near each other and close to large international port terminals such as Hong Kong and Shenzhen. China was also [maintaining its currency](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4114) close to being pegged to the US dollar and under normal circumstances (due to its very positive trade balance with the United States), its relative value should be substantially higher. Counterfeiting and piracy were also rampant, for which many manufacturers were not paying royalties and license fees for products designed elsewhere. Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) have also played a catalytic role in terms of financing the transfer of advanced production technologies, managerial practices, marketing, and distribution strategies. Lax health, safety, and environmental regulation were contributing factors. However, the factors that played to China’s advantage, namely wages, became less relevant in light of the significant wage inflation that took place in the late 2000s. Since the 2010s, the competitiveness of the Chinese manufacturing sector, as far as low labor costs are concerned, has been challenged. After the COVID-19 pandemic, a wave of changes in procurement strategies focused on alternative manufacturing locations including Vietnam and India. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/china-manufacturing-price-reduction/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/china-manufacturing-price-reduction/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/china-manufacturing-price-reduction/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/china-manufacturing-price-reduction/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Freight Transport Revenue per Ton-Mile](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-transport-revenue-ton-mile/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_revenue_ton_mile.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Freight Transport Revenue per Ton-Mile | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Freight Transport Revenue per Ton Mile*Source: BTS, Table 3-21. Note: Cents per ton-mile.* In a competitive market, the revenue a transport company generates depends on its costs and profit margin. High revenue per ton-mile is directly related to high operating costs associated with this revenue generation. The most important factor related to transport costs is the amount of energy spent on each unit being moved, which is commonly related to the economies of scale that can be achieved with each transport mode. Under such circumstances, maritime transportation is the mode with the lowest cost per ton-mile. Although air transportation has higher transport costs than road transportation, the difference is not excessive. Air cargo is usually carried over much longer distances than road and concerns high-value goods. The differences in revenue growth by mode are worth noting. The highest growth concerns oil pipelines, mainly related to the lack of investments in new capacity while the demand rose. Air and truck revenues per ton-mile increased in a similar fashion as both sectors are highly competitive, with energy a fundamental input factor. Rail and water transportation have experienced a lower growth in revenue in part because of their energy efficiency and propensity for economies of scale. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-transport-revenue-ton-mile/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-transport-revenue-ton-mile/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-transport-revenue-ton-mile/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-transport-revenue-ton-mile/?share=reddit) - --- ### [8.3 - Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/) **Published:** November 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Urban mobility involves three broad categories of collective, individual, and freight transportation. While the mobility of passengers is the outcome of individual decisions based on different rationales, freight mobility is decided in tandem between the cargo owners and transportation service providers. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Urban Mobility and its Evolution](#1_Urban_Mobility_and_its_Evolution) - [2. A Taxonomy of Urban Mobilities](#2_A_Taxonomy_of_Urban_Mobilities) - [3. Urban Transit](#3_Urban_Transit) # 1. Urban Mobility and its Evolution Urban areas are the most complex settings in which the mobility of passengers and freight is taking place. Typical urban attributes such as density, diverse economic, cultural, political, and social functions, and land scarcity, jointly generate mobility demands and constraints. In several instances, the mobility of passengers and freight is complementary as they may be using separate routes. Still, both are competing for the usage of scarce land and transport infrastructures: - **Collective transportation (public transit)**. The purpose of collective transportation is to provide publicly accessible mobility over specific parts of a city. The systems are usually owned and operated by an agency, and access is open to all as long as a fare is paid; the reason why they are called public transit. The efficiency of public transit systems is based upon transporting large numbers of people and achieving economies of scale. It mainly includes tramways, buses, trains, subways, and ferries. - **Individual transportation**. Includes any mode where mobility results from a personal choice and means, such as the automobile, walking, cycling, or motorcycling. Most people walk to satisfy their basic mobility, but this number varies according to the urban context. Some forms of individual mobility could be favored, while others could be impaired. For instance, walking accounts for 88% of all movements within Tokyo’s central area, while this figure is only 3% for Los Angeles. The density and design of the former are more accommodating to the mobility of pedestrians than the latter. - **Freight transportation**. Since cities are dominant centers of production and consumption, urban activities are accompanied by large freight movements. These movements are characterized mainly by delivery trucks moving between industries, distribution centers, warehouses, and retail activities, including major terminals such as ports, railyards, distribution centers, and airports. The growth of e-commerce has been associated with increased home deliveries of parcels. The mobility of freight within cities is part of an emerging field related to [city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792). Rapid urban development occurring across much of the globe increased the mobility of passengers and freight within urban areas in absolute and relative terms. There are more urban movements and also more movements per urban resident. Urban mobility also tends to involve longer distances, but evidence suggests that **commuting times have remained relatively similar** over the last hundred years; approximately 1 to 1.2 hours per day is spent on average commuting. This means that commuting has gradually shifted to faster transport modes, and consequently, greater distances could be traveled using the same amount of time. This underlines the convergence among mobility, the deployment of transport infrastructure, and the diffusion of transportation modes. Each form of urban mobility, be it walking, the automobile, or urban transit, has a [level of suitability](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/suitability-of-travel-modes/ "Suitability of Travel Modes") to fill mobility needs. Different transport technologies and infrastructures have been implemented, resulting in a wide variety of urban transport systems around the world. In developed economies, there have been four general eras of urban development, each associated with a [different form of urban mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4720), with a fifth phase unfolding. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/suitability_travel_modes.png?resize=900%2C558&ssl=1 "Suitability of Travel Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Suitability of Travel Modes![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/one_hour_commuting.png?resize=900%2C629&ssl=1 "One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes## a. The Walking-Horsecar Era (1800s – 1890s) Even during the Industrial Revolution, the dominant means of getting around was on foot. Walking cities were typically less than 5 kilometers in diameter, making it possible to walk from the downtown to the city edge in about 30 minutes. Land use was mixed, and density was high (e.g. 100 to 200 people per hectare). The city was compact and more-or-less concentric depending on the local landscape. Still, the industrial revolution brought additional populations through rural to urban migrations, improved construction techniques allowing for higher densities and new forms and employment locations. The development of the first public transit systems in the form of [omnibus service](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5007) extended the diameter of the city but did not change the overall urban structure. The railroad facilitated the first real change in urban morphology. New developments, often called [trackside suburbs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5013), emerged as small nodes physically separated from the city itself and one another. The nodes coincided with the location of rail stations and stretched out a considerable distance from the city center, usually up to a half-hour train ride. Within the city proper, rail lines were also laid down, and horsecars introduced mass transit. The realm of urban mobility was expanded. ## b. The Electric Streetcar or Transit Era (1890s – 1920s) The invention of the electric traction motor created a revolution in urban travel. The first electric trolley line opened in the late 19th century, and the technology was quickly adopted in [other cities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/electric-streetcar-lisbon/ "The Electric Streetcar, Lisbon, Portugal"). The operating speed of the electric trolley was three times faster than that of horse-drawn vehicles and did not generate waste on the streets. The streetcar city was able to spread outward 20 to 30 kilometers along the streetcar lines, creating an irregular, star-shaped pattern. Urban fringes became areas of rapid residential development, with trolley corridors as commercial strips that would come to characterize commercial areas of the era. The city core was further entrenched as a mixed-use, high-density zone, gradually losing its residential function. Land use patterns reflected social stratification where outer suburban areas were typically middle class, while the working class concentrated around the central city. As street congestion increased in the first half of the 20th century due to the diffusion of the automobile, the efficiency of streetcar systems deteriorated as cars infringed on their right of way. Further, many cities had ordinances that prevented fare increases, implying that many streetcar systems became unprofitable, leading to a lack of maintenance and investment in additional services. These factors contributed to the demise of many streetcar systems in the later part of the 20th century. ## c. The Automobile Era (1930s – 1950s) The automobile was introduced in European and North American cities in the 1890s, but only the wealthy could afford this innovation. So no impacts on urban land use and mobility were initially observed. From the 1920s, ownership rates increased dramatically, with lower prices made possible by assembly-line production techniques. As automobiles became more common, land development patterns changed. Developers were attracted to green-field areas located between the suburban rail corridors, and the public was attracted to these single-use zones, thus avoiding many inconveniences associated with the city, mainly pollution, noise, crowding, and lack of space. Still, this phase usually represented the peak share of public transit in urban mobility as suburban developments did not yet account for a large share of the urban landscape, and cities were still high-density and transit-dependent. ## d. The Freeway Era (1950s – 2010s) In the second half of the 20th century, the massive diffusion of the automobile, as well as the construction of highway networks, had substantial impacts on urban mobility. Highways were built to connect the central business district to outlying areas, and, in many cases, complete or partial ring roads were built. The personal mobility offered by the automobile represented a paradigm shift in terms of lifestyle, consumption patterns, and residential locations. The automobile considerably reduced the friction distance, leading to **urban sprawl**. The emergence of the suburb created a new landscape in which public transit did not fit well, with few services being offered to these new residential areas. Transit ridership fell, and transit companies ran into financial difficulties. Eventually, transit services throughout North America and Europe became subsidized, publicly-owned enterprises. Some tramway systems were being dismantled, and the surviving transit lines were separated from road circulation, namely subway systems. New light rail systems were introduced, which could generate ridership if large parking lots were provided at suburban stations. Commercial activities also began to suburbanize, creating additional passenger and freight mobility systems that did not rely much on public transit. Within a short period, the automobile became the dominant mode of travel in all cities of North America and, from the 1970s, in a growing number of developed and developing economies. Since the 2000s, a similar process has occurred on a massive scale in China, creating motorized high-density cities. Wherever incomes rise, the growth of automobile use tends to increase accordingly. Motorization and the diffusion of personal mobility have been trends linked with the ongoing and [substantial declines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5022) in the share of public transit in urban mobility in the second half of the 20th century. ## e. The Integrated Mobility Era (2010s onward) Throughout their evolution, urban transportation modes remained rather disconnected, particularly since they are owned and operated by separate entities such as transit agencies, automobile owners, or trucking companies with limited interaction. The diffusion of **information and communication technologies** is changing this relationship. Emerging urban mobility systems are gaining from a higher level of integration and collaboration, resulting in better asset utilization levels and the creation of new mobility markets. An early example concerns on-demand vehicle services pooling individual drivers and matching their mobility supply with the consumer demand through a platform accessible through a mobile device. In several high-density markets, the outcome of this convenience was a surge in demand for for-hire vehicles. A further development concerns self-driving vehicles that could expand mobility options and better utilization of automobile assets. This era is also associated with the diffusion of e-commerce and its associated home deliveries, underlining the issue of **city logistics** and last-mile freight distribution. Trucks and delivery vans have become more prevalent in urban mobility. Information technologies have also allowed the pooling of resources in the more conventional food delivery market, replacing business-specific deliveries with fleets of on-demand vehicles. An emerging form of urban mobility concerns **micromobility**, with early forms, such as the bicycle, being developed in the late 19th century and widely used by the early 20th century. In the early 21st century, a new array of electrically assisted conveyances and leasing/sharing systems became available, particularly electric bikes (e-bikes) and scooters. Such systems can be effective in high-density areas and for short trips. However, e-bikes are at least five times more expensive than bicycles. Further, users are concerned about parking e-bikes in public areas and finding locations to recharge them. They are also effective for last-mile parcel deliveries and fast deliveries such as restaurant orders. [![Omnibus London 1895](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/omnibus_london_1895.webp?resize=900%2C473&ssl=1 "Omnibus, London, Circa 1895 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/omnibus-london-19th-century/lgoc-horse-bus-outside-the-shard-arms-on-peckam-park-road-circa-1895/)Omnibus London Circa 1895[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transit_technology_urban_development2.png?resize=900%2C393&ssl=1 "Transit Technology and Urban Development, Late 19th - Early 20th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-technology-urban-development/transit_technology_urban_development2/)Transit Technology and Urban Developmencentury 19th Early 20th Century[![Electric Streetcar Lisbon](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/electric_streetcar_lisbon.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "The Electric Streetcar, Lisbon, Portugal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/electric-streetcar-lisbon/img_1093-jpg/)The Electric Streetcar Lisbon Portugal[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trips_public_transport_united_states2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Trips by Public Transport in the United States, 1903-2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-ridership-united-states/trips_public_transport_united_states2/)Trips by Public Transport in the United States 1903 2019[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/benefits_on_demand_taxi.png?resize=900%2C853&ssl=1 "Potential Benefits of On Demand Services Compared with Conventional Taxi Services | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/on-demand-services-taxi/benefit_on_demand_vehicles2/)Potential Benefits of On Demand Services Compared with Conventional Taxi Services[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/nyc_for_hire.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Monthly Trips by for Hire Services, New York City, 2015-2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/monthly-trips-for-hire-services-new-york/for_hire_nyc/)Number of Monthly Trips by for Hire Services New York City 2015 2019In many areas where urbanization is more recent, the above synthetic phases did not occur. Fast urban growth led to a scramble to provide transport infrastructure inadequately, leading to rather chaotic conditions supporting urban mobility. Enduring congestion tends to characterize cities in developing economies. # 2. A Taxonomy of Urban Mobilities Mobility is linked to specific urban activities and land use, with each type involving generating and attracting an array of movements. This complex relationship is linked to factors such as recurrence, [income](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5027), urban form, density, level of development, and technology. Urban mobility is either **obligatory** when linked to scheduled activities (such as home-to-work trips) or **voluntary** when those generating it are free to decide on the scheduling (such as leisure) and even the mode. The most common types of urban mobility include: - **Pendulum movements**. These are obligatory movements involving commuting between locations of residence and workplaces. They are highly cyclical since they are predictable and recurring, most of the time on a daily basis, thus the term pendulum. The **historical stability** of these movements allowed the planning of transportation infrastructure and services. - **Professional movements**. These are movements linked to professional, work-based activities such as meetings, repair, maintenance, and customer services, dominantly taking place during work hours. - **Personal movements**. These are voluntary movements linked to the location of commercial activities, which include shopping and recreation. - **Touristic movements**. These are important for cities having historical and recreational features. They involve interactions between landmarks and amenities such as hotels and restaurants and tend to be seasonal or occur at specific moments during the day. Major sports events are important generators of urban movements during their occurrence. - **Distribution movements**. These are concerned with freight distribution to satisfy consumption and manufacturing requirements. They are mostly linked to transport terminals, distribution centers, and retail outlets. However, the growth of online transactions involves more freight movements being carried to residential areas through home deliveries. The consideration of urban mobility, both for passengers and freight, involves the consideration of the factors behind their generation, the modes and routes used, and their destination: - **Trip generation**. On average, an urban resident undertakes between 3 and 4 daily trips. Mobility in an urban area is usually done to [satisfy a purpose](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5033) such as employment, leisure, or access to goods and services. The **[activity space](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/activity-space-adult/ "Typical Activity Space of an Urban Working Adult")** of an individual is an important trip generation factor since it indicates the travel that needs to be undertaken. Temporal variations in the number of trips by purpose are observed on a daily and weekly basis, with commuting as the most prevalent pattern. Similar temporal variations are observed for freight mobility, with most of this mobility occurring in the morning when goods are delivered to retail outlets. This often leads to conflicts with the mobility of passengers since vehicles share the same road infrastructure, including parking space, which is the object of capacity constraints in urban areas. - **Modal split**. This implies using a series of transportation modes for urban trips, which is the outcome of a **modal choice**. This choice depends on factors such as cost, technology, availability, preference, travel time (distance), and income. Therefore, walking, cycling, public transit, the automobile, or even teleworking, will be used either as a choice or as a constraint (lack of choice). For instance, locations within five minutes of walking are readily accessible to pedestrians. There is thus a wide variety of modal split across [metropolitan areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/modal-split-work-trips/ "Modal Split, Journey to Work Trips, Selected Cities"). Urban freight distribution can also use a variety of modes, but the van and the truck tend to dominate as they allow maximum accessibility to urban locations. - **Trip assignment (routing)**. It involves which routes will be used for trips within the city. Passenger trips usually have stable routing. For instance, a commuter driving a car usually has a fixed route between the residence and the place of work. This route may be modified if congestion or another activity (such as shopping) is linked with that trip, a practice often known as **trip chaining**. The routing of freight distribution is dependent on the types of deliveries involved. Direct deliveries are the norm for large retail outlets, while vehicles will accommodate flexible routing for smaller stores and parcel deliveries. Several factors influence trip assignment, the most crucial being transport costs, time, and congestion levels. The diffusion of information technologies, particularly global positioning systems, allows each vehicle to select a path minimizing distance or time in a dynamically evolving situation. The benefits of such technologies tend not to be fully acknowledged as large-scale routing optimization of individual vehicles significantly reduces total travel time and energy consumption. - **Trip destination**. Changes in the spatial distribution of economic activities in urban areas have caused important modifications to trip destinations, notably those related to work. Activity-based considerations are essential since each economic activity tends to be associated with a level of trip attraction. Retail, public administration, entertainment, and restoration are the activities that attract the most movements per person employed. For freight movements, manufacturing, transport terminals, and retail are the activities attracting the most movements. The **central city** used to be a [major destination for trips](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/work-related-mobility/ "Work-Related Mobility in a Motorized City"), particularly passengers, but its share has substantially declined in most areas, and **suburbs** now account for the bulk of urban trips. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/income_urban_transport_demand2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Income and Urban Transport Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/income-urban-transport-demand/income_urban_transport_demand2/)Income and Urban Transport Demand[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/annual_household_trips_united_states.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Annual Person Trips per Household by Trip Purpose, United States, 1983-2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/person-trips-household/annual_household_trips_united_states/)Average Annual Person Trips per Household by Purpose United States 1983 2017[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/typical_activity_space_urban.png?resize=900%2C367&ssl=1 "Typical Activity Space of an Urban Working Adult | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/activity-space-adult/typical_activity_space_urban/)Typical Activity Space of an Urban Working Adult[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_travel_purpose.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Urban Travel by Purpose and by Time of the Day in a Typical City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/urban-travel-trip-purpose/trip_purpose_time_day/)Urban Travel by Purpose and by Time of the Day in a Typical City[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/car_truck_daily_trip_distribution.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Typical Car and Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/car-truck-trips-temporal/car_truck_daily_trip_distribution/)Typical Car and Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_split_selected_cities2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Modal Split, Journey to Work Trips, Selected Cities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/modal-split-work-trips/modal_split_selected_cities2/)Modal Split Journey to Work Trips Selected Cities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/work_related_mobility_united_states.png?resize=900%2C432&ssl=1 "Work-Related Mobility in a Motorized City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/work-related-mobility/work_related_mobility/)Work Related Mobility in a Motorized City[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/person_miles_age_gender.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Daily Person Miles of Travel per Person by Age and Gender, 2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/travel-age-gender/daily_person_miles_gender/)Daily Person Miles of Travel per Person by Age and Gender 2017[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mobility_gaps_urban_areas2.png?resize=900%2C500&ssl=1 "Mobility Gaps in Urban Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/mobility-gaps-urban/mobility_gaps_urban_areas/)Mobility Gaps in Urban AreasMobility is also a social issue. The share of the automobile in urban trips varies in relation to location, social status, income, quality of public transit, and parking availability. Mass transit is often affordable, but several social groups, such as students, the elderly, and the poor, are a **captive market**. There are important [variations in mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/travel-age-gender/ "Daily Person Miles of Travel per Person by Age and Gender, 2017") according to age, income, gender, and disability, with policies aiming at promoting the accessibility and mobility of groups perceived as disadvantaged. The gender gap in mobility is the outcome of socio-economic differences, as access to individual transportation is dominantly a matter of income. Within households, differences in role and income are related to the respective activity range and mobility of its members. Consequently, in some instances, modal choice is more of a **modal constraint linked to economic opportunities.** Central locations generally have the most urban mobility options because private and public transport facilities are present. However, this does not mean mobility is easier since central areas are congested. In locations outside the central core, a share of the population not having access to the automobile faces a level of isolation or at least more limited access to amenities and employment opportunities. Limited public transit and high automobile ownership costs have created a group of [spatially constrained](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5070) (mobility-deprived) people. In a context where mobility is car-dependent, there is a strong incentive to own an automobile irrespective of income level. # 3. Urban Transit Transit is almost exclusively an urban transportation mode, particularly in [large urban agglomerations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5076). The urban environment is particularly suitable for transit because it provides conditions fundamental to its efficiency, namely **high density** and significant **short distance mobility demands**. Since transit is a **shared service**, it potentially benefits from economies of agglomeration related to high densities and economies of scale related to high mobility demands. One key advantage of public transit is the higher the demand, the more effective public transit services can be offered. Lower densities are linked with lower demand and a greater likelihood of public transit systems operating at a loss and requiring subsidies. Most public transit systems are not financially sound and must be **subsidized**, even if several of their core segments are profitable. Transit systems are [comprised of many types of services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/components-urban-transit/ "Components of an Urban Transit System"), each suitable to a **specific market and spatial context**. Different modes provide complementary services within the transit system and, in some cases, between the transit system and other transport systems. - **Bus transit**. One of the most common forms of urban transit includes vehicles of various sizes (from small vans to articulated buses) offering seating and standing capacity along scheduled routes and services. They usually share roadways with other modes and are susceptible to congestion. Bus rapid transit systems offer a permanent or temporary right of way and have the advantage of unencumbered circulation. However, this footprint can come at the expense of other uses. - **Rail transit**. Vehicles of fixed guideways usually have their right of way. [Light rail systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5085) are composed of streetcars that can share the right of way, particularly in central areas. [Heavy rail systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/skytrain-bangkok/ "BTS Skytrain, Bangkok") are commonly called subways or metro since many operate underground. Another type of rail transit concerns commuter rail systems, usually servicing central business districts and peripheral areas along specific rail corridors. - **Taxi systems**. Usually, private for-hire vehicles such as automobiles, jitneys, or rickshaws offer point-to-point services. Recent technological developments have enabled car-sharing services and expanded the availability of on-demand transit. - **Alternative transit**. Refer to transit systems developed to cope with specific conditions (or niche markets) using alternative modes. Ferries are the most common form of alternative transit as they serve cities with waterways separating different urban districts. Funiculars are also prevalent in locations with steep inclines and enough traffic to justify construction. Aerial lifts are also used in some settings to connect locations that are difficult to access. Contemporary transit systems tend to be **publicly owned**, implying that many decisions related to their development and operation are politically motivated. This is a sharp contrast to what took place in the past, as most transit systems were private and profit-driven initiatives. With the fast diffusion of the automobile in the 1950s, many transit companies faced financial difficulties, and the quality of their service declined; in a declining market, there were limited incentives to invest. Gradually, they were purchased by public interests and incorporated into large agencies, mainly to continue providing mobility. As such, public transit often serves more as a social function of public service and a tool of social equity than having an economic role. Transit has become dependent on government subsidies, with little competition permitted as wages and fares are regulated. As a result, they tend to be disconnected from market forces, and subsidies are required to keep a level of service. With suburbanization, transit systems tend to have even fewer relationships with economic activities and the latest dynamism of cities. Government-owned public transit systems are facing **financial difficulties** for three main reasons. First, they are often designed to serve taxpayers, not necessarily potential customers. Because of the funding base, transit systems may be spread into neighborhoods that do not provide a significant customer base. The second is that transit unions were able to extract substantial advantages in terms of wages and social benefits, increasing labor costs. This makes public transit highly expensive to operate. The third concerns a technology fixation that incites investment in high-cost transit (e.g. light rail transit) while low-cost solutions (buses) would have been sufficient for many transit systems, particularly in lower-density areas. Reliance on urban transit as a mode of urban transportation tends to be high in Asia, intermediate in Europe and Latin America, and low in North America. Since their inception in the early 19th century, comprehensive urban transit systems significantly impacted the urban form and spatial structure, but this influence is receding. [Three major classes of cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5090) can be found in terms of the relationships they have with their transit systems: - **Adaptive cities**. Represent transit-oriented cities where urban form and land use developments are coordinated with transit developments. While a metro system adequately services central areas and is pedestrian-friendly, peripheral areas are oriented along transit rail lines. - **Adaptive transit**. Represent cities where transit plays a marginal and residual role, and the automobile accounts for the dominant share of movements. The urban form is decentralized and of low density. - **Hybrids**. Represent cities that have sought a balance between transit development and automobile dependency. While central areas have an adequate level of service, peripheral areas are automobile-oriented. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Subways-1.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's Main Subway Systems, c2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/global-subway-systems/map-world-largest-subways-1/)Worlds Main Subway Systems c2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/components_urban_transit_system.png?resize=900%2C390&ssl=1 "Components of an Urban Transit System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/components-urban-transit/components_transit_system/)Components of an Urban Transit System[![Lrt Lyon France](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_6752.JPG?w=900&ssl=1 "Light Rail Transit, Lyon, France | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/light-rail-lyon/lrt_lyon/)Light Rail Transit Lyon France[![Bts Skytrain Bangkok](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bts_skytrain_bangkok.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "BTS Skytrain, Bangkok | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/skytrain-bangkok/skytrain_bangkok/)BTS Skytrain Bangkok[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/uber_trips_los_angeles.png?resize=900%2C228&ssl=1 "Weekly Distribution of Transit Scheduled Trips and Uber Pickups | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/weekly-distribution-transit-trips-uber-pickups-los-angeles/uber_pickups_weekly/)Weekly Distribution of Transit Scheduled Trips and Uber Pickups Los Angeles[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transit_urban_form.png?resize=900%2C318&ssl=1 "Transit and Urban Form | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-urban-form/transit_urban_form-1/)Transit and Urban Form[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/accessibility_transit_line2.png?resize=900%2C420&ssl=1 "Accessibility along a Transit Line | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/accessibility-transit/accessibility_transit_line/)Accessibility along a Transit Line[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transit_urban_land_use.png?resize=900%2C480&ssl=1 "Transit and Urban Land Use Impacts | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-land-use-impacts/transit_land_use-1/)Transit and Urban Land Use ImpactsContemporary **land development tends to precede the introduction of urban transit services** instead of concurrent developments in earlier phases of urban growth. Thus, new services are established once the demand is deemed sufficient, often after being subject to public pressure. Transit authorities operate under a service warrant and usually run a recurring deficit as services become more expensive. This has led to considerations aimed at higher transit integration in the urban planning process, particularly in cities where such a tradition is not well established. From a transportation perspective, the potential benefits of better **integration between transit and local land uses** are reduced trip frequency and increased use of alternative modes of travel (i.e. walking, biking, and transit). Evidence often fails to support such expectations since the relative share of public transit ridership is declining across the board. There is usually a reciprocal relationship between automobile ownership and the use of public transit. [Good accessibility to public transit](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5102) is often associated with lower automobile use. In contrast, areas of high automobile use may impair the development of public transit systems since the automobile is already dominant. Exceptions tend to be cities having very high-density levels. Community and land use design can have a significant influence on travel patterns. Local land use impacts can be categorized into [three dimensions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5095) in terms of accessibility, the convergence of mobility, and the land use integration they provide. Land use initiatives are trying to be coordinated with other planning and policy initiatives to cope with automobile dependence. However, there is a **strong bias against transit** in the general population because of negative perceptions, especially in North America, but increasingly globally. As personal mobility symbolizes status and economic success, public transit users can be perceived as less successful segments of the population. This bias may undermine the image of transit use within the general population but can be subject to change with the evolution of social norms and values. The COVID-19 pandemic had **complex impacts** on public transit systems. In the initial phase of the lockdowns in 2020, most transit systems experienced a decline in ridership in the range of 75%. The benefits of public transit, the massification of trips, **became a disadvantage** as users became concerned about the transmission risks during a public transit trip. Many transit systems, particularly in advanced economies, did not experience recovery to pre-pandemic levels. A factor is the growth of teleworking, which offered a substitution for transit trips, but a shift to car use is the most important. People actively using cars increased their car use, while active transit users also increased their car use. As a fundamental support to urban mobility, public transit systems remain challenged by revenue generation, rising infrastructure costs, and the willingness of users to shift to other modes. --- ## Related Topics - [8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4609) - [8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4613) - [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621) - [City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792) External link - [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1685) ## Bibliography - Barry, M. (1991) Through the Cities: The Revolution in Light Rail Transit. Frankfort Press: Dublin. - Cervero, R. (1998) *The Transit Metropolis: A Global Inquiry*, Washington D.C.: Island Press. - Circella, G. and P.L. Mokhtarian (2017) “Impacts of Information and Communication Technology”, in G. Giuliano and S. Hanson (eds) The Geography of Urban Transportation, 4th Edition, New York: The Guilford Press. - Cresswell, T. (2006) On the move: mobility in the modern Western world, New York: Routledge. - Diao, M., Kong, H. and J. Zhao (2021) “Impacts of transportation network companies on urban mobility”. Nature Sustainability 4, 494-500. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-00678-z. - Ellder, E. (2014) “Residential Location and Daily Travel Distances: The Influence of Trip Purpose”. Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 34, pp. 121-130. - Kwan, M.P., and J. Weber (2008) “Scale and Accessibility: Implications for the Analysis of Land Use-Travel Interaction”. Applied Geography, Vol. 28 (2), pp. 110-123. - Leinbach, T.R. (2004) “City Interactions: The dynamics of passenger and freight flows” in S. Hanson and G. Giuliano (eds) The Geography of Urban Transportation, 3rd ed. New York: The Guilford Press, pp. 30-58. - Levinson, D.M. (1998) “Accessibility and the Journey to Work”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 6 (1), pp. 11-21. - Levinson, D. and D.A. King (2019) A Political Economy of Access: Infrastructure, Networks, Cities, and Institutions, Network Design Lab. - Marchetti, C. (1994) “Anthropological Invariants in Travel Behaviour”, Technical Forecasting and Social Change, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 75-78. - McKinsey & Co (2021) Reimagining transit in a Post-Covid world, Global Infrastructure Initiative. - Mokhtarian, P.L. and G. Tal (2013) “Impacts of ICT on Travel Behavior: A Tapestry of Relationships”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Muller, P.O. (2017) “Transportation and Urban Form: Stages in the Spatial Evolution of the American Metropolis”, in G. Giuliano and S. Hanson (eds) The Geography of Urban Transportation, 4th Edition, New York: Guilford, pp. 57-85. - Qi, Y., J. Liu, T. Tao and Q. Zhao (2023) “Impacts of COVID-19 on public transit ridership”, International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 34-45. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijtst.2021.11.003. - Rietveld, P. (2000) “Nonmotorized Modes in Transport Systems: A Multimodal Chain Perspective for The Netherlands”, Transportation Research D, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 31-36. - Schafer, A. (2000) Regularities in Travel Demand: An International Perspective, Journal of Transport Statistics, Vol. 3, No. 3. - Thomson, J. M. (1977) Great Cities and Their Traffic. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd. - World Bank (2002) Cities on the Move: A World Bank Urban Transport Strategy Review. Washington: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [8.1 - Transportation and the Urban Form](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/) **Published:** November 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transportation has an influence on the urban spatial structure and is shaping urbanization. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Global Urbanization](#1_Global_Urbanization) - [2. The Urban Form](#2_The_Urban_Form) - [3. Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form](#3_Evolution_of_Transportation_and_Urban_Form) - [4. The Spatial Constraints of Urban Transportation](#4_The_Spatial_Constraints_of_Urban_Transportation) - [5. Transportation and the Urban Structure](#5_Transportation_and_the_Urban_Structure) # 1. Global Urbanization > Urbanization. The transition from a rural to an urban society. Statistically, urbanization reflects an increasing proportion of the population living in settlements defined as urban, primarily through net rural to urban migration. The level of urbanization is the percentage of the total population living in towns and cities, while urbanization is the rate at which it grows. > > (UNFPA, 2007). Urbanization has been one of the dominant economic and social changes of the 20th century, especially in the [developing world](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4665). Although cities played a significant role [throughout human history](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4986), it was not until the [Industrial Revolution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4976) that a network of large cities started to emerge in the most economically advanced parts of the world. Innovation diffused through this interconnected network of cities articulating economic development. Since 1950, the world’s urban population has more than doubled, reaching nearly 4.4 billion in 2021, about 56.6% of the global population. This transition is expected to go on well into the second half of the 21st century, a trend reflected in the growing [size of cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4670) and the increasing [proportion of the urbanized population](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4677). By 2050, 70% of the global population could be urbanized, representing 6.4 billion urban residents. Cities also dominate the [national economic output](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=569), accounting for the bulk of production, distribution, and consumption. Global urbanization is the outcome of three main demographic trends: - **Natural increase**. The outcome of more births than deaths in urban areas is a direct function of the fertility rate as well as the quality of healthcare systems (lower mortality rates, particularly for infants). Phases in the demographic transition are commonly linked with urbanization rates, with peak growth years corresponding to large differences between birth and death rates. Although natural increase played an essential role in the past, it is of much lesser importance today as fertility rates in many developed economies have dropped significantly. In some cases, like Western Europe, Japan, and South Korea, fertility is below the replacement rate. Further, fertility rates in cities are usually lower than rural areas, underlining that cities can be seen as engines of demographic decline. - **Rural to urban migrations**. This has been a dominant urbanization factor, particularly in the developing world, where migration accounted for between 40 and 60% of urban growth. Rural-to-urban migration endured through the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. It surged in the first half of the 20th century in the developed world and then in the developing world in the second half of the 20th century. The factors behind rural-to-urban migrations may involve the expectation to find employment, gains in agricultural productivity, which frees rural labor, or even political and environmental problems where populations are constrained to leave the countryside. The industrialization of coastal China and its integration into the global trade system since the 1980s has led to the largest rural-to-urban migration in history, with estimates above 375 million migrants. - **International migration**. The growth in international migration has been an important factor in the urbanization of major gateway cities, such as Los Angeles, Miami, New York, London, and Paris. This process tends to occur in the largest cities, but there is a trickle-down in smaller-sized cities. Through urbanization, fundamental changes in the socio-economic environment of human activities have been observed, with new forms of employment, economic activity, lifestyle, and mobility. What drives urbanization is a complex **mix of economic, demographic, and technological factors**. The growth in GDP per capita is a dominant driver of urbanization, which is supported by corresponding developments in transportation systems. More recently, the [diffusion of air conditioning](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4689) allowed for settlements in high-temperature areas such as in the southwest of the United States or the Middle East (e.g. Dubai). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_urban_population2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Urban Population, 1950-2015 with Projections to 2050 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-urban-population/world_urban_population/)World Urban Population 1950 2015 with Projections to 2050[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/globalization_urbanization.png?resize=900%2C430&ssl=1 "Globalization and Urbanization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/globalization-urbanization/globalization_urbanization/)Globalization and Urbanization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/metropolitan_areas_largest.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Metropolitan Areas with more than 12 million Inhabitants | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/metropolitan-areas-largest/metropolitan_areas_largest/)Metropolitan Areas with more than 12 million Inhabitants 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Cities-1850.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's Largest Cities, 1850 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-largest-cities-1850/map-world-largest-cities-1850/)Worlds Largest Cities 1850[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Cities-2020.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's Largest Cities, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-largest-cities/map-world-largest-cities-2020/)Worlds Largest Cities 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_population_region2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Urban Population by Region | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-population-percentage/urban_population_region/)Urban Population per Region 1950 2030[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/demographic_transition.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Demographic Transition | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/demographic-transition/demographic_transition/)Demographic Transition[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/housing_ac_united_states.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Housing Units Equipped with Air Conditioning by Region in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/air-conditioning-housing-united-states/air_conditionned_usa/)Share of Housing Units Equipped with Air Conditioning United States 1980 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_dichotomy_continuum.png?resize=900%2C503&ssl=1 "Perspectives about the Urban Spatial Structure: From Dichotomy to Continuum | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/dichotomy-continuum-urban-spatial-structure/urban_spatial_structure_continuum/)Perspectives about the Urban Spatial StructureUrban mobility problems have increased proportionally with urbanization, which is associated with two outcomes. First is the emergence of a **network of megacities** that account for the most salient urban mobility challenges. Second, mobility demands tend to be **concentrated over specific urban areas**, such as central business districts and main circulation corridors. Global trends indicate about 50 million new urbanites each year, roughly a million a week. More than 90% of that growth occurs in developing economies, which puts pressure on urban infrastructures, particularly transportation. What is considered urban includes a whole [continuum](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/dichotomy-continuum-urban-spatial-structure/ "Perspectives about the Urban Spatial Structure: From Dichotomy to Continuum") of urban spatial structures, ranging from small towns to large urban agglomerations. This also brings the question of optimal city size since technical limitations (road, utilities) are not much of an impediment to building large cities. Many of the world’s largest cities are challenged because rising operational and infrastructure complexities are not effectively coped with managerial expertise as city size increases. Still, urbanization remains the dominant socioeconomic paradigm associated with improvements in economic development. # 2. The Urban Form Urbanization has been shaped by transport infrastructures, such as roads, transit systems, or simply walkways. Since each city has a different temporal process of accumulation and development of transport infrastructures, there is a wide variety of urban forms, spatial structures, and associated urban transportation systems. > **Urban form**. Refers to the [spatial footprint](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4698) of an urban transport system, which defines the spatial arrangement of cities. > **Urban spatial structure**. Refers to the set of relationships arising out of the urban form and its underlying mobility of passengers and freight. Specific urban structures can be achieved with specific transport systems. Considering transport developments, the urban spatial structure can be [categorized](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4709) by its level of centralization and clustering: - **Centralization**. Refers to the locational setting of activities in relation to the whole urban area. A centralized city has a significant share of its activities within a defined center, while a decentralized city does to a lesser extent. Large employers such as financial institutions are the main drivers of centralization. - **Clustering**. Refers to the locational setting of activities in relation to a specific part of the urban area. A cluster of activities is, therefore, a concentration around a specific focal point, such as a highway interchange, a transit terminal, or a smaller town that has been absorbed by the expansion of the metropolis. Even if the geographical setting of each city varies considerably, the urban form and its spatial structure are [articulated by two structural elements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4713): - **Nodes**. These clusters are reflected in the centrality of urban activities, which can be related to the spatial accumulation of economic activities or accessibility to the transport system. Terminals, such as ports, train stations, railyards, and airports, are important nodes around which activities agglomerate at the local or regional level. Nodes have a hierarchy related to their importance and contribution to urban functions, with high-order nodes such as management and retailing and lower-order nodes such as production and distribution. - **Linkages**. These are the infrastructures supporting mobility between nodes. The lowest level of linkages includes streets, which are the defining elements of the urban spatial structure. There is a hierarchy of linkages from local streets, regional highways, and railways to international connections by air and maritime transport systems. Depending on their nature, urban nodes and linkages provide functional connectivity, implying interdependent urban functions related to trade, management, and production. Thus, urban transportation is associated with a spatial form that [varies according to the modes used](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4720). **Grid street patterns** have endured throughout history, which was the case for many Roman cities built in the 1st century and American cities built in the 20th century. The reasons behind this permanence are relatively simple; a grid pattern jointly optimizes accessibility and available real estate. Still, many cities are not as organized as a grid. They correspond to cities that grew from a constrained location such as a bay, an island, a hill, or a river junction. Local geographical and historical characteristics remain important influences on the urban form. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_form_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C357&ssl=1 "Transportation, Urban Form and Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-form/urban_form_spatial_structure/)Transportation Urban Form and Spatial Structure[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_urban_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C766&ssl=1 "Types of Urban Spatial Structures | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-spatial-structure-types/urban_spatial_structure/)Types of Urban Spatial Structures[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cities_connectivity2.png?resize=900%2C500&ssl=1 "Cities and Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/cities-connectivity/cities_connectivity/)Cities and Connectivity[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/one_hour_commuting.png?resize=900%2C629&ssl=1 "One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/one-hour-commuting/one_hour_commmuting2/)One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/isochrone_manchester_1917.jpg?resize=900%2C862&ssl=1 "Isochrone Map of Manchester 1917 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/isochrone-map-manchester/945cmxv1fmt21/)Isochrone Map of Manchester 1917[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/street_network_types2.png?resize=900%2C486&ssl=1 "Street Network Types | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-types/street_network_types-2/)Street Network Types[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Urban-Density.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Population Density of the World's Largest Metropolitan Areas, 2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/global-urban-density/map-global-urban-density/)Population Density of the Worlds Largest Metropolitan Areas 2012[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/density_distance_city.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Population Density by Distance from City Center, Selected Cities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/distance-density-urban/population_density_distance2/)Population Density by Distance from City Center Selected Cities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_urban_density_america_europe.png?resize=900%2C395&ssl=1 "Evolution of Urban Densities in North America and Europe | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-urban-density/evolution_density/)Evolution of Urban Densities in North America and EuropeIn the 20th century, cities developed a unique spatial structure relying on motorized transportation, particularly the privately owned automobile. This incited a [shift from a grid pattern toward curvilinear and cul-de-sac patterns](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4725) commonly found in suburban areas. **Dispersion,** or **urban sprawl**, is taking place in many different types of cities, from dense, centralized European metropolises such as Madrid, Paris, and London to rapidly industrializing metropolises such as Seoul, Shanghai, and Mexico City, to those experiencing recent and fast urban growth, such as Mumbai, Jakarta, and Lagos. Contemporary urban expansion is strongly shaped by road transportation as the support for mobility with its hierarchy of local streets, connectors, boulevards, and expressways. Therefore, there are significant [differences in the density of cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4731) across the world, in addition to a [variety of density gradients](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4735) observed within cities. The differences are particularly prevalent between [North American and European cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4740). # 3. Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form Urbanization is occurring following the development of urban transport systems, particularly in capacity and efficiency. Historically, movements within cities tended to be mainly restricted to walking, making urban mobility inefficient and time-consuming. Thus, activity nodes tended to be **agglomerated,** and urban forms were **compact with mixed uses**. Many modern cities have inherited an urban form created under such circumstances, even though they are no longer prevailing. The dense urban cores of many European and East Asian cities, for example, enable residents to make between one-third and two-thirds of all trips by walking and cycling. At the other end of the spectrum, the dispersed urban forms of most Australian, Canadian, and American cities, which were built more recently, encourage automobile dependency and are linked with high levels of mobility. Still, Chinese cities have experienced a high level of motorization, implying the potential for convergence toward more uniform urban forms. Many cities are also port cities, with trade playing an enduring role in economic vitality and urban spatial structure, with the port district being an important node. Airport terminals have also been playing a growing role in the urban spatial structure as they can be considered [cities within cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3878). The evolution of transportation has generally led to [changes in urban form](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4720). The more radical the changes in transport technology, the more the alterations in the urban form. Among the most fundamental changes in the urban form is the emergence of [new clusters](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4760) in peripheral areas expressing new urban activities and new relationships between elements of the urban system. Many cities are assuming a **polycentric form**, a change associated with [new mobility patterns](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4992). The **central business district** (CBD), once the primary destination of commuters and serviced by public transportation, has been transformed by new manufacturing, retailing, and management practices. Whereas traditional manufacturing depended on centralized workplaces and transportation, technological and transportation developments rendered modern industry more flexible. In many cases, manufacturing relocated in a **suburban setting**, if not altogether, to entirely **offshore locations**, expanding the reach and connectivity of cities. Retail and office activities are also suburbanizing, producing changes in the urban form. Concomitantly, many important transport terminals, namely port facilities and railyards, have emerged in suburban areas following new requirements in modern freight distribution brought in part by containerization. The urban spatial structure shifted from a nodal to a multi-nodal character, implying new forms of urban development and new connections to regional and global economic processes. Initially, suburban growth mainly occurred adjacent to major road corridors, leaving vacant plots or farmland in between. Later, intermediate spaces were gradually filled up, more or less coherently. Highways and ring roads, which circled and radiated from cities, favored the **development of suburbs** and the emergence of **important sub-centers** that compete with the central business district to attract economic activities. As a result, many new job opportunities shifted to the suburbs, and the activity system of cities has been considerably modified. Depending on the economic sectors they specialize in, cities and even different parts of a metropolitan area can be experiencing development at entirely different rates (or even decline), leading to a highly **heterogeneous urban landscape**. These changes have occurred according to a variety of geographical and economic contexts, notably in North America and Europe, as each subsequent phase of urban transportation developments led to different spatial structures. Sometimes, particularly when new modern urban road infrastructures are built, the subsequent changes in the urban form can be significant. Two processes had a substantial impact on contemporary urban forms: - **Urban sprawl**. Dominant in North America since the end of World War II, where land was abundant, transportation costs were low, and the economy became dominated by tertiary and quaternary activities. Under such circumstances, a strong negative relationship between [urban density and automobile use](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/density-car-use/ "Density and Car Use in Selected Global Cities, 2000s") emerged, involving [energy use for urban mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/urban-density-energy-consumption/ "Urban Density and Energy Consumption"). In the context of cities with high automobile dependency, their built-up areas have grown at a faster rate than their populations, resulting in **declining densities**. In addition, commuting became relatively inexpensive compared with land costs, so households were incentivized to buy lower-priced housing at the urban periphery. Wherever there was motorization, a pattern of sprawl took shape. - **Decentralization**. Resulting in two opposite effects. First, commuting time has remained relatively stable in duration, in the range of one hour per day. Second, commuting increasingly tends to be longer in terms of distance and made by using the automobile rather than by public transit. Most transit and road systems were developed to facilitate suburb-to-city rather than suburb-to-suburb commuting. As a result, suburban highways are often as congested as urban highways. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C480&ssl=1 "Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-spatial-structure-city/spatial_structure_evolution/)Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a City[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_mobility_patterns.png?resize=900%2C782&ssl=1 "Possible Urban Mobility Patterns | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-movement-patterns/urban_mobility_patterns/)Possible Urban Mobility Patterns[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_transportation_urban_form.png?resize=900%2C405&ssl=1 "Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form in North America and Europe | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-transport-urban-form/evolution_transportation_urban_form2/)Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form in North America and Europe[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/density_automobile_use.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Density and Car Use in Selected Global Cities, 2000s | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/density-car-use/density_automobile_use/)Density and Car Use in Selected Global Cities 2000s[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_energy_density_metro.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Urban Density and Energy Consumption | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/urban-density-energy-consumption/transport_energy_density_metro/)Urban Density and Energy Consumption[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/daily_commuting_time_minutes.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Commuting Time (One Way), Selected Metropolitan Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/average-commuting-time/average_communting_time/)Average Commuting Time One Way Selected Metropolitan Areas[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/service_attributes_urban_transportation.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Service Attributes of Urban Transport Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/service-attributes-urban-transport/service_attributes_transport/)Service Attributes of Urban Transport Modes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_transport_development_paths.png?resize=900%2C449&ssl=1 "Urban Transport Development Paths | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-development-paths/urban_development_paths/)Urban Transport Development PathsAlthough transportation systems and travel patterns have changed considerably over time, one enduring feature remains that [most people are willing to travel between 30-40 minutes in one direction](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4778), known as **Marchetti’s constant**. Globally, people spend about 1.2 hours per day commuting, wherever this takes place in a low or high-mobility setting. Different transport technologies, however, are associated with [different travel speeds and capacities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4785). As a result, cities that rely primarily on non-motorized transport tend to be more compact than automobile-dependent cities. Transport technology thus plays a significant role in defining urban form and the spatial pattern of various activities. Still, the evolution of the urban form is **[path-dependent](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4792)**, implying that the current spatial structure is the outcome of past developments but that those developments were strongly related to local conditions involving the setting, physical constraints, and investments in transportation infrastructures. It takes substantial effort and long-term commitment to change the spatial structure of a city noticeably. # 4. The Spatial Constraints of Urban Transportation The amount of urban land allocated to transportation is often correlated with the **level of mobility**. In the pre-automobile era, about 10% of the urban land was devoted to transportation, which was simply roads for pedestrian traffic and common uses. As the mobility of people and freight increased, a growing share of urban areas was allocated to transport and the infrastructures supporting it. Large variations in the footprint of urban transportation are observed between different cities and parts of a city, such as central and peripheral areas. The major components of the footprint of urban transportation are: - **Pedestrian areas**. Refer to the amount of space devoted to walking. This space is often shared with roads as sidewalks may use between 10% and 20% of a road’s right of way. In central areas, pedestrian areas tend to use a greater share of the right of way, and in some instances, whole areas are reserved for pedestrians. However, in a motorized context, most pedestrian areas serve people’s access to transport modes such as parked automobiles. - **Roads and parking areas**. Refer to the amount of space devoted to road transportation, which has two states of activity; moving or parked. In a motorized city, on average, 30% of the surface is devoted to roads, while another 20% is required for off-street parking. This implies for each car, about two off-street and two on-street parking spaces are available. In North American cities, roads and parking lots account for between 30 and 60% of the total surface, a share which is lower elsewhere. - **Micromobility areas**. In a disorganized form, forms of micromobility such as cycling share access to pedestrian and road space. However, many attempts have been made to [create spaces specifically for bicycles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4799), with reserved lanes and parking facilities. The [Netherlands](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1890) has been particularly proactive over this issue, with biking paths and parking areas as active components of the urban transport system; 27% of the total amount of commuting is accounted for by cycling. The diffusion of electric bicycles has given an additional impetus to using bicycles in urban mobility. - **Transit systems**. Many transit systems, such as buses and tramways, share road space with automobiles, which often impairs their respective efficiency. Attempts to mitigate congestion have created road lanes reserved for buses permanently or temporarily (during rush hour). Other transport systems, such as subways and rail, have their infrastructures and, consequently, their rights of way. - **Transport terminals**. Refer to the space devoted to terminal facilities such as ports, airports, transit stations, railyards, and distribution centers. Globalization has increased the mobility of people and freight, and, consequently, the footprint required to support those activities. Many major terminals are located in the peripheral areas of cities, the only locations where sufficient amounts of land are available. The spatial importance of each transport mode varies according to several factors, density being the most important. Further, each transport mode has [unique performance and space consumption characteristics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4805). The most relevant example is the automobile. It requires space to move around (roads), but it also spends 98% of its existence stationary in a parking space. Consequently, a significant amount of urban space must be allocated to accommodate the automobile, especially when it does not move and is thus economically and socially useless. In large urban agglomerations, close to all the available street parking space in areas of average density and above is occupied throughout the day. At an aggregate level, measures reveal a significant footprint of road transportation among developed countries. In the United States, more land is thus used for the automobile than housing. In Western Europe, roads account for between 15% and 20% of the urban surface, while for developing economies, this figure is about 10% but rising fast due to motorization. [![Pedestrian Cycling Road Amsterdam](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pedestrian_cycling_road_amsterdam.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Pedestrian, Cycling and Road Spaces, Amsterdam, Netherlands | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/pedestrian-cycling-amsterdam/amspedescycl/)Pedestrian Cycling and Road Spaces Amsterdam Netherlands[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/performance_urban_transport_mode2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Performance of Urban Transport Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-modes-performance/performance_urban_transport_mode/)Performance of Urban Transport Modes# 5. Transportation and the Urban Structure Urbanization involves an increased number of trips occurring in urban areas. Cities have traditionally responded to the growth in mobility by **expanding the transportation supply** by building new highways and transit lines. This has mainly meant building more roads to accommodate an ever-growing number of vehicles. Several **urban spatial structures** have accordingly emerged, with the reliance on the automobile being the most important discriminatory factor. [Four major types](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4817) can be identified at the metropolitan scale: - **Type I. Completely Motorized Network**. Representing an automobile-dependent city with limited centrality and dispersed activities. - **Type II. Weak Center**. Representing a spatial structure where many activities are located in the periphery. - **Type III. Strong Center**. Representing high-density urban centers with well-developed public transit systems. - **Type IV. Traffic Limitation**. Representing urban areas that have implemented traffic control and modal preference in their spatial structure. Commonly, the central area is dominated by public transit. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_spatial_structure_transportation.png?resize=900%2C505&ssl=1 "Transportation and the Urban Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-spatial-structure/transport_urban_structure_types/)Transportation and the Urban Spatial Structure[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/street_network_orientation.png?resize=900%2C424&ssl=1 "Street Network Orientation, Selected Cities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-orientation-selected-cities/street_network_orientation/)Street Network Orientation Selected CitiesAnother aspect of the relationship between transportation and the urban spatial structure involves the **orientation** of the networks and their **level of entropy**. Around the world, cities tend to have a [cardinal orientation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-orientation-selected-cities/ "Street Network Orientation, Selected Cities"), underlining the influence of a frame of reference dominated by the north, allowing setting grids or streets. Over time, entropy (disorder) has declined as contemporary cities or neighborhoods tend to have car-oriented grids instead of the organic distribution of streets and alleys of pre-industrial cities. There are [different scales](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4842) where transportation systems influence the structure of communities, districts, and the whole metropolitan area. For instance, one of the most significant impacts of transportation on the urban structure has been the **clustering of activities** near areas of high accessibility. The impact of transport on the spatial structure is particularly evident in the emergence of **suburbia**, a process that occurs in every major metropolitan area worldwide. Although many other factors are important in its development, including low land costs, available land (large lots), environmental considerations (clean and quiet), safety, and car-oriented services (shopping malls), the footprint of the automobile is dominant. The automobile is also linked with changes in street layouts. While older parts of cities tend to have a conventional grid layout, from the 1930s, new suburbs started to be designed in a curvilinear fashion, including some cul-de-sacs (dead ends). By the 1950s, the prevailing design for new suburbs was privileging cul-de-sacs. Although the aim was to create a more private and safe environment, particularly in cul-de-sac sections, the outcome was also a growing sense of isolation and car use. With the expansion of urban areas, congestion, and the increasing importance of inter-urban movements, the existing structure of urban roads was considered inadequate. Several [ring roads](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ring-road/ "The Rationale of a Ring Road") have been built around major cities and have become an important attribute of their spatial structures. Highway interchanges in suburban areas are notable examples of [clusters of urban development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/suburban-development-highway-interchange/ "Suburban Development along a Highway Interchange") that have shaped the multicentric character of many cities. The extension (and the over-extension) of urban areas have created what may be called peri-urban areas. They are located well outside the urban core and the suburbs but within reasonable commuting distances; the term “edge cities” has been used to label a cluster of urban development in suburban settings. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/scale_urban_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C552&ssl=1 "Scale and Urban Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/scale-urban-spatial-structure/urban_spatial_structure_scale/)Scale and Urban Spatial Structure[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rationale_ring_road.png?resize=900%2C442&ssl=1 "The Rationale of a Ring Road | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ring-road/ring_road_rationale/)The Rationale of a Ring Road[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/suburban_development_highway_interchange.png?resize=900%2C538&ssl=1 "Suburban Development along a Highway Interchange | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/suburban-development-highway-interchange/structure_suburban_development/)Suburban Development along an Highway Interchange--- ## Related Topics - [8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4613) - [8.3 – Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4617) - [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621) - [2.2 – Transport and Spatial Organization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1006) - [2.3 – Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1498) - [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3009) - [4.3 – Transportation, Land Use and the Environment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5721) ## Bibliography - Berry, B.J.L. (1964) “Cities as Systems within Systems of Cities”, Papers in Regional Science, Vol. 13, No. 1., pp. 147-205. - Boarnet, M. G. and Crane, R. (2001) Travel by Design: The Influence of Urban Form on Travel. New York: Oxford University Press. - Boeing, G. (2019) “Urban spatial order: street network orientation, configuration, and entropy”. Appl Netw Sci 4, 67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41109-019-0189-1 - Camagni, R., M.C. Gibelli and P. Rigamonti (2002) “Urban Mobility and Urban Form: the Social and Environmental Costs of Different Patterns of Urban Expansion”, Ecological Economics, Vol. 40, pp. 199–216. - Carter, H. (1995) *The Study of Urban Geography*, Fourth Edition, London: Arnold. - Cavailhès, J., C. Gaigné, T. Tabuchi, J-F Thisse (2006) “Trade and the structure of cities”, Journal of Urban Economics, Vol. 62, No. 3, pp. 383-404. - Chen, X., A.M. Orum, and K.E. Paulsen (2013) An Introduction to Cities: How Place and Space Shape Human Experience, Chichester: Wiley- Blackwell. - Crawford, J.H. (2005) [A Brief History of Urban Form: Street Layout Through the Ages](http://www.carfree.com/papers/huf.html). - Docherty, I., G. Giuliano and D. Houston (2008) Connected Cities, in R.D. Knowles, J. Shaw and I. Docherty (eds) Transport Geographies: Mobilities, Flows and Spaces, London: Blackwell, pp. 83-101. - Ewing, R. and R. Cervero (2001) “Travel and the Built Environment: a Synthesis”, Transportation Research Record 1780, pp. 87-114. - Gottmann, J. (1961) Megalopolis: The Urbanized Northeast Seaboard of the United States, New York: Twentieth Century Fund. - Giuliano, G. and S. Hanson (eds) (2017) The Geography of Urban Transportation, 4th Edition, New York: The Guilfold Press. - Hall, T. and H. Barrett (2017) Urban Geography, 5th Edition, Abingdon: Routledge. - Isard, W. (1956) Location and Space-Economy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - Jones, G.M. and M. Douglass (2008) “Mega-urban Regions in Pacific Asia: Urban Dynamics in a Global Era”, Singapore: NUS Press. - Kaplan, D. and S. Holloway (2014) Urban Geography, Third Edition, New York: Wiley. - Kostof, S. (1992) The City Assembled: The Elements of Urban Form Through History, London: Thames and Hudson. - McNeil, D. (2017) Global Cities and Urban Theory, London: SAGE. - Mieszkowski, P. and E.S. Mills (1993) “The Causes of Metropolitan Suburbanization”, The Journal of Economic Perspectives Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 135-147. - Muller, P.O. (2017) “Transportation and Urban Form: Stages in the Spatial Evolution of the American Metropolis”, in G. Giuliano and S. Hanson (eds) The Geography of Urban Transportation, 4th Edition, New York: Guilford, pp. 57-85. - Mulley, C. (ed) (2013) Urban Form and Transport Accessibility, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. - Pacione, M. (2009) Urban Geography: A Global Perspective, London: Routledge. - Scott, A.J. (ed) (2001) Global City Regions. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. - Scott, A. J. (2019) “City-regions reconsidered”, Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 51(3), 554–580. - Seto, K.C. (2011) “Exploring the dynamics of migration to mega-delta cities in Asia and Africa: Contemporary drivers and future scenarios”, Global Environmental Change. 21(S1), pp. S94-S107. - Thomson, J. M. (1977) Great Cities and Their Traffic. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Density and Car Use in Selected Global Cities, 2000s](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/density-car-use/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/density_automobile_use.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Density and Car Use in Selected Global Cities, 2000s | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Density and Car Use in Selected Global Cities 2000s*Source: Millennium Cities Database for Sustainable Transport.* The strong association between density (number of people per hectare) and car use (share of car use for commuting) indicates that modal preference, urban form, and density are closely related. For Houston and Los Angeles, dispersed developments and low densities leave limited choices other than car usage, denser locations such as Paris and London have many more alternatives. The challenge of many cities wishing to address car dependency is to offer development plans that meet the mobility demands of their populations while increasing density. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/density-car-use/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/density-car-use/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/density-car-use/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/density-car-use/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.21 - The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/) **Published:** February 20, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ##### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Regional Setting](#1_Regional_Setting) - [2. Infrastructure Developments](#2_Infrastructure_Developments) - [3. Terminal Facilities of the Port Authority](#3_Terminal_Facilities_of_the_Port_Authority) - [4. Land Transportation and Other Assets](#4_Land_Transportation_and_Other_Assets) # 1. Regional Setting The role of New York as **one of the world’s truly [global cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1427)** and the main gateway of the Eastern Seaboard of North America is widely acknowledged. This role, which emerged at the beginning of the 19th century, was mainly the consequence of the **advantages of its port location**. New York’s hinterland includes the resource-rich regions of America’s heartland, accessed through the [Erie Canal](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1135) that opened between 1821 and 1825. The canal linked New York to Albany to Buffalo and initiated a new era of growth for inland freight transportation. At that time, New York was only the fifth largest American seaport, behind Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New Orleans. By 1850, New York evolved to become the **most active port in the United States**, as well as its primate city handling maritime traffic greater than Boston, Baltimore, and New Orleans combined. The later part of the 19th century focused on rail infrastructure developments, undermining the importance of the canal system, but confirming the function of **New York as a hub of the national transport system**. The growth of port activities went on par with the consolidation of foreign trade, wholesaling, financial, shipbuilding, and industrial activities and making New York the immigration gateway of North America. Since the New York harbor and the lower Hudson River are the boundaries between New York and New Jersey states, port development occurred under different jurisdictions. This process led to conflicts between the two states concerning the usage and jurisdiction of harbor facilities along the Hudson River, which by the early 20th century have become increasingly difficult to manage. In 1917, as the United States entered the First World War, an interstate conflict arose over the issue of rail freight rates. Most of the rail lines coming from the west ended on the New Jersey side of the harbor while most ocean shipping was calling from Manhattan and Brooklyn. Freight had to be transferred on barges across the Hudson, exacerbating delays and congestion in the harbor. New Jersey petitioned the **Interstate Commerce Commission** to lower rail freight rates on its side of the Hudson in order to attract more port calls, but was overruled on the ground that the whole region was one functioning harbor. This was the stepping stone that led to the creation of the port authority, modeled after London’s. The **Port of New York Authority was founded in 1921** to settle these disputes, which makes it a unique governance case as it spans two powerful states. Until the 1960s, port activities expanded as New York and the eastern seaboard became one of the world’s major industrial regions. However, this situation changed, and New York has intensively de-industrialized since then, implying that its export function has decreased. After a period of relative stagnation, which roughly lasted from the 1970s to the late 1980s, the metropolitan area undertook an unprecedented phase of economic growth in the mid-1990s, with growing local consumption. About 80% of the new employment is service-related, underlining a dependency on external markets to supply commodities and raw materials. New York spurred a new wave of development, increasingly leaning on global activities, such as finance and banking, international investments, information technologies, and marketing and media activities. This situation has incited inbound cargo demands for port activities, notably containerized cargo. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Cities-Index-2012.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World Cities, 2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-city-index/map-world-cities-index-2012-png/)World Cities 2012[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map_panynj.png?resize=830%2C1024&ssl=1 "Facilities of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/facilities-port-authority-new-york-map/map_panynj-2/)Facilities of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/eriecanal1829.jpg?resize=776%2C588&ssl=1 "Erie Canal, New York, 1829 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/erie-canal-1829/eriecanal1829/)Erie Canal New York 1829The PANYNJ concerns a **region of about 1,500 square miles** (3,880 sq. km) centered around the New York Harbor (about 25 miles of radius). Under this jurisdiction, it benefits from a very broad governance mandate where it can undertake **any project concerning any transport mode** as long as it would promote commerce, trade and public good. This jurisdiction can also influence infrastructure development within the periphery. For instance, the Tappan Zee Bridge is crossing the Hudson River just outside the jurisdiction of the port authority, but at an unsuitable site (the second widest segment of the Hudson River). This was done so that the New York State Thruway Authority would collect all the toll revenues. To finance its activities, the PANYNJ can **issue bonds, charge user fees and collect rent, which places it under the conventional landlord model.** Concerning its mandate and the governance structure it has established, the PANYNJ cannot be considered solely from a port and maritime transportation perspective, as it has vested interests over non-maritime activities, all of which account for an impressive [portfolio of facilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9550). # 2. Infrastructure Developments To service the needs of the regional economy, the PANYNJ has undertaken, since its inception, the development of many infrastructure projects covering several modes, each linked with the perceived priority of the time. The most noteworthy achievements of the port authority in its early years (the 1920s – 1930s) were not the development of port terminals, but the construction or the take over of a succession of **bridges and tunnels linking the two states**, an urgent need on which both sides of the Hudson agreed. Goethals Bridge and Outerbridge Crossing were the first to be constructed (1928), followed by George Washington and Bayonne Bridges (1931). These projects were completed before time and below estimated costs, which boosted the reputation of the PANYNJ as an efficient legal and administrative body. The PANYNJ also received the jurisdiction of the Holland Tunnel in 1930 (completed in 1927) and opened the Lincoln tunnel in 1937, which directly serviced high-density Manhattan midtown and downtown areas. The issue of connectivity between New York and New Jersey was thus addressed, by road if not by rail. The post-World War II era marked tremendous technological and spatial changes for transport activities in New York, mainly with the **development of air transport terminals**, which jurisdiction the PANYNJ inherited. By 1948, the PANYNJ was responsible for New York’s three major airports, Newark, La Guardia, and John F. Kennedy. These it began to transform into world-class terminals. A major shift was also in the making for maritime transportation. Most port terminals were relocated from the general cargo wharves of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Hoboken, and Jersey City to specialized and more spacious terminals at Port Elizabeth, Newark, Red Hook, and Howland Hook. By the early 1980s, **almost all maritime cargo transshipment in Manhattan ceased** and traffic was dominantly handled in New Jersey and Staten Island, a [complete reversal in the port’s geography of freight](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9561). Most, if not all, port activities were thus disconnected from the traditional urban core and relocated towards peripheral settings having higher accessibility to rail and interstate road infrastructures. The **first dedicated container terminal in the world**, the Elizabeth-Port Authority Marine Terminal, opened in 1962. The 1950s and 1960s saw a **commitment to public transit** with the opening of the Port Authority Bus Terminal (1950), the Port Authority Trans Hudson railway (PATH, 1962), and the George Washington Bridge Bus Terminal (1963). New York, like all American cities, was suburbanizing, a growing demand for passenger movements between both sides of the Hudson was being felt. The PANYNJ deemed it had the responsibility to help accommodate this increase in interstate interactions. This focus also reflected a shift in priority in American land transportation development with the funding of regional and national highway systems, which accelerated in the 1950s with the construction of the Interstate system. In the 1970s and 1980s, as New York’s economy was compromised by de-industrialization and the flight of head offices of major corporations, the PANYNJ became more specifically **involved in regional economic development** with the construction of the World Trade Center (1970), the setting of industrial and telecommunication parks and of a power plant (1990). Containerization has been another dominant paradigm shift in maritime transportation over the last 30 years and has triggered a phase of port restructuring. On this issue, the PANYNJ has had a tradition of innovation and adaptation, since the first containership called from New York in 1956, and the **first specialized container terminal** was constructed at Port Elizabeth, New Jersey in 1962. By the 1970s, New York was the largest container port in the world, handling just under 1 million TEUs in 1975, 1.9 million in 1980, and 2.3 million in 1985. From this peak, a period of stagnation and relative decline endured as New York was handling roughly the same amount of containerized traffic in the early 1990s (1.8 million TEUs) as it did in the early 1980s. While the decline of the port of New York during that period can be attributed to international trade changes, which are factors outside local control, local factors such as inadequate intermodal rail access and high labor costs played a significant role in its demise. Meanwhile, Pacific Asian container ports boomed and topped New York. Similar growth and surpassing of New York occurred at the Pacific Coast ports such as Los Angeles and Long Beach. Even if containerization resulted in significant productivity gains, these gains were not uniformly achieved. Newer container handling facilities had an advantage in terms of the quality of their infrastructures as well as room for development. It is worth noting that most of these ports, especially Hong Kong and Singapore, are transshipment ports deriving the bulk of their activities from their intermediate functions. While intermediate ports are more linked to business cycles of the global economy, a port such as New York is more linked to the cycles of its regional economy. Nevertheless, from the mid-1990s, [containerized traffic boomed](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9566), more than doubling between 1995 and 2005. The expansion of the Panama Canal in 2016 has made New York a port of call for ships above 5,000 TEU of capacity originating from East Asia. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trafficshiftportofnynj.png?resize=850%2C518&ssl=1 "Distribution of General Cargo Operations, Port of New York, 1959, 1987 and 2000 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/cargo-operations-port-new-york/trafficshiftportofnynj-2/)Distribution of General Cargo Operations Port of New York 1959 1987 and 2000[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containertrafficnynj.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "Container Traffic Handled by the Port of New York, 1991-2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/container-traffic-port-new-york/containertrafficnynj-2/)Container Traffic Handled by the Port of New York 1991 2016# 3. Terminal Facilities of the Port Authority The New York metropolitan area is a market gateway, implying that most of the passenger and freight traffic originates from or is bound to the vicinity. Although the domestic air market is very well serviced, the hubbing function of New York is not very pronounced. The same applies to the port terminals where the share of transshipment is negligible, and the great majority of the [port hinterland](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9579) is within one day of drayage. **Three major airports** are serving the metropolitan area; Newark Liberty International (EWR), John F Kennedy (JFK), and La Guardia (LAG). They form an equilateral triangle, with Manhattan roughly being the center, implying that every single airport is a reasonable option for the population living in central areas. Although each airport does not handle traffic large enough to place them among the world’s top 10, their [combined air passenger traffic](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/passengers-airports-new-york/ "Passengers Handled at New York’s Major Airports, 1989-2022") is above 120 million, granting the port authority the status of the largest direct overseer of air traffic in the world. This confers New York as a global air transport hub ranking, alongside London, Paris, and Tokyo which have respectively a considerably larger main airport terminal (Heathrow, Charles de Gaulle, and Haneda). There is also a small airport facility at Teterboro (TEB) that mostly handles private jets and the Stewart International Airport (SWF) that may become, in the long term, New York’s fourth major airport. A substantial amount of [air cargo](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9589) transits through the airports, notably through JFK and EWR. The consumption market of the region and its high-end services industries generate large quantities of air cargo. Both the passenger and air cargo businesses account for more than 50% of the PANYNJ revenue. Because of the significant growth in air transportation that has taken place since the airport terminals were designed and constructed, they have found themselves increasingly ill-fitted to service modern airport operations of a global city. For instance, the PANYNJ has addressed the problem of connectivity between its two main airports and Manhattan, which could only be reached by road transportation. AirTrain services connecting the Newark airport with regional rail transit opened in late 2001, and another service between JFK and rail access to Manhattan opened in 2003. JFK has also undertaken a **massive upgrade of its terminals**, some were torn down and rebuilt as new facilities. In 2010, one of its main runways was enlarged to accommodate larger airplanes and to improve its durability (concrete instead of asphalt). The ongoing information technology upgrade of the American airspace, dubbed Nextgen, is particularly important for New York because the three airports are impairing their respective approach and take-off vectors because of their proximity. In 2016 upgrade and renovation work began at LaGuardia so that one of America’s oldest commercial airports can be redesigned to meet 21st century operating standards. This involves redesigning the terminal facilities into a single continuous terminal with improved runways and taxiing areas. Work was completed in 2022. The port of New York / New Jersey handles about 31% of the cargo on the American East Coast, but the traffic is highly localized. Only 20% of the cargo is bound for regions outside the port’s immediate hinterland (New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut). Maritime terminals include seven public terminals, most of them located along the New York Harbor and Newark Bay, and are leased by the PANYNJ through long-term concession agreements. They include Port Elizabeth (Maher Terminals and Port Elizabeth Terminal; APM), Port Newark (Port Newark Container Terminal; Ports America), Howland Hook (New York Container Terminal; OOCL), Red Hook, Global Marine Terminal (containers), Auto Marine Terminal (vehicles) and South Brooklyn Marine Terminal (warehousing). The port authority thus has a typical landlord business model, leaving terminal operations to private companies. An ongoing priority is improving the efficiency of the port hinterland and regional distribution. The terminals generate a large number of daily truck flows, often exacerbating local and regional congestion, despite the main terminals (Port Newark and Port Elizabeth) being located next to one of the widest highways in North America (12 lanes for the adjacent segment). In the 2000s, the port authority tried developing a [Port Inland Distribution Network](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9594) with the setting of inland container distribution centers, namely through barge and rail services. The strategy was partially effective as barge services were mostly abandoned. The port authority has invested in recent years in [on-dock rail facilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9603) to favor the usage of rail to service the hinterland, a strategy that turned out to be effective. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hinterland_NYNJ.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Inland Flows, Port of New York c2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-new-york-hinterland/panynj_hinterland-2/)Inland Flows Port of New York c2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_elizabeth_new_jersey_panynj.png?resize=900%2C570&ssl=1 "Port Elizabeth Intermodal Complex, Port of New York / New Jersey | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-elizabeth-intermodal-complex/port_elizabeth_new_jersey_panynj/)Port Elizabeth Intermodal Complex Port of New York New Jersey[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passengers_new_york_airports.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Passengers Handled at New York's Major Airports, 1989-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/passengers-airports-new-york/passenger_air_new_york/)Passengers Handled at New Yorks Major Airports 1989 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_new_york_airports.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Freight handled at New York's Major Airports, 1985-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/freight-airports-new-york/freight_air_new_york/)Freight handled at New Yorks Major Airports 1985 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/PIDN.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "Port Inland Distribution Network of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/port-inland-distribution-network-new-york/pidn/)Port Inland Distribution Network of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/PANYNJ_expresslift.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "On-Dock Rail Lifts, Port of New York, 1991-2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/expressrail-port-new-york-lifts/panynj_expresslift/)On Dock Rail Lifts Port of New York 1991 2016A significant problem related to the future growth of the port concerns its capability to accommodate larger containerships, particularly the post-Panamax class that requires at least 45 feet. In 2011, the dredging of a 50-foot channel servicing the main container terminals was completed. By 2014, the clearance of the major navigation channels of the port to a depth of 50 feet was completed. Yet, the clearance of about 155 feet permitted by the Bayonne Bridge (built in 1931) over the Kill Van Kull channel linking the harbor to the major container terminal facilities of Port Newark and Port Elizabeth was not sufficient. In 2013, a project to raise the bridge to a clearance of 215 feet was put underway, which was completed in 2017. All of the above conferred New York the status of a post-Panamax port able to accommodate ships of 14,000 TEU and above. # 4. Land Transportation and Other Assets The non-terminal assets of the port authority are substantial, starting with **bridges and tunnels**. The PANYNJ operates all river crossings between the city of New York and the state of New Jersey. Together, they carry more than 250 million vehicular crossings each year, and the George Washington Bridge is the most heavily used in the world, with about 300,000 crossings a day. To improve regional vehicle circulation efficiency, the PANYNJ has implemented since 1997, in collaboration with several State and transportation authorities, an electronic toll system (E-Zpass). Many tolls have been upgraded to electronic operations only, implying that vehicles not having an electronic tag have their license plates scanned, and the toll billed to the address of the registered vehicle. The port authority also operates large **public transit** assets, mostly including the PATH (Port Authority Trans Hudson), the Port Authority Bus Terminal and the George Washington Bridge Bus Station. The PATH heavy rail line, which began in 1908 as the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, links New Jersey with downtown Manhattan and carries around 90 million passengers per year. The Port Authority Bus Terminal handles over 2.3 million bus movements and 65 million passengers per year. On a typical weekday, approximately 8,000 buses and 225,000 people use the bus terminal. Because the George Washington Bridge Bus Station is more oriented towards longer-distance commuting, its traffic figures are lower. Even so, it handled 6.2 million passengers in 2007. **Regional development initiatives** include industrial parks (Bathgate in the Bronx and Elizabeth, New Jersey) and commercial developments offering office space (the Staten Island Teleport and the Legal Center, New Jersey), and the One World Trade Center office complex. This building is the tallest in the Western Hemisphere and opened in 2014 on the site of the World Trade Center destroyed during the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. The PANYNJ is also involved in two waterfront development projects that contribute to reducing inner-urban problems by converting centrally located maritime terminals to mixed urban land use. The power plant’s contribution to regional development is via sustainability: on average, 2,500 tons of refuse are converted into electricity every day. Since its inception, the PANYNJ continuously expanded its assets. Doing so, it provided New York with an **extensive array of terminals handling freight and passengers**. New York could not have become a global city without the transshipment and distribution capabilities provided by these projects. The PANYNJ has grown along considerably and exercises a **sizable influence over the city’s transport system**. --- ## Related Topics - [Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3235) - [Transport Terminal Governance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3904) - [Transport Corridors in North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7652) ## Bibliography - Doig, J.W. (2001) Empire on the Hudson: Entrepreneurial Vision and Political Power at the Port of New York Authority, New York: Columbia University Press. - Levinson, M. (2006) “Container Shipping and the Decline of New York, 1955-1975”, The Business History Review, Vol. 80, No. 1, pp. 49-80. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Freight handled at New York’s Major Airports, 1985-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/freight-airports-new-york/) **Published:** February 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_new_york_airports.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Freight handled at New York's Major Airports, 1985-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Freight handled at New Yorks Major Airports 1985 2022*Source: PANYNJ.* JFK (John F Kennedy) and EWR (Newark Liberty International) are the two major freight airports servicing the New York metropolitan area. While the amount of air cargo fluctuates according to economic cycles (growth and recessions), it has leveled off since the beginning of the 21st century, with New York losing market share. One of the main factors behind this trend relates to the ongoing offshoring of the technology-related industries that are users of air freight in the area (e.g. pharmaceuticals). Another, is the decline of postal letters because of the diffusion of information technologies. Further, road accessibility to the airports, particularly JFK, is complex, and many of the air cargo facilities are obsolete. Still, New York remains one of the world’s most significant freight gateways, representing a major consumption market of high-value freight carried by air cargo. The air cargo function became particularly prevalent after the COVID-19 pandemic, which was associated with an initial decline and then a surge in cargo activity. Like most airports worldwide, [passenger traffic was negatively impacted](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/passengers-airports-new-york/ "Passengers Handled at New York’s Major Airports, 1989-2022"), while freight activity in most cases remained stable. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/freight-airports-new-york/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/freight-airports-new-york/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/freight-airports-new-york/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/freight-airports-new-york/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Passengers Handled at New York's Major Airports, 1989-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/passengers-airports-new-york/) **Published:** February 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passengers_new_york_airports.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Passengers Handled at New York's Major Airports, 1989-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Passengers Handled at New Yorks Major Airports 1989 2022*Source: PANYNJ.* The three major airports of the metropolitan area of New York, LaGuardia (LGA), Newark Liberty International (EWR), and John F Kennedy (JFK), jointly handle more than 120 million passengers annually, making New York among the top 5 air transport markets in the world. Traffic handled by the airports has experienced ongoing growth interrupted by periods of recession (1990-92, 2001-03, and 2008-10) and the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-21). EWR and JFK cover an extensive array of international services, albeit EWR has a higher domestic orientation than JFK. LGA tends to cover almost exclusively domestic traffic but has links with Canada (mostly Montreal and Toronto) and the Caribbean, where airports have [border pre-clearance facilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3873). While LGA is the closest airport to Manhattan, it has limited room for expansion, and it cannot serviced by wide-body aircraft due to the limited length of its runways. Over a 20-year period, its traffic has remained relatively constant. However, in 2020, LGA undertook a massive renovation of its aging terminals, completed in 2022. The convenience offered by the new terminal facilities was a major factor in the fast recovery of its passenger traffic after the COVID-19 pandemic. Stewart International Airport (SWF) is comparatively marginal, handling about half a million passengers annually. It is expected that SWF would capture additional traffic from the growth of air travel in the New York metropolitan area, but this expectation has so far remained unrealized. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/passengers-airports-new-york/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/passengers-airports-new-york/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/passengers-airports-new-york/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/port-authority-new-york-new-jersey/passengers-airports-new-york/?share=reddit) - --- ### [C.2 – The Urban Freight Landscape](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/) **Published:** January 3, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Genevieve Giuliano and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The urban freight landscape is the spatial distribution of the factors generating freight within an area, including regulations, infrastructures, and mobility options. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Defining the Freight Landscape](#1_Defining_the_Freight_Landscape) - [2. Urban Density and Freight](#2_Urban_Density_and_Freight) - [3. Convergence and Divergence](#3_Convergence_and_Divergence) # 1. Defining the Freight Landscape City logistics involve a **diversity of urban freight distribution systems** with different purposes, modes of operation, and locational characteristics. The urban spatial structure remains a key element of city logistics since variations in this spatial structure will be associated with different city logistics contexts and strategies. City size and complexity are interrelated, with large metropolitan areas having a complex spatial structure in terms of the range of socio-economic activities and their organization. The **scale effect** in city logistics remains prominent. The spatial structure of freight activities in urban areas thus has a significant imprint on urban land use in the form of terminals, distribution centers, and other major facilities supporting logistics. Freight-related activities, locational behavior, and circulation remain relatively absent from urban planning concerns. > The **freight landscape** is representative of the spatial distribution of freight activity and intensity within metropolitan areas. It expresses the urban spatial structure and the socio-economic function of the city, considering the context in which urban freight distribution takes place with attributes such as the spatial distribution and the density of the demand for freight and the related freight flows. It is a [multidimensional concept](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/freight-landscape-multidimensional-concept/ "The Freight Landscape: A Multidimensional Concept") composed of several interrelated landscapes: - **Political Landscape**. Urban areas are among the most complex and regulated areas where local and global interests interact. The array of jurisdictions and regulations impacting the locational and operational behavior of freight distribution. This can involve zoning and building codes, operating hours, tolls, licenses, parking, and delivery conditions, and even restrictions concerning the use of vehicles and fuels. - **Socioeconomic Landscape**. The distribution and organization of land uses, mostly in terms of population and employment densities, reflecting the economic and social functions of the city. Cities are commonly organized around commercial, institutional, residential, manufacturing, and logistics districts. These are the main generators and attractors of freight flows. - **Infrastructure Landscape**. Transportation infrastructure is supporting urban freight flows, which is primarily contingent upon the structure and the capacity of the road transport system. Freight terminals, such as ports, rail yards, and airports, are also important components of this landscape, with many cities acting as commercial gateways to global trade. Less visible, but as important, telecommunication networks support the transactional intensiveness of logistics. - **Mobility Landscape**. Represents the dynamic aspect of city logistics in terms of freight flows and the means that carry freight, which includes a range of vehicles, technologies, routes, scheduling, pickups, and deliveries. The freight landscape can help understand changes in the spatial distribution of urban freight activities, particularly in terms of the main drivers of these changes and their outcomes on the urban spatial structure. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_landscape_multidimensional.png?resize=900%2C415&ssl=1 "The Freight Landscape: A Multidimensional Concept | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Freight Landscape A Multidimensional Concept![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_density_mobility_freight_deliveries.png?resize=900%2C437&ssl=1 "Relationship between Urban Density, Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight Deliveries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Relationship between Urban Density Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight Deliveries# 2. Urban Density and Freight A prevalent perspective concerning urban planning is that higher densities are preferable since they generate various economies. For instance, higher densities are more readily serviced by retail activities and public transit. Achieving higher densities is perceived to be a suitable goal for more sustainable cities. Arguments over the advantages of higher densities with regard to energy consumption and infrastructure provision are common. The concept of smart growth further expanded the density perspective into a more comprehensive planning framework. However, from a freight distribution perspective density is an [important structural element of city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/relationship-urban-density-urban-mobility-and-commercial-freight-deliveries/ "Relationship between Urban Density, Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight Deliveries"), but with several diseconomies associated with higher densities. As such, the density perspective differs between the conventional planning discourse and city logistics. High concentration levels generate conflicts between freight and passenger transportation, induce congestion, pollution, noise, and higher levels of energy consumption and risks of accidents. All of these are associated with higher delivery costs. However, the relationship between density and delivery costs is nonlinear. In a low-density setting, such as rural or low-density suburban areas, delivery costs per unit are higher due to the longer average delivery distances. The same number of deliveries requires longer distances, which is compounded by more separated pickup or delivery points. In a medium-density suburban setting, delivery costs are lower as shorter distances are observed while very few constraints are still impacting mobility. There is limited congestion, and parking for deliveries is rarely an issue since space can readily be found. Additional opportunities for cargo consolidation are present as well. As density increases, however, a set of constraints becomes more prevalent, particularly as it relates to parking, which incites the use of specialized vehicles having less capacity despite a higher demand density; consolidating cargo becomes more challenging. The number of deliveries increases as well as its costs. # 3. Convergence and Divergence In metropolitan areas, there are usually large clusters of freight generators, such as employment zones, logistics zones, and terminal facilities, which are usually the outcome of economies of agglomeration. A particular attention is placed upon the circumstances where population and employment densities either converge or diverge and how this is reflective of different freight landscapes. If these densities are plotted along two axis (population and employment), [four specific quadrants can be identified](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/depicting-freight-landscape/ "Depicting the Freight Landscape"), each characterized by a general level of convergence/divergence: - **High-density convergence**. Commercial and financial districts where retail and service activities are related to high employment densities. Further, apartment complexes are associated with high population densities, underlining the mix of population and employment in the same geographical unit, which is characteristic of this form of convergence. The outcome of this convergence is a complex city logistics framework (even a patchwork) that includes courier services, retail logistics, food deliveries (restaurants and groceries) as well as home deliveries. The mix of these activities and the associated complexity in the freight demand has incited the setting of city logistics regulations, particularly in central areas, since they are the most difficult to serve. The quadrant is thus the focus of most city logistics strategies. - **Employment-based divergence**. Manufacturing and warehousing districts with high employment densities, including transport terminals such as warehouse clusters, airports, ports, and rail yards. This divergence is partly driven by externalities (less appeal for housing), regulations, and planning (defined manufacturing and logistics districts). The dominant city logistics activity is freight distribution, and the haulage (Full Truck Load, Less than Truck Load) flows it entails. The freight flows are further differentiated if they concern upstream or downstream segments of supply chains. - **Population-based divergence**. Specialized residential districts (often planned) with lower employment levels, focusing on retail logistics and home deliveries. The growth of e-commerce has resulted in new forms of urban freight distribution in residential areas where parcel deliveries are becoming more dominant. - **Low-density convergence**. Various forms of peri-urban and suburban activities, which are usually a mix of low-density residential areas, malls, and some light manufacturing or distribution clusters. In this quadrant, there is no particular city logistics activity, but simply regular distribution which takes place unhindered. This is the realm of suburban logistics, large distribution, and fulfillment centers, a growing feature of large metropolitan areas across the world. An overview of the freight landscape in three major metropolitan areas ([New York](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/new-york-freight-landscape/ "New York Freight Landscape"), [Los Angeles](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/los-angeles-freight-landscape/ "Los Angeles Freight Landscape"), and [Paris](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/paris-freight-landscape/ "Paris Freight Landscape")) underlines a diversity of contexts in which urban freight distribution takes place. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_landscape_depiction.png?resize=900%2C533&ssl=1 "Depicting the Freight Landscape | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Depicting the Freight Landscape![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landscape-New-York.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "New York Freight Landscape | The Geography of Transport Systems ")New York Freight Landscape![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landscape-Los-Angeles.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Los Angeles Freight Landscape | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Los Angeles Freight Landscape![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landscape-Paris.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Paris Freight Landscape | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Paris Freight Landscape--- ## Related Topics ## Bibliography ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Paris Freight Landscape](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/paris-freight-landscape/) **Published:** January 3, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landscape-Paris.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Paris Freight Landscape | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Paris Freight Landscape*Note: Quantile classification of two density axis (population and employment). Four population (P1 to P4) and employment (E1 to E4) classes. N = number of statistical units. D = divergence Index (deviation from uniform distribution). Source: adapted from Rodrigue, J-P, L. Dablanc and G. Giuliano (2017) “The Freight Landscape: Convergence and Divergence in Urban Freight Distribution“, Journal of Transport and Land Use, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 557-572.* Paris is characterized by a very high level of convergence (low deviation; D=0.3), implying a close correlation between population and employment densities. As such, the monocentric city has a concentric-like distribution of densities, implying a rather uniform freight landscape in terms of its operational constraints. This is particularly the case for the central area characterized by a continuous presence of P4/E4 densities. This represents a coherent zone for the application of city logistics strategies servicing an array of commercial, retail, and personal consumption freight demands. Still, this is also reflective of multiple freight distribution systems operating within the same area. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/paris-freight-landscape/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/paris-freight-landscape/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/paris-freight-landscape/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/paris-freight-landscape/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Los Angeles Freight Landscape](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/los-angeles-freight-landscape/) **Published:** January 3, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landscape-Los-Angeles.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Los Angeles Freight Landscape | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Los Angeles Freight Landscape*Note: Quantile classification of two density axis (population and employment). Four population (P1 to P4) and employment (E1 to E4) classes. N = number of statistical units. D = divergence Index (deviation from uniform distribution). Source: adapted from Rodrigue, J-P, L. Dablanc and G. Giuliano (2017) “The Freight Landscape: Convergence and Divergence in Urban Freight Distribution“, Journal of Transport and Land Use, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 557-572.* Los Angeles has a high level of divergence between population and employment densities (D=0.73; high deviation), which reflects its polycentric character with more specialized land uses. As such, comprehensive city logistics strategies are less prevalent because of geographical and functional variations in densities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/los-angeles-freight-landscape/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/los-angeles-freight-landscape/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/los-angeles-freight-landscape/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/los-angeles-freight-landscape/?share=reddit) - --- ### [New York Freight Landscape](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/new-york-freight-landscape/) **Published:** January 3, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Landscape-New-York.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "New York Freight Landscape | The Geography of Transport Systems ")New York Freight Landscape*Note: Quantile classification of two density axis (population and employment). Four population (P1 to P4) and employment (E1 to E4) classes. N = number of statistical units. D = divergence Index (deviation from uniform distribution). Source: adapted from Rodrigue, J-P, L. Dablanc and G. Giuliano (2017) “The Freight Landscape: Convergence and Divergence in Urban Freight Distribution“, Journal of Transport and Land Use, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 557-572.* New York offers a distinct level of convergence (D=0.64), particularly in its central areas (Manhattan). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/new-york-freight-landscape/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/new-york-freight-landscape/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/new-york-freight-landscape/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/new-york-freight-landscape/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Depicting the Freight Landscape](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/depicting-freight-landscape/) **Published:** January 3, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_landscape_depiction.png?resize=900%2C533&ssl=1 "Depicting the Freight Landscape | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Depicting the Freight LandscapeThe freight landscape illustrates city logistics through the differences in population and employment densities observed throughout a metropolitan area. Four main quadrants can be identified: - **High-density** convergence. Central areas with complex city logistics, including courier services, retail logistics, food deliveries, and home deliveries. - **Population-based divergence**. High-density residential areas generate retail logistics and home deliveries. - **Employment-based divergence**. Manufacturing and warehousing areas generating freight distribution flows related to their supply chains. - **Low-density** convergence. Suburban areas with various low-density settings, including housing, retail, manufacturing, and distribution areas. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/depicting-freight-landscape/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/depicting-freight-landscape/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/depicting-freight-landscape/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/depicting-freight-landscape/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Relationship between Urban Density, Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight Deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/relationship-urban-density-urban-mobility-and-commercial-freight-deliveries/) **Published:** January 3, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_density_mobility_freight_deliveries.png?resize=900%2C437&ssl=1 "Relationship between Urban Density, Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight Deliveries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Relationship between Urban Density Urban Mobility and Commercial Freight DeliveriesUrban passenger and freight transport systems are separate systems sharing similar infrastructure, but impacted differently by density. The common perspective in urban planning is that higher densities are preferable since they generate economies for services and opportunities in the use of public transit. However, high concentration levels generate conflicts between freight and passenger transportation, induce congestion, pollution, noise, higher levels of energy consumption (lower speed and idling), and risks of accidents. This trend is a non-linear one. In a low-density setting, such as in rural or low-density suburban areas, delivery costs per unit are higher due to the same number of deliveries requiring longer distances. In a medium-density suburban setting, delivery costs are lower as shorter delivery distances are experienced while very few constraints are still impacting them. As density increases, however, a set of constraints becomes more prevalent, particularly regarding parking. Delivery costs thus increase rapidly. For retailing, higher densities are related to higher sales per floor space, but also less space available for storage. All this implies more frequent deliveries, which are taking place in an environment where there is limited parking available and competition for the use of road and curb space. This may also incite the usage of smaller delivery vehicles (either by choice or imposed by regulation), which results in more frequent deliveries and higher costs. This is the main reason why freight distribution in higher-density settings commonly requires mitigation strategies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/relationship-urban-density-urban-mobility-and-commercial-freight-deliveries/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/relationship-urban-density-urban-mobility-and-commercial-freight-deliveries/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/relationship-urban-density-urban-mobility-and-commercial-freight-deliveries/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/relationship-urban-density-urban-mobility-and-commercial-freight-deliveries/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Containerization and the Operational Characteristics of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/containerization-operation-terminals/) **Published:** November 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerization_operations_transport_terminals.png?resize=900%2C623&ssl=1 "Containerization and the Changing Operational Characteristics of Transport Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Containerization and the Changing Operational Characteristics of Transport TerminalsConventional freight terminals tended to have a small surface due to smaller ship sizes and the possibility to transship directly from the ship to land conveyances (e.g. trucks or rail cars) and vice-versa. This was made possible by the slow loading/unloading process as mechanization was limited, and most operations were improvised depending on the availability of stevedore labor and the nature of the cargo being transshipped. Still, the number of piers could be extensive since ships were spending much more time at ports. Containerization rests on large terminal surfaces as the large volumes carried by ship cannot be immediately reconciled with inland operations. Transshipment is thus indirect with a temporal and spatial modal separation. Terminal operations are also highly dependent on machinery (e.g. cranes), all of which require extensive organization and management. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/containerization-operation-terminals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/containerization-operation-terminals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/containerization-operation-terminals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/containerization-operation-terminals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [5.2 - Road Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/) **Published:** November 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Brian Slack > Road transportation involves moving passengers and freight with vehicles over a prepared surface. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Setting of Road Transport Systems](#1_The_Setting_of_Road_Transport_Systems) - [2. The Spatial Impacts of Road Transportation](#2_The_Spatial_Impacts_of_Road_Transportation) - [3. Infrastructures and Investments](#3_Infrastructures_and_Investments) # 1. The Setting of Road Transport Systems Roads and rails are the two major modes that compose the land transport system. Roads were established first, as steam rail technology only became available by the 18th century, amid the industrial revolution. Historical considerations are important in assessing the structure of current land transportation networks. Modern roads tend to follow the **network structure established by previous roads**, as was the case for the contemporary European road network. The current roads of Italy, France, and Britain follow the structure established by the Roman road network centuries before. Therefore, there is a strong **path dependency** effect of road transport networks. The first land roads took their origins from [trails](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1841), which were generally used to move from one hunting territory to another through seasonal migrations. With the emergence of the first empires, trails started to be used for commercial purposes as trade expanded, collecting taxes, and moving military forces. Some became roads, primarily by domesticating horses, mules, and camels. The use of wheeled vehicles encouraged the construction of better roads to support the additional weight since heavier vehicles quickly damage an unpaved surface. Further, persistent rainfall could damage and make unpaved roads impractical, particularly if there was a rainy season. A road transport system requires a level of labor organization, financing, and administrative control that could only be provided by a form of governmental oversight, offering some military protection over trade routes and being able to provide maintenance work. It was not uncommon that communities along road systems were required to provide free road construction and maintenance work as part of their feudal obligations. By 3,000 BCE, the first paved roads appeared in Mesopotamia, and asphalt was used as pavement in Babylon by 625 BCE. The Persian Empire had a road system of 2,300 km in the 5th century BCE, the first functional road system in history. However, the [Roman Empire](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1060 "The Roman Empire, c125 AD") established the first major road system from 300 BCE onward, mainly for economic, military, and administrative reasons. It relied on reliable road engineering methods, including the laying of foundations and the construction of bridges. This was also linked with establishing pan-continental trading routes, such as the [Silk Road](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/ "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes (11th and 12th Centuries)"), linking Europe and Asia by 100 BC. However, most of these routes were marked paths along steppes and other semi-arid areas. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/linearity_capacity_roads.png?resize=900%2C427&ssl=1 "Linearity, Capacity and Surface of Roads | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/linearity-capacity-roads/raods_linearity_capacity/)Linearity Capacity and Surface of Roads[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Roman-Empire-125AD.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "The Roman Empire, c125 AD | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/map-roman-empire-125ad-png/)The Roman Empire c125 AD[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Appian-Way.jpg?resize=768%2C683&ssl=1 "Roman Road (Appian Way) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/roman-road-appian-way/appian-way/)Roman Road Appian Way[![Map Silk Road](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Silk-Road.png?resize=768%2C461&ssl=1 "The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/map-silk-road/)The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/turnpikes_uk_travel-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Turnpikes in Great Britain and Travel Hours from London, Late 18th and Early 19th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-turnpike-19th-century/uk_turnpikes-png/)Turnpikes in Great Britain Late 18th and Early 19th CenturyFollowing the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, integrated road transportation collapsed in Europe as most roads were locally constructed and maintained. Because of the lack of maintenance of many road segments and fragmented political entities, land transport became a hazardous activity. Still, empires such as the Byzantine Empire maintained road networks. From the 14th century, the Incas built an extensive road system in the Andes, which may have spanned more than 40,000 km. However, the system was only used by foot and pack animals (Llamas). The **creation of modern nation-states** in the 17th century allowed national road transportation systems to be formally established. In the 18th century, France, through central government efforts, built a Royal Roads system spanning 24,000 km, over which a public transport service of stagecoaches carrying passengers and mail was established. The British, mainly through private efforts, built a 32,000 km [system of turnpikes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1118) where tolls had to be paid for road usage. A similar initiative was undertaken in the United States in the 19th century, and by the early 20th century, a network of 3 million km of roads, most unpaved, was in operation. 1794 marks the beginning of modern road transportation with the first mail coach service between London and Bristol, operating under a timetable. Also of high significance were technological innovations in road engineering that permitted the construction of reliable and low-cost hard surface roads. One such achievement came from the Scottish engineer McAdam, who developed a process (later known as [macadam](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1853)) where hard and waterproof road surfaces were made by cemented crushed stone, bound together either with water or bitumen. It provided a cheaper, durable, smooth, and non-slippery pavement, considerably improving the reliability and travel speed on roads. Many roads could now be used reliably year-round. Road development accelerated in the first half of the 20th century. By the 1920s, the first all-weather transcontinental highway, the Lincoln Highway, spanned over 5,300 km between New York and San Francisco. However, it was merely a set of connected roads with inconsistent design and maintenance. Germany was the first to build a modern highway (autobahn) in 1932, with specifications such as restricted access, overpasses, and road separation that would eventually become common characteristics of contemporary highway systems. The post-World War II era represented a period of rapid expansion of [road transportation networks worldwide](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1859). The most remarkable road transport engineering achievement of this era was the setting of the [American Interstate highway system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1864). Its construction began in 1956 with the strategic purpose of providing a national road system servicing the American economy and also being able to support troop movements and act as airstrips in case of an emergency (although the latter two purposes were never used). About 56,000 km were built between the 1950s and the 1970s, marking the years of its fastest expansion. Between 1975 and 2006, only 15,000 km was added to the system, underlining growing construction costs and diminishing returns. Overall, about 70,000 km of four-lane and six-lane highways were constructed, linking all major American cities, coast to coast. A similar project occurred in Canada, with the Trans-Canada highway completed in 1962. Other developed economies quickly followed. By the 1970s, every modern nation had constructed a **national highway system**, which resulted in a pan-European system, in the case of Western Europe. This trend now takes place in many developing economies as one of the first signs of economic development is an accelerated process of road construction. For instance, China is building a national highway system that expanded to 169,000 km in 2021, largely surpassing the length of the American Interstate. Another notable recent example concerns the Indian national highway system, dubbed the Golden Quadrilateral, due to its rectangular shape connecting India’s most important cities (Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai). Construction of the 5,800 km highway system began in 2001 and was completed in 2013. Highway construction projects have become common in developing economies, such as in Latin America and Subsaharan Africa, underlining the rapid pace of motorization once intermediate income levels are reached. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/8264102921_20d2e7cef7_3k.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Macadam Road Construction, Maryland, 1823 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/macadam-road-maryland-1823/macadam/)Macadam Road Construction Maryland 1823[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Road-Network-1.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World Main Highway Road Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/world-road-network/road-network-map-png/)World Main Road Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Interstate-System-1.png?resize=768%2C523&ssl=1 "The Interstate Highway System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/interstate-highway-system/map-interstate-system-1/)The Interstate Highway System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lenght_interstate_chinese_expressway-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Length of the Interstate Highway System and of the Chinese Expressway System, 1959-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/highway-length-china-united-states/us_china_highway_system/)Length of the Interstate Highway System and of the Chinese Expressway System# 2. The Spatial Impacts of Road Transportation Road transportation is the mode that has [expanded the most](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1874) over the last 50 years, both for passengers and freight markets. This represents a dramatic change in the built environment with the massive addition of road infrastructures supporting urban mobility and connecting cities. The footprint of road transportation is extensive, but its [scope remains local and regional](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/distribution-car-trips-distance-united-states/ "Distribution of Car Trips by Travelled Distance, United States"), more so for passengers than for freight. For passengers, the growth of road usage has mainly been fueled by rising incomes with their impacts on car ownership and suburbanization. Growth in road freight transport has been fueled mainly by rising income and consumption levels and globalization. The load capacity of vehicles has improved, and vehicles have been adapted to freight market segments such as perishables, fuel, construction materials, and containers. An array of **problems**, such as fuel consumption, environmental externalities, traffic congestion, and safety (accidents), have also emerged. Roads have a **functional hierarchy** depending on their role in the transport network. At the top of the hierarchy are freeways (highways), which are limited-access roads with no intersections. To connect intersecting highways, a large number of [interchanges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/main-design-highway-interchanges/ "Main Design of Highway Interchanges") were built, leading to a variety of designs to mitigate traffic flow and the required footprint. The cloverleaf interchange has become one of the most common. There are also arterials, roads with traffic signals at intersections, forcing vehicles to stop. These arterials are fed by collectors and local roads, which mainly connect specific activities (residences, retail stores, industries). This network enables point-to-point services, a notable advantage road transport has over other modes. Road transport modes have **limited potential to achieve economies of scale**. This is due to the size and weight constraints imposed by regulations and the technical and economic limits of engines. In most jurisdictions, trucks, and buses have specific weight and length restrictions, which are imposed for safety reasons, but also because intensive road use by heavy trucks damages road infrastructure and increases maintenance costs. While in the United States, the maximum gross vehicle weight is 36 metric tons (80,000 pounds), in Europe and China, these figures are 40 (88,000 pounds) and 49 (100,000 pounds) metric tons, respectively. In addition, there are severe limits on the traction capacities of cars, buses, and trucks because of the considerable growth in energy consumption that accompanies increases in vehicle weight. For these reasons, the carrying capacities of individual road vehicles are limited, and there is limited technological potential to improve them. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_production_fleet.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Automobile Production and Fleet | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/automobile-production-fleet-world/world_automobile_production-1/)World Automobile Production and Fleet 1965 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distribution_car_trips.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Distribution of Car Trips by Travelled Distance, United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/distribution-car-trips-distance-united-states/distribution_car_trips/)Distribution of Car Trips by Travelled Distance United States[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/highway_interchanges.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Main Design of Highway Interchanges | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/main-design-highway-interchanges/highway_interchanges/)Main Design of Highway Interchanges[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_production_world-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Automobile Production, Selected Countries, 1950-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/automobile-production-world/automobile_production_world/)Automobile Production Selected Countries 1950 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vehicle_sales_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Vehicle Sales, United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/vehicle-sales-united-states/vehicle_sales_usa/)Vehicle Sales United States 1931 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vehicle_miles_usa2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Annual Vehicle-Miles Traveled in the United States and Year-over-Year Changes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/vehicle-miles-united-states/vehicle_miles_usa2/)Annual Vehicle Miles Traveled in the United StatesRoad transportation is characterized by an acute traffic concentration along a **Pareto distribution**; commonly, **20% of the road network supports 60 to 80% of the traffic**. This observation is expanded by the fact that societies have important differences in terms of the density, capacity, and quality of their road transport infrastructures, mainly due to their level of development. Acute geographical variations of the assets and inventory are the norm. The technological evolution of road transport vehicles has been a continuous trend since the first automobiles were built. However, the underlying motive technology is very similar, as road transportation massively relies on the internal combustion engine. New **materials** (ceramic, plastic, aluminum, composite materials), **fuels** (electricity, hydrogen, natural gas), and **information technologies** (vehicle control, diagnostic, location, navigation, and toll collection) are continuously integrated into road vehicles to improve their efficiency and reliability. However, there are signs that **peak mobility**, as measured in [vehicle-miles traveled](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/vehicle-miles-united-states/ "Annual Vehicle-Miles Traveled in the United States and Year-over-Year Changes, 1971-2022"), can be achieved for road transportation when car use has reached an optimum diffusion level. Countervailing forces are at play, such as congestion, the aging of the population, and even information technologies (teleworking). For trucking, demand continues to grow, driven by rising incomes, global supply chains, and e-commerce. The urban population has increased considerably over the last 50 years, and about 56% of the global population was urbanized as of 2020. It is challenging for developing economies to have **rates of individual vehicle ownership** similar to those of advanced economies, especially compared to the United States. The primary constraint is not the lack of income, but the physical **lack of space to accommodate a high level of car ownership**. This will impose new or alternative methods to transport freight and passengers over urban roads. Reducing vehicle emissions and the impacts of infrastructures on the environment are mandatory to promote a sustainable environment. Under such circumstances, micromobility, particularly cycling, is thus considered an alternative to the automobile in urban areas, widely adopted in [developing economies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/rickshaws-indonesia/ "Rickshaws (becak), Jog Jakarta, Indonesia"), although more for economic reasons. [Bicycle production](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/bicycle-production-world/ "World Bicycle Production, 1950-2018") has steadily increased, but in many advanced economies, bicycles are more a mode of leisure than a form of transportation. The potential of micromobility is mainly related to its substitution for existing public transit users. There is limited potential to substitute car trips with bicycle trips since most car trips cover longer distances that are not easily substituted by other modes, including the bicycle. Bicycle parking schemes at urban transit stations are a strategy that can be used to incite a substitution. [Bicycle pools](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/paris-bicycle-pool/ "Bicycle Pool, Paris, France") have also been created to incite urban residents to use them for short trips, including e-scooters made available for rent on sidewalks. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_bicycle_production2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Bicycle Production, 1950-2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/bicycle-production-world/world_bicycle_production2/)World Bicycle Production 1950 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rickshaw2.jpg?resize=850%2C568&ssl=1 "Rickshaws (becaks), Jog Jakarta, Indonesia | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/rickshaws-indonesia/rickshaw2/)Rickshaws becaks Jog Jakarta Indonesia[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/share_cycling_cities.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Cycling over the Total Amount of Trips | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/cycling-trips-selected-countries/share_cycling_cities/)Share of Cycling over the Total Amount of Trips Selected Countries 2015[![Bicycle Pool Paris](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bicycle_pool_paris.jpg?resize=900%2C1200&ssl=1 "Bicycle Pool, Paris, France | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/paris-bicycle-pool/img_1641/)Bicycle Pool Paris FranceEven with the presence of alternatives, road transport retains **significant advantages** over other modes: - The **capital cost of vehicles** is relatively low, making it comparatively **easy for new users to gain entry.** This helps ensure that the trucking industry, for example, is highly competitive, but with low profit margins. Low capital costs ensure that innovations and new technologies can diffuse quickly through the industry since a fleet can be renewed over a decade. - Road vehicles have a **high relative speed** compared with non-motorized forms of transportation and public transit, the major constraint being regulatory speed limits. - Road transportation offers the **flexibility of route choice**, once a network of roads is provided. It has the unique opportunity to provide door-to-door services for passengers and freight. These multiple advantages have made cars, buses, and trucks the modes of choice for many trip purposes, leading to their **market dominance for short-distance trips**. The success of cars and trucks has given rise to several serious problems. Road congestion has become a feature of most urban areas around the world. In addition, road transport is behind many major environmental externalities linked to transportation, particularly CO2 emissions. Addressing these issues is becoming a significant policy challenge. A symbiosis between types of roads and types of traffic with specialization (reserved lanes and hours) is to be expected. An enduring challenge for road freight transportation concerns **empty backhauls**. Due to trade and commercial flow imbalances, about 20% of all truck flows are empty. This characteristic is complex to mitigate since it is related to the fundamental structure of freight demand. For instance, all retail-related freight flows are usually in one direction, such as from the manufacturing plant to the distribution center and from the distribution center to the store or the consumer’s home for e-commerce. There are limited opportunities for return cargo for these flows. # 3. Infrastructures and Investments Road infrastructures are **moderately expensive** to provide, but there is a wide divergence of costs, from a gravel road to a multi-lane urban elevated expressway. Because road vehicles can climb moderate slopes, physical obstacles are less important than other land modes. Most roads are provided as a **public good** by governments, while most vehicles are privately owned. Capital costs, therefore, are generally assumed by society and do not fall as heavily on one source, as is the case for other modes. Unlike many transport infrastructures where the user pays for the network through pricing mechanisms, the public sector covers 95% of road infrastructure financing, leaving the remainder covered by tolls. Road transportation thus has a unique characteristic where several costs are externalized, which is an indirect form of mobility subsidy. The public offering of free road infrastructure conveys several advantages to the private sector but can also lead to externalities. The main advantage is clear; road users commonly **do not bear the full operating costs**, implying that road transportation tends to be below the real market price. This can be seen as a subsidy for road freight transportation, as road maintenance is [not part of the operating costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1900) but is indirectly present with taxes and tolls. As long as there is spare road capacity, this situation works for the benefit of the users. However, when congestion arises, users have limited influence on constructing new and improved infrastructure to mitigate the problem since they do not own the infrastructure and are using it free of charge. Lobbying public entities to receive public road infrastructure investments can be a very long process, subject to constant delays and changes. Road users thus become trapped in a situation they can do little to change since it is provided free of charge. This can be labeled as the “**free roads curse**“. An entity owning and operating its own network, such as a rail company in North America, has the advantage of directly implementing improvements with its capital if congestion arises on a segment of its network. It is thus better placed to cope with congestion and respond with strategic investments less subject to political capture. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/marginal_trucking_costs_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Marginal Trucking Costs per Mile, United States, 2008-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/marginal-trucking-costs-united-states/marginal_trucking_costs_usa/)Average Marginal Trucking Costs per Mile United States 2008 2020[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_1205.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Third Party Less-than-Truckload Service, FedEx | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/ltl-fedex/ltl_fedex/)Third Party Less than Truckload Service FedEx[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/george_washington_bridge.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "George Washington Bridge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/george-washington-bridge/2022-05-28-18-44-54/)George Washington BridgeGovernments can expropriate the necessary land for road rights of way since a private enterprise may have difficulties expropriating without government support. Another important aspect of roads is their **economies of scale** and their **indivisibility**, underlining that the construction and maintenance of roads are cheaper when the system is extensive but to a limit. Paradoxically, all road transport modes have limited abilities to achieve scale economies. This is due to the size constraints imposed by governments, the technical and economic limits of the power sources, and what infrastructures can bear weight-wise. In most jurisdictions, trucks and buses have specific **weight and length restrictions**. Thus, there are system-wide benefits to expanding road networks but vehicle-wise limits. In addition, there are severe limits on the traction capacities of road vehicles because of the considerable increases in energy consumption accompanying increases in the weight of the transported unit. For these reasons, the carrying capacities of individual road vehicles are limited. Even if roads are costly infrastructures to build and maintain, they are also sources of revenue: - **Costs**. They include the costs to secure rights of way, including expropriation costs, which can be prone to delays. Development costs (planning), construction, maintenance, and administration costs are significant. The construction costs of a simple two-lane road can reach 2 to 3 million dollars per kilometer in a low-density area, which can easily double for higher-density areas. There are opportunity costs to road construction in the form of losses in land taxes and external costs related to accidents and pollution. - **Revenue**. Road transportation is associated with multiple sources of public revenue, including registration, gas taxes, sales taxes for the purchases of vehicles, tolls, parking, and insurance fees. Indirectly, road transportation creates demand for the manufacturing of vehicles, repair and maintenance services, and energy provision and distribution. Another form of indirect income concerns traffic violations (e.g. speeding) that use the rationale of public safety to hide revenue-generation practices by local governments. In many cases, governments have been challenged as custodians of road infrastructure. **Delaying road maintenance or improvements** is tempting because of the high costs involved. Budgetary constraints are also inciting increasing taxes and tolls, selling assets, and reducing expenses. Consequently, a growing number of roads have been **privatized**, and companies specializing in road management have emerged across the world. For existing roads, privatization is only possible on specific trunks that have important and stable traffic. For new roads, levying tolls is a strategy to recover investments and attract private investors. Private enterprises usually have a vested interest in seeing that the road segments they manage are maintained and improved since the quality of the road will be directly linked to revenue generation. Most toll roads are highways linking large cities or [bridges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/george-washington-bridge/ "George Washington Bridge") and tunnels where there is a convergence of traffic. Despite privatization attempts, most roads are not economically profitable but must be **socially present** as they are essential to service populations. It can thus be expected that roads will remain dominantly publicly funded in the future and will be a recurring construction and maintenance challenge. --- ## Related Topics - [5.1 – Transportation Modes, Modal Competition and Modal Shift](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1731) - [8.3 – Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4617) - [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621) ## Bibliography - International Transportation Forum (2021), Road Safety Annual Report 2021, OECD Publications, Paris. - Lay, M.G. (1992) Ways of the World: A History of the World’s Roads and of the Vehicles that Used Them. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. - Lay, M., J. Metcalf and K. Sharp (2020) Paving Our Ways: A History of the World’s Roads and Pavements, New York: CRC Press. - Lewis, T. (2013) Divided Highways: Building the Interstate Highways, Transforming American Life. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. - Meijer, J.R., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Schotten, C.G.J. and Schipper, A.M. (2018) “Global patterns of current and future road infrastructure”. Environmental Research Letters, 13-064006. Data is available at www.globio.info - World Health Organization (2018) Global status report on road safety 2018. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018. Licence: CC BYNC-SA 3.0 IGO. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Bicycle Production, 1950-2018](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/bicycle-production-world/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_bicycle_production2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Bicycle Production, 1950-2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Bicycle Production 1950 2018*Source: Adapted from Worldwatch Institute, Vital Signs 2008.* There are no exact figures about the global bicycle fleet, but it is estimated that around 1 billion bicycles are available. On average, 100 million bicycles are produced each year, compared to 70 million cars. About 40% of all bicycles were produced in China in the early 1990s, and by 2000, this share climbed to 60%, making it the world’s leading producer and consumer. Cycling thus accounted for a significant share of travel in Chinese cities. The motorization of Chinese cities has contributed to a significant drop in the modal share of cycling in recent years. From 1990 to 2002, the share of cycling in Shanghai went from 70% of all trips to 17%. In 2003, bicycles were banned from the major commercial streets, an indication of the government’s shift in policies. Cycling is typically the mode of poorer segments of the population, especially in developing economies. However, many Western European countries, namely Sweden, Germany, and the Netherlands, have experienced significant growth in bicycle ridership in recent years. In Japan, 30% of all trips to train stations are done cycling. The bicycle is increasingly perceived as a sustainable transportation mode, and many cities around the world have programs promoting the use of cycling for commuting and reserved bike lanes. Many cities are also offering short-term [bike rental schemes through stations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5223) situated at convenient locations. A recent trend has been the introduction of e-bikes, which are electrically assisted bicycles. They expand commuting ranges by increasing speed and reducing effort. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/bicycle-production-world/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/bicycle-production-world/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/bicycle-production-world/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/bicycle-production-world/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Performance Comparison for Selected Freight Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/performance-freight-modes/) **Published:** November 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/performance_freight_modes.png?resize=900%2C532&ssl=1 "Performance Comparison for Selected Freight Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Performance Comparison for Selected Freight Modes*Note: Vehicles are not to scale.* Because of their operational characteristics, freight transportation modes have different capacities and efficiency levels. While trucks are the mode that has the least capacity, they have a level of flexibility (speed and door-to-door services) unmatched by rail, maritime, and fluvial transportation. Intermodal capacity in TEU for trains and trucks depends on the type of container being carried, with a 53-foot container, the equivalent of 2.65 TEU. Air cargo transportation capacity is more complex to assess since about 50% of the global air cargo is carried inside the bellyhold of standard passenger planes. Further, older passenger planes are converted into cargo planes to extend their commercial life. For instance, a 747 passenger plane can carry 8 to 12 metric tons in its bellyhold, and these planes are being retired, with some converted to cargo-only services. A dedicated 747 freight plane can carry 100 metric tons or more depending on the freight density and range. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/performance-freight-modes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/performance-freight-modes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/performance-freight-modes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/performance-freight-modes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Freight Landscape: A Multidimensional Concept](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/freight-landscape-multidimensional-concept/) **Published:** January 3, 2024 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_landscape_multidimensional.png?resize=900%2C415&ssl=1 "The Freight Landscape: A Multidimensional Concept | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Freight Landscape A Multidimensional ConceptFour dimensions characterize the freight landscape: - **Political landscape**. Concerns regulations that political entities such as municipal governments have over urban freight activities. - **Socioeconomic landscape**. The pattern and structure of land use. - **Infrastructure landscape**. Transportation infrastructures, including information technologies, that are supporting urban logistics. - **Mobility landscape**. The structure of urban freight flows, including modes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/freight-landscape-multidimensional-concept/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/freight-landscape-multidimensional-concept/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/freight-landscape-multidimensional-concept/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/urban-freight-landscape/freight-landscape-multidimensional-concept/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Taxonomy of Logistics Decisions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/taxonomy-logistics-decisions/) **Published:** November 27, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/taxonomy_logistics_decisions.png?resize=900%2C403&ssl=1 "Taxonomy of Logistics Decisions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Taxonomy of Logistics DecisionsThe implementation of logistics structures is the outcome of decisions related to the usage of production, transport, and distribution capabilities. Since the requirements of each supply chain are different, the decisions about how to use these capabilities will result in different strategies: - **Production structures**. Concerns the materials management aspects of logistics with locational decisions related to [factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1526) such as available land, labor costs, and the regulatory framework. The outcome is the choice of production locations and their capacity. This will influence the transport and distribution aspects of logistics. - **Transport structures**. Concerns the physical distribution aspect of logistics with decisions concerning the choice of modes and terminals along the [transport chain](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2551) linking different components of the supply chain. This choice is commonly related to the nature of what is being transported in terms of load units. - **Distribution structures**. Concerns how the distribution of resources, parts, and finished goods associated with the supply chain will take place. This particularly relates to the frequency and timing of distribution, with the [location and setting of distribution centers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4545) an important aspect. - **Logistics structures**. Taking all of the above into consideration, decisions are made to use production, transportation, and distribution structures to fulfill strategic goals such as cost reduction, access to new markets, improve service efficiency, or reduce response time (cycle or lead). As making decisions about the setting and operation of supply chains can be a complex task, corporations often contract in whole or in part the management of their supply chains to [third-party logistics providers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4505). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/taxonomy-logistics-decisions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/taxonomy-logistics-decisions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/taxonomy-logistics-decisions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/taxonomy-logistics-decisions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Work-Related Mobility in a Motorized City](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/work-related-mobility/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/work_related_mobility_united_states.png?resize=900%2C432&ssl=1 "Work-Related Mobility in a Motorized City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Destination for Work Related Movements in a Motorized City*Source: adapted from S. Hanson (1995), The Geography of Urban Transportation.* In motorized urban areas, mobility can be divided into five major spatial categories: - **Inside the central city**. The central city includes the Central Business District (CBD) and the adjacent ring of high-density residential areas, including industrial and warehousing districts. These movements are usually serviced by high-density public transport systems such as subways, tramways, and buses. They used to be the dominant pattern of urban mobility, but this primacy has been rescinded with suburbanization. - **Towards the central area**. Represents the classic pendular commuting pattern and is mostly linked to the tertiary and quaternary activities generally located in the central area. Cars are mostly a privileged mode, but public transit is used along major corridors, particularly if parking is limited. With the significant growth of economic activities outside central areas, this type of movement is less important than it used to be. - **Towards suburbia**. Mostly linked with commuters living in central areas and having seen their jobs relocated to suburbia. - **Within suburbia (Lateral)**. With the demographic and economic development of suburbia, this type of movement is growing in importance. Since suburban areas are generally of lower density (with the exception of commercial clusters), transit systems cannot effectively service these areas. They are almost strictly the automobile domain and involve mobility from the suburbs towards small to medium-sized employment centers, particularly around highways. - **Exurbia**. The emergence of economic activities in peri-urban areas (exurbia) has added a new dimension to urban mobility. These movements concern sparsely settled residential areas and employment centers loosely organized around clusters. The above figure is illustrative of the United States, and the proportions are generic and will vary by metropolitan area. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/work-related-mobility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/work-related-mobility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/work-related-mobility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/work-related-mobility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub (CACH)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ups-cach-chicago/) **Published:** November 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Ups Chicago Cach](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ups_chicago_cach.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub (CACH) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub CACH*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2006.* The UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub, which opened in 1995, is the largest land transport distribution center in the United States and the largest package sorting facility in the world. It acts as a large cross-docking facility, sorting about 1.3 million parcels per day, which is roughly 10% of the UPS daily ground volume. It consolidates traffic bound for the East and the West coasts. The facility is linked to a BNSF intermodal rail terminal (Willow Springs), which handles about 40% of the traffic processed by the distribution center. Trucks can deliver inbound traffic at one of the 126 inbound doors, which is then sorted and brought to one of the 1,000 outbound loading bays. 15 minutes is all that is required for the sorting to take place if the package is of a standard size, such as an envelope or a small box. About 11,000 people work at the facility. Packages bound for UPS distribution facilities located less than 400 miles away are usually trucked, while for destinations greater than 400 miles, the trailer is likely to be loaded on a train. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ups-cach-chicago/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ups-cach-chicago/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ups-cach-chicago/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ups-cach-chicago/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Trade, Transportation and Geographic Specialization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/trade-transportation-geographic-specialization/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economic_production_specialization2.png?resize=900%2C360&ssl=1 "Trade, Transportation and Geographic Specialization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Trade Transportation and Geographic Specialization*Source: Adapted from: E. J., Gauthier H. L. and M. E. O’Kelly (1996) Geography of Transportation.* The evolution of transport systems impacts regional economies in terms of their level of specialization. More connected regions tend to be more specialized, while less connected regions tend to have a lesser degree of specialization and less developed economic systems. The above figure represents a simplified example of how transport changes may impact the specialization of regional economies. At the start, it is assumed that each economy needs to produce five types of goods (A to E). In a situation of self-reliance (1), there is no efficient transport link between the two regions; the majority of goods cannot be transferred cost-effectively. They are isolated from one another and must satisfy their own needs. Thus, each region tends to be similar in terms of economic output. While regions have different environmental endowments, they must still provide for every basic necessity, such as food. Quantities produced depend on the demand and the industrial capacity. With a transport link between two regions, specialization can take place (2). Each region develops its respective potential; Product D for the first region and Product E for the second, assuming that they respectively have a comparative advantage for these two products. A range of goods (A to C) can remain unaffected by factors such as high transportation costs, making them less tradable. If Product D is cheaper to produce in the first region, it becomes more efficient to lessen the production of other products and concentrate on Product D. Respectively, the second region can do so for Product E. Therefore, the first region can allocate more resources for the production of Product D and can then sell the surplus (minus local consumption) to the second region. The key to this specialization becomes the **difference between the transport costs and the production costs** of a product. If the unit cost savings resulting from specialization exceed the unit transport costs, then specialization can take place. Regional specialization is greatly expanded with international trade (3). By having access to a larger market and a range of products through a gateway, namely a seaport, regions A and B can specialize even more in the production they have respective comparative advantages. They can even cease production in a specific array of products, which are now imported. Under such circumstances, the **reliance on transportation increases**, even if its relative costs may be declining. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/trade-transportation-geographic-specialization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/trade-transportation-geographic-specialization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/trade-transportation-geographic-specialization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/trade-transportation-geographic-specialization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Total Accessibility Matrix (T)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/totalaccessibility/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/simple_connectivity_matrix2.png?resize=900%2C398&ssl=1 "Simple Connectivity Matrix | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Simple Connectivity Matrix![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/total_accessibility_matrix.png?resize=900%2C568&ssl=1 "Total Accessibility Matrix (T) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Total Accessibility Matrix TThe total accessibility matrix (T) is obtained from the following procedure: - **Construct the connectivity matrix** (C1). It is a matrix where, for each cell, a value of 1 or 0 is used to denote that a connection exists between two node pairs. On the above network, node C has the highest degree, which is the sum of all the connections this node has (4). - **Construct the second-order (two-linkages paths) connectivity matrix** (C2). The total number of two-linkage paths (matrix C2) equals C1\*C1. Each cell in the C2 matrix is the result of the summation of the product of each corresponding row and column in the C1 matrix. For instance, cell A-B in matrix C2 (see above) is constructed from the following: 0\*1 + 1\*0 + 1\*1 + 1\*0 + 0\*0. It indicates that there is only one possible two-path link between node A and node B (A-C-B). The C2 matrix indicates that there are two possible two-linkage paths between C and A (C-B-A and C-D-A). - **Repeat the construction of the Nth-order** connectivity matrices until the number of Nth-linkage paths is equivalent to the diameter (path between most distant nodes) of the network. A 3rd order connectivity matrix (C3) would be equal to C1\*C2. A network with a diameter of 4 would require the construction of 4 matrices (C1 to C4). Since the above network has a diameter of 2, only two matrices, C1 (1st order connectivity) and C2 (2nd order connectivity), need to be constructed. - **Construct the total accessibility matrix** (T). For the above network, matrix C2 (two-linkages paths) is added to matrix C1 (single paths; connectivity matrix). This summation represents the total number of paths for each node. For this network, there are thus 46 possible paths, with node C having the largest number (12); either originating from it or having it as a destination. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/totalaccessibility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/totalaccessibility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/totalaccessibility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/totalaccessibility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Passengers Traffic, DFW, HKG and KIX, 1982-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/passenger-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/) **Published:** December 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passenger_traffic_dfw_hkg_kix.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Passengers Traffic, DFW, HKG and KIX, 1982-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Passengers Traffic DFW HKG and KIX 1982 2016*Source: Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport (DFW), Hong Kong International Airport (HKG) and Kansai International Airport (KIX).* The three mega-airports show different growth patterns in their passenger traffic. DFW initially grew rapidly, but achieved a peak in the 2000s. This implies that DFW has reached its market potential. A similar observation applies to Kansai, which has experienced limited growth since its opening in 1994. It was set to provide additional regional capacity to the Osaka Airport, which focuses entirely on domestic traffic. The situation is very different for Hong Kong, which has experienced, since its opening in 1997, continuous and rapid growth, tripling its traffic until 2020, when the COVID-29 pandemic resulted in a sharp reduction in passenger traffic. Kansai was impacted similarly, with no recovery as of 2022. The main factor is the strong orientation for international flights (no domestic flights for Hong Kong), which have been very slow to recover. This is particularly the case for international flights related to China, which have dramatically decreased. Comparatively, DFW saw a complete recovery by 2022, mainly because of domestic flights. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/passenger-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/passenger-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/passenger-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/passenger-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.6 - Mega Airport Projects](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/) **Published:** December 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Mega airports are emerging as major hubs of global air passenger and freight activity. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Mega Airports in a Global World](#1_Mega_Airports_in_a_Global_World) - [2. Dallas / Fort Worth](#2_Dallas_Fort_Worth) - [3. Kansai International Airport (Osaka)](#3_Kansai_International_Airport_Osaka) - [4. Chek Lap Kok (Hong Kong)](#4_Chek_Lap_Kok_Hong_Kong) # 1. Mega Airports in a Global World The substantial growth of air travel has been associated with the demand for new airport terminal facilities, particularly in the context where an existing airport terminal is no longer able to handle current or anticipated traffic. Expectations about future passenger volumes are inciting the consideration of large airports consuming a significant amount of land that has to be found, secured, and developed. This has led to the siting and setting of mega airport complexes, including large terminals, hangars, parking facilities, runways, space for adding new runways as well as space for ancillary activities such as hotels, offices, and distribution centers. The airport has become a miniature city while, in several cases, large airport complexes have been dubbed as “[aerotropolises](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3878)“. The drivers of mega airport projects fall into two major categories: - First, **regional economic development** will incite organic traffic growth, both for passengers and freight. The risk is to overestimate the potential traffic and build too much capacity for the expected demand. This leads to lower returns on investments. - Second, major airlines can decide to use an airport as their **main hub**, implying growth in transit traffic. The hubbing function of a major airline is associated with substantial traffic, but the risk is that the airline may elect for another hub. Both these drivers can be subject to contention since, on one side, economic growth expectations may not materialize to their full extent, while on the other side, airlines can change their network strategies and elect for other hubs (or use the existing hub less extensively). In a high growth context, this places acute pressures to expand airport infrastructure to cope with significant expected future traffic levels. The most successful mega airport projects are thus those that jointly gain from regional economic development as well as the additional traffic that hubbing generates. However, like most mega infrastructure projects, mega airports are subject to over-expectation biases over four key issues: - **Technological appeal**. The expectation of creating infrastructure using the latest materials and construction techniques, even if they can be untested. - **Political appeal**. The common expectation of leaders and politicians is to be associated with large infrastructure projects, which can influence their location, size, construction time frame, and purpose. - **Economic appeal**. Large consulting and construction firms are attracted to mega infrastructure projects because of the revenue and the recurring cost overruns. Labor unions are able to secure long-term employment for the construction and operation of these facilities. - **Architectural appeal**. The expectation is that the facility will have an aesthetic value, creating a recognizable landmark for the region. Therefore, new airports are increasingly costly, complex, and set [further away from central areas](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3832). The availability of a large and suitable real estate footprint can lead to controversy and conflicts with local residents. Mega airports are such large projects that they are usually set into **development phases**, but the real estate footprint needs to be secured at the onset of the project, tying up land for decades. These phases either expand the airport real estate footprint with additional runways, add terminals, or ancillary activities such as commercial and logistics real estate. In time, mega airport terminals become architectural landmarks for their city. The major challenge remains financing since airports are usually publicly funded and require [substantial capital investment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3843) locked for long periods of time and with uncertain returns. They are rarely profitable but often marketed as symbols of economic success. This is particularly the case in the Middle East where mega airports such as in Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Qatar, and Kuwait have recently been constructed in a context where the local demand is not sufficient but where large carriers such as Emirates, Etihad, and Qatar Airways have received massive subsidies in conjunction with their respective mega airports. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Largest-Airports-Hectare.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Surface of the World's Largest Airport Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/world-airport-passenger-density/map-largest-airports-hectare/)Surface of the Worlds Largest Airport Terminals[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Aerotropolis.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Key Aerotropolis Developments | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/aerotropolis/map-aerotropolis-png/)Key Aerotropolis Developments[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_cbd_airports.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Distance from CBD and Age of the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-distance-cbd/distance_cbd_airports/)Distance from CBD and Age of the Worlds Largest Airports# 2. Dallas / Fort Worth The Dallas / Fort Worth (DFW) airport is the seventh largest airport in the world in terms of passenger traffic, but the **largest in terms of surface** (about 4360 hectares). It opened in 1974 and represents one of the first examples of a mega airport terminal project located in a new site; [halfway between two important urban agglomerations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7543), about 28 km from the respective city centers of Dallas and Fort Worth, Texas. The DFW airport, therefore, benefits from the air traffic generated by these two major cities. The airport was built in an era of high traffic growth and high expectations about future growth prospects. In part through the petrochemical sector, the Texan economy was booming, as well as with new industries such as electronics. Air cargo transportation has also become an increasingly relevant dimension of DFW’s operations, with nearby Mexico and Latin America being important factors for this strong growth in cargo traffic. The airport is composed of 7 runways, 4 of which can accommodate the largest commercial planes in existence. When it opened, DFW had an innovative layout designed to accommodate considerable expansion. DFW, like many mega airports, has substantial economic impacts on the local economy, with some estimates stating an income of over $16 billion annually and a contribution to about 160,000 jobs in the Dallas / Fort Worth area. Texas benefits from its intermediary location between the eastern and western coasts of the United States and of its proximity to Latin America. It thus competes with Miami for this market. Every major city within the United States, Canada, and Latin America is within four hours from DFW. In fact, more than 60% of all the traffic at the airport is related to connecting flights going elsewhere. Although DFW is a strong consumer of space, the airport design allows for future expansion with a much larger traffic level. Many new airports designed in the 1970s were expecting strong growth levels and secured land and developed infrastructure accordingly. Five new terminals can be added to the existing five, therefore increasing the total capacity to accommodate more than 120 million passengers annually. In the megaproject development plans, it was estimated that by 2010, 100 million passengers would transit through the airport. [Traffic figures](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7558) for 2010 were just over half of what was expected. There was thus a large overestimation of the market potential of the airport, but traffic has been steadily increasing since 2010 to reach 73.3 million passengers in 2022, after a sharp decline during the COVID-19 pandemic, but a quick recovery afterward. # 3. Kansai International Airport (Osaka) With 31.9 million passengers handled in 2019, the Kansai International Airport does not figure among the world’s largest airports. However, it is particularly remarkable in the sense that it was the **first airport project entirely constructed on an [artificial island](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7574)**, which is a major innovation. The construction of airports in Japan has been facing serious space constraints due to the obvious lack of available flat land near major metropolitan areas. For instance, when the construction of a new airport in Tokyo (Narita) was announced in the 1960s, it led to massive protests because of the expropriation of scarce agricultural land. Therefore, when a new airport facility was required in the Osaka metropolitan area, a decision was made to locate the new airport on an artificial island exclusively built for such a purpose. The goal was to avoid the political and social fallout of a mega airport project, which led to additional construction costs and engineering challenges. The purpose of the project was to provide additional regional air capacity since the Osaka airport (Itami) was getting congested. Construction of the artificial island started in 1987 followed by the airport terminal in 1991. The airport opened in 1994, an impressive time achievement for such a complex project. It was designed to handle international traffic, including cargo, while the Osaka Itami airport reverted to domestic traffic only. Because of the unique geographical constraints of Japan, the airport was built with **strong engineering requirements** to be able to withstand earthquakes and typhoons. The resiliency of this engineering was soon tested with the 1995 Kobe Earthquake, which left the airport undamaged. Still, Kansai [did not experience noticeable passenger traffic growth](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/passenger-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/ "Passengers Traffic, DFW, HKG and KIX, 1982-2016") through the late 1990s and 2000s. It was only between 2015 and 2019 that the passenger traffic doubled but with no change in cargo. The COVID-19 pandemic had dramatic impacts on passenger traffic which dropped by 92% between 2020 and 2021, with limited recovery since. Another important engineering challenge that added substantially to construction costs was the gradual sinking of the airport due to the geological conditions of Osaka Bay. While it was predicted that the island would sink by about 6 meters, by 2000 it had sunk by over 9 meters. The airport still continues to sink but at a lower rate. Linking the airport to the mainland also required the construction of a 3.7 km bridge, which was also a major project. Thus, The Kansai International Airport became a pioneering mega-engineering project that set the stage for similar projects such as Centrair International Airport in Nagoya and Chek Lap Kok in Hong Kong. Kansai was deeply # 4. Chek Lap Kok (Hong Kong) Hong Kong is a major financial center and a **strategic commercial gateway** commanding access to the Pearl River Delta, one of the world’s most significant manufacturing clusters. In 2016, Chek Lap Kok handled 70.5 million passengers, making it the 10th largest in the world, but the **first in the world in terms of freight** being handled. Hong Kong is likely to be the airport the most impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, with a [drop of 87% in passenger traffic](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/passenger-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/ "Passengers Traffic, DFW, HKG and KIX, 1982-2016") between 2019 and 2020, a net loss of 35.7 million passengers. As of 2022, there has been no recovery in passenger traffic, while [freight traffic](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/freight-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/ "Freight Traffic, DFW, HKG and KIX, 1982-2022") remained much less impacted. The original commercial airport of Hong Kong, Kai Tak, was established in 1925 and went through a series of expansions, mostly through land reclamation over Victoria Harbor. By the late 1980s and early 1990, Kai Tak was facing capacity constraints, in addition, to being at a site not well suitable for airport operations. The airport only had one runway, limiting operations, and its approach required a complex series of turns. Still, it had the advantage of being located very close to the central areas of Hong Kong (Kowloon). Once the new airport of Chek Lap Kok was built, the old airport site was converted to other uses, such as residential and commercial activities and a cruise terminal. The construction of Hong Kong’s new airport terminal, which opened in July 1998, represented a unique geographical and engineering challenge. Since no sufficient amount of flat land was available in Hong Kong, [an island of 1,250 hectares had to be reclaimed](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3813). Road and rail connections, including a number of bridges, were also built to connect the airport to Kowloon and Hong Kong island, which are located about 34 km from the new airport. A light rail transit system (LRT) links the airport terminal to downtown Hong Kong in about 23 minutes. In addition, ferry services are also directly calling the airport (SkyPier), which represents a rather **unique form of airport connectivity**. The airport site, with additional expansions, was designed to jointly handle freight and passengers and could ultimately accommodate about 87 million passengers per year, but its current capacity is about 70 million passengers per year. Two significant expansions have taken place so far. This first was the North Satellite Concourse, which opened in 2009, adding 10 gates used by narrow-body aircraft. The second is the Midfield Concourse, which opened in 2016 and added 20 gates. Land for logistics and cargo facilities was also provided directly adjacent to runways. In 2018, the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge (HZMB), a facility of 55 km in length crossing the Pearl River Delta, was completed. It connects directly the airport island to Macau through a series of bridges and tunnels, which is the longest fixed link in the world. Since the bridge links different jurisdictions of China (Hong Kong SAR, Macau SAR, and Guangdong Province), a large border clearance facility was built on 130 hectares of reclaimed land adjacent to Chek Lap Kok island. The facility offers check-in services for passengers accessing the airport through the HZMB. The mega project thus significantly contributed to maintaining the commercial position of Hong Kong and helped support thriving air cargo operations linked with the development of the electronics sector in the Pearl River Delta. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passenger_traffic_dfw_hkg_kix.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Passengers Traffic, DFW, HKG and KIX, 1982-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/passenger-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/passenger_mega_airports/)Passengers Traffic DFW HKG and KIX 1982 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_traffic_dfw_hkg_kix.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Freight Traffic, DFW, HKG and KIX, 1982-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/freight-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/freight_mega_airports/)Freight Traffic DFW HKG and KIX 1982 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dfw_aerialview.jpg?resize=784%2C756&ssl=1 "Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/dallas-fort-worth-airport/dfw_aerialview/)DallasFort Worth International Airport[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/kansai.png?resize=850%2C531&ssl=1 "Kansai International Airport | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/kansai-airport/kansai/)Kansai International Airport[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hong_kong_chek_lap_kok_terminal.jpg?resize=768%2C441&ssl=1 "Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/sitehongkongairport/hong_kong_airport_terminal_rs-jpg/)Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal--- ## Related Topics - [Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3717) - [Air Transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1765) - [Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Freight Traffic, DFW, HKG and KIX, 1982-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/freight-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/) **Published:** December 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_traffic_dfw_hkg_kix.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Freight Traffic, DFW, HKG and KIX, 1982-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Freight Traffic DFW HKG and KIX 1982 2022*Source: Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport (DFW), Hong Kong International Airport (HKG) and Kansai International Airport (KIX).* In the 1980s and 1990s, traffic handled by DFW grew rapidly, but peaked in 2000 at just above 60 million passengers and 950,000 tons. Over the next 15 years, little change took place for passenger traffic, while air cargo remained stable. The stagnation of air cargo is partly attributed to the erosion of the Texan IT sector and the NAFTA trade being bypassed by economic growth in Asia. Most of the growth in air cargo flows took place across the Pacific, a market that is not much serviced by DFW. A similar observation can be made for Kansai, which has not experienced much growth. While during the 1990s, the Japanese electronics industry was still growing, many of its activities were relocated to China. For Hong Kong, the growth has been substantial, and the airport is the largest air freight platform in the world, servicing the Pearl River Delta. Still, after the post-COVID-19 surge, freight traffic is facing a downward trend. This is mainly attributed to the relocation of several high-tech manufacturing facilities outside the Pear River Delta to new offshore locations, such as Vietnam and India. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/freight-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/freight-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/freight-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/mega-airport-projects/freight-traffic-dfw-hkg-kix/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Fresh Flowers Cold Chain, Ecuador-United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/flowers-ecuador-united-states/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fresh_flowers_cold_chain.png?resize=900%2C541&ssl=1 "Fresh Flowers Cold Chain, Ecuador-United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fresh Flowers Cold Chain Ecuador United States*Source: H.L. Vega (2008) Trade and Transportation Costs in Ecuador: A Case Study of Fresh Flowers, LAEBA 2008 Fourth Annual Meeting Lima, June 17, 2008.* The globalization of the fresh flower industry started in the early 1970s with the development of long-distance jet services that could carry time and temperature-sensitive flower shipments to markets. Conventionally, flower retailers were being supplied from nearby farms, and shipments were processed and assembled on site. In order to decrease production costs, grow flowers in more suitable conditions (increase quality), and increase output through economies of scale, flower production went to offshore locations. The outcome has been a remarkable shift in the geography of flower production, which, like many other manufacturing sectors, was transformed by globalization. For instance, while in 1971 1.2 billion blooms were produced and 100 million blooms were imported in the United States, this figure shifted in 2003 to a production of 100 million blooms and imports of 2 billion blooms. The world’s main producers have become Columbia and Kenya, with Colombia alone accounting for 70% of the American market. What has also changed is the division of labor since all labor-intensive tasks are performed close to the production site, namely the assembly and wrapping of bouquets, and once the flowers leave to be airlifted what remains is mostly a matter of freight distribution. A complex cold chain is involved in forwarding flowers. Once they are harvested and cut to the required size, they are dipped into an anti-fungal solution, assembled into bouquets (composition depending on fashion and specific events such as Christmas or Mother’s Day), and wrapped. Bouquets are then stored in refrigerated warehouses at temperatures just above the freezing point to maximize the shelf life of the lot. The lots are then ready to be palletized and brought to the airport, where once cleared through customs, they will be loaded to a direct 4-hour flight bound for Miami. Once customs have been cleared (the main concern is pests) the loads are broken down and sent to retailers across the country, which can take between 2 hours and 5 days, depending on the final destination. Bouquets arrive at retail outlets ready to be sold to the final consumer. At each step of the cold chain, there is a risk that the lot could be damaged, either directly or indirectly, through a breach in the integrity of the chain. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/flowers-ecuador-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/flowers-ecuador-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/flowers-ecuador-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/flowers-ecuador-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Static and Dynamic Capacity of Transport Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-infrastructure-static-dynamic-capacity/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/static_dynamic_capacity2.png?resize=900%2C499&ssl=1 "Static and Dynamic Capacity of Transport Infrastructure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Static and Dynamic Capacity of Transport InfrastructureThe concept of transport infrastructure capacity is complex. The **nominal capacity** of most transport terminals and infrastructure is the traffic they can handle within a time frame and normal conditions in terms of reliability. It is jointly defined by static and dynamic considerations: - **Static capacity** refers to the infrastructure and available land as bigger terminals or larger roads (more lanes) conceptually have more capacity. Static capacity cannot be easily changed without expanding the facility or the infrastructure, which tends to be capital-intensive and requires additional land. This can be a complex proposition in areas of limited land availability (or high land cost). - **Dynamic capacity** relates to superstructure, labor, and technology, which can be improved upon. For instance, a more efficient terminal operation strategy can increase its physical throughput and capacity without resorting to additional land. The dynamic capacity of a road system can also be improved with a better synchronization of traffic lights. The intensity and density of utilization are improved with more efficient superstructure and management. Dynamic capacity is a straightforward strategy to improve the efficiency and productivity of transport assets. However, an optimal level of dynamic capacity is achieved at some point, and nominal capacity can only be improved through additional static capacity (or demand reduction or modal shift). Transportation infrastructure operating above 80% of nominal capacity usually encounters dynamic capacity issues. Optimal nominal capacity cannot be effectively achieved, particularly since a specific transport facility or infrastructure is linked with others, so capacity improvements must be synchronized. For instance, a port terminal operating near optimum nominal capacity is facing serious congestion issues in the form of queuing at the terminal’s access points; ships may be queuing on the harbor side to access the terminal, while trucks may be waiting at the gate to pick up or deliver containers. A similar situation applies to airports where the capacity of an airport is impacted by the capacity of other connected airports as well as its capacity to handle security procedures and baggage handling. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-infrastructure-static-dynamic-capacity/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-infrastructure-static-dynamic-capacity/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-infrastructure-static-dynamic-capacity/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-infrastructure-static-dynamic-capacity/?share=reddit) - --- ### [3.4 - The Provision and Demand of Transportation Services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Theo Notteboom > Transport supply is the capacity of specific transportation infrastructures and modes over a time period. Transport demand is mobility needs for the same time period, even if they are only partially satisfied. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Supply and Demand for Transportation](#1_The_Supply_and_Demand_for_Transportation) - [2. Supply and Demand Functions](#2_Supply_and_Demand_Functions) - [3. Supply / Demand Relationships](#3_Supply_Demand_Relationships) - [4. Transportation Yield Management](#4_Transportation_Yield_Management) # 1. The Supply and Demand for Transportation Each transport mode shares the common goal of fulfilling a [derived transport demand](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=186), and each transport mode thus fills the purpose of **supporting mobility**. Transportation is a service that must be utilized immediately since, unlike the goods and resources it often carries, the transport service itself cannot be stored. Mobility takes place using transport infrastructures of a fixed capacity, providing a transport supply. In several instances, transport demand is answered in the simplest means possible, notably by walking over a landscape with little or no modifications. However, in cases like air transportation, elaborate infrastructures and modes are required to provide mobility. Transportation is a market composed of suppliers of transport services and users of these services. Well-functioning transport markets should allow the transport supply to meet transport demand to satisfy transport needs for the mobility of passengers and freight. An economic system, including numerous activities located in different areas, generates movements that the transport system must support. Without mobility, infrastructures would be useless, and without infrastructures, mobility could not occur or would not be cost-effective. This **interdependency** can be considered according to two concepts, which are transport [supply and demand](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5641): > **Transport supply.** The capacity of transportation infrastructures and modes, generally over a geographically defined transport system and for a specific period of time. Supply is expressed in terms of infrastructures (capacity), services (frequency), and networks (coverage). Capacity is often assessed in [static and dynamic terms](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5650) where static capacity represents the amount of space available for transport (e.g. terminal surface), and dynamic capacity is the improvement that can be made through better technology and management. The number of passengers, volume (for liquids or containerized traffic), or mass (for freight) that can be transported per unit of time and space is commonly used to quantify transport supply. > **Transport demand**. Transport needs, even if those needs are satisfied, fully, partially, or not at all. Transport demand can thus be realized, where it has been measured under existing conditions, or potential, where it could happen under hypothetical conditions. Similar to transport supply, it is expressed in terms of the number of people, volume, or tons per unit of time and distance. The supply side of the transport market can be divided into two categories: - **Third-party transportation.** Transport companies offer transport services to users who require such services, often on open markets. Transport users pay for the services delivered according to the agreed contract terms or the current (spot) rate. Examples include third-party trucking companies, container shipping lines, railway operators, and bus companies. Competitiveness is a key advantage of third-party transportation as providers strive to offer better and lower-cost customer services. There is also the risk of fluctuating prices due to changing market conditions, and transport capacity may not be available when a customer requires it. Third-party transportation companies come in various sizes depending on the characteristics of the transportation markets they service. There are large global third-party transportation companies such as maritime shipping lines, third-party logistics providers (UPS, FedEx, DHL), and small operations such as trucking and local delivery companies. - **Own account transportation.** The transport user deploys his own transport means to move freight or travel (e.g. motorists using private cars or large industrial companies owning a fleet of trucks or rail wagons). The transport user has direct access to a known capacity at the risk of a lower level of asset utilization (e.g. empty movements or idle equipment). There is no specific relation between firm size and the use of own account transportation since such an arrangement is used by small local firms having their delivery vehicles as well as large corporations such as mining and wood companies. Transport demand is generated by the economy, composed of persons, institutions, and industries, which generate the mobility of passengers and freight. A distinction can be made between **consumptive** and **productive** transport needs. Productive transport needs to have a clear economic focus. For example, transporting semi-finished products from one production site to the final production or assembly site creates added value in the production process by benefiting from the locational advantages of each production site. Consumptive transport needs to generate less visible added value. For example, a road trip does not add value in a purely economic sense but generates subjective utility and satisfaction for the users. A discussion on the functioning of transport markets is particularly relevant where it concerns the fulfillment of productive transport needs, but the consumptive dimension of transport must also be considered. A wide range of models has been developed to represent transportation demand, categorized as [constant, deterministic, and stochastic](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/types-transportation-demand/ "Types of Transportation Demand"). Transport demand can vary under [two concomitant circumstances](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-demand-growth-factors/ "Growth Factors in Transport Demand"); the number of passengers or amount of freight increases, or the distance over which these passengers or freight are carried increases. For the movements of passengers, the location of residential, commercial, and industrial areas reveals patterns in the generation and attraction of movements. The location of resources, factories, distribution centers, and markets are related to [freight mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-demand-factors/ "Factors behind Freight Transport Demand"). Geographical considerations and transport costs account for significant variations in the composition of freight transport demand between countries. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transportation_derived_demand.png?resize=900%2C600&ssl=1 "Transportation as a Derived Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transportation-derived-demand/transportation_derived_demand/)Transportation as a Derived Demand[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_supply_demand2.png?resize=900%2C702&ssl=1 "Transport Supply and Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-demand/transport_supply_demand2/)Transport Supply and Demand[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/static_dynamic_capacity2.png?resize=900%2C499&ssl=1 "Static and Dynamic Capacity of Transport Infrastructure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-infrastructure-static-dynamic-capacity/static_dynamic_capacity2/)Static and Dynamic Capacity of Transport Infrastructure[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_transport_demand.png?resize=900%2C365&ssl=1 "Types of Transportation Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/types-transportation-demand/types_transport_demand/)Types of Transportation Demand[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/growth_factors_transport_demand2.png?resize=900%2C613&ssl=1 "Growth Factors in Transport Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-demand-growth-factors/growth_factors_transport_demand2/)Growth Factors in Transport Demand[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/factors_freight_transport_demand.png?resize=900%2C433&ssl=1 "Factors behind Freight Transport Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-demand-factors/factors_freight_transport_demand/)Factors behind Freight Transport Demand# 2. Supply and Demand Functions Transport supply and demand have a **reciprocal but asymmetric** relation. While a realized transport demand cannot occur without a corresponding transport supply level, a transport supply can exist without a corresponding transport demand. This is common in infrastructure projects designed with a capacity fulfilling an expected demand level, which may or may not materialize or take a substantial amount of time. Scheduled transport services, such as public transit or airlines, offer a transport supply that runs even if the demand is insufficient. Infrastructures also tend to be designed at a capacity level higher than the expected base scenario in case demand turns out to be higher than anticipated. Occasionally, transportation infrastructure is built with the expectation that the design capacity will never be exceeded. In other cases, the demand does not materialize due to improper planning or unexpected socio-economic changes. Transport demand that is met by a supply of transport services generates traffic (trucks, trains, ships, airplanes, buses, bicycles, etc.) on the corresponding transport infrastructure networks. The traffic capacity is generally larger than the actual transport demand since the average utilization level of vehicles rarely reaches 100 percent. This involves, for instance, empty hauls of trucks, an underutilized container ship capacity sailing on a shipping route characterized by imbalanced container flows, underutilized off-peak bus service, and the one person per car situation in commuter traffic. There is a simple statistical way to measure transport supply and demand for passengers or freight: > The **passenger-km** (or passenger-mile) is a common measure expressing the realized passenger transport demand as it compares a transported quantity of passengers with a distance over which it gets carried. The ton-km (or ton-mile) is a measure expressing the realized freight transport demand. Although both the passenger-km and ton-km are most commonly used to measure realized demand, the measure can equally apply for transport supply. For instance, the transport supply of a Boeing 777-200ER flight between New York and London would be 314 passengers (in a three classes configuration) over 5,500 kilometers (with a transit time of about 6 hours, depending on the direction). This implies a transport supply of 1,727,000 passenger-km. In reality, there could be a demand of 340 passengers for that flight (1,870,000 passengers-km), even if the actual capacity would be 314 passengers. In this case, the realized demand would be 314 passengers over 5,500 kilometers out of a potential demand of 340 passengers, implying a system where demand is at 108% capacity. When the potential demand is much higher than the realized demand, fares are usually adjusted until there is a better match (laws of supply and demand). Higher fares may lessen the potential demand while they may, at the same time, be an incentive to add additional capacity. This process is usually iterative until supply and demand converge. Like many economic sectors, **price discovery mechanisms** continuously impact the transportation market. Several factors impact the capacity of transport infrastructure, including the physical characteristics of the network, how it is funded, operated, and maintained, or the presence of [bottlenecks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1422). Transport supply can be simplified by a set of functions representing the main variables influencing the capacity of transport systems. These [variables](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-modes-sypply-variables/ "Major Supply Variables for Transportation Modes") are different for each mode. For road and rail, transport supply often depends on the capacity of the routes and vehicles (modal supply). In contrast, air and maritime transportation transport supply is strongly influenced by the **capacity of the terminals (intermodal supply).** - **Modal supply**. The [supply of one mode influences the supply of others](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5667), such as roads, where different modes compete for the same infrastructure, especially in congested areas. For instance, the transport supply for cars and trucks is inversely proportional since they share the same road infrastructure. This is mainly a zero-sum game. - **Intermodal supply**. Transport supply is also dependent on the transshipment capacity of intermodal infrastructures. For instance, the maximum number of flights per day between New York and Chicago cannot be superior to the daily capacity of New York and Chicago airports, even though the New York – Chicago air corridor potentially has a very high capacity. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bottlenecks_types.png?resize=900%2C629&ssl=1 "Types of Transportation Bottlenecks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/bottlenecks-types-transportation/bottlenecks_types/)Types of Bottlenecks[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_variables_transportation.png?resize=900%2C385&ssl=1 "Major Supply Variables for Transportation Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-modes-sypply-variables/transport_supply_variables/)Major Supply Variables for Transportation Modes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_competition_intermodal_capacity2.png?resize=900%2C245&ssl=1 "Impacts of Modal Competition and Intermodal Capacity on Transport Supply | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-modal-competition/modal_competition_intermodal_capacity/)Impacts of Modal Competition and Intermodal Capacity on Transport SupplyTransport demand tends to be expressed at specific times related to economic and social activity patterns. Transport demand is often **stable and recurrent**, which allows a good approximation in planning services. In other cases, transport demand is **unstable and uncertain**, which makes it challenging to offer an adequate level of service. For instance, commuting is a recurring and predictable pattern of movements, while emergency response vehicles such as ambulances deal with an unpredictable demand that can be expressed as a probability. Transport demand functions vary according to the nature of what is to be transported: - **Passengers**. For the road and air transport of passengers, demand is a function of demographic attributes of the population, such as income, age, standard of living, race, and gender, as well as modal preferences. - [**Freight**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5672). For freight transportation, demand is a function of the nature and importance of economic activities (GDP, commercial surface, number of tons of ore extracted, etc.) and modal preferences. Freight transportation demand is more complex to evaluate than passengers. # 3. Supply / Demand Relationships The relationships between the transport supply and demand continually change but are **mutually interrelated**. From a conventional economic perspective, [transport supply and demand interact](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5676) until an equilibrium is reached between the quantity of transportation the market is willing to use at a given price and the quantity supplied for that price level. Price changes affect not only the level of transport demand but can also lead to **demand shifts to other routes**, alternative transport modes, and other time periods. In the medium or long-term structural changes in transport pricing can affect the locational decisions of individuals and businesses. However, several considerations are specific to the transport sector, which make supply/demand relationships more complex: - **Entry costs**. These are the costs incurred to operate at least one vehicle in a transport system. In some sectors, notably maritime, rail, and air transportation, entry costs are very high, while in others, such as trucking, they are very low. High entry costs imply that transport companies will seriously consider the additional demand before adding new capacity or infrastructures (or venturing into a new service). In a situation of low entry costs, the number of companies fluctuates with the demand. When entry costs are high, the emergence of a new player is uncommon, while dropping out is often a dramatic event linked to a massive bankruptcy. Consequently, transport activities with high entry costs tend to be oligopolistic, while transport activities with low entry costs tend to have many competitors. - **Public sector**. Few other sectors of the economy have seen such a high level of public involvement than transportation, which creates disruptions in conventional price mechanisms. The provision of transport infrastructures, especially roads, was massively funded by governments for national accessibility and regional equity. Transit systems are also heavily subsidized to provide accessibility to urban populations and, more specifically, to the poorest segment judged to be deprived of mobility. Therefore, transport costs are often considered partially subsidized. In several countries, government control (and direct ownership) was also significant for several modes, such as rail and air transportation. The recent years have been characterized by privatization and deregulation. - **Elasticity**. The notion of price elasticity is at the core of transport demand and refers to the variation of demand in response to a variation in cost. For example, an elasticity of -0.5 for vehicle use concerning vehicle operating costs means that an increase of 1% in operating costs would imply a 0.5% reduction in vehicle mileage or trips. Variations in transport costs have different consequences for different modes, but transport demand tends to be inelastic. While commuting tends to be inelastic in terms of costs, it is elastic in terms of time. For economic sectors where freight costs are a small component of the total production costs, variations in transport costs have limited consequences on demand. Price variations for air transportation, especially in the tourism sector, significantly impact demand. There are thus differences among the obtained price elasticities, which raises questions about the transferability of the results to other locations and/or other time periods. Hence, each case is characterized by a specific local environment in terms of modal choice options, budget/income of the transport user, spatial planning, price levels, etc. All these factors combined can make the behavior of transport users somewhat different across regions and settings. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_demand_supply_function.png?resize=900%2C594&ssl=1 "Standard Transport Demand / Supply Function | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-demand-function/classic_transport_supply_demand/)Standard Transport Demand Supply Function[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/road_elasticity.png?resize=900%2C497&ssl=1 "Road Transport Elasticity by Activity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/elasticity-road-transport/transport_elasticity/)Road Transport Elasticity by ActivityThe price elasticity of transport demand can influence the strategic behavior of economic actors. For instance, passenger [road transportation has substantial variations in elasticity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/elasticity-road-transport/ "Road Transport Elasticity by Activity") depending on the nature of the trip, with communing showing limited elasticity while recreational trips have high elasticity. Further, container shipping lines face a highly inelastic demand due to the combined effect of a lack of close substitutes and the small impact of freight rates on total costs. The only alternative transport mode in the intercontinental transport of high-value goods is air freight. Still, this market segment has a much lower cargo-carrying capacity, and prices are much higher. For most shipments, the **total freight price only accounts for a tiny portion of the total value**, usually less than 5%. As container lines cannot influence the size of the final market, they try to increase their short-run market share by reducing prices. As such, shipping lines may reduce freight rates without substantially affecting the underlying demand for container freight. The only additional demand can come from low-value products, which will only be shipped overseas if freight rates are very low (e.g. the market for waste paper and metal scrap). These temporary markets tend to disappear once the freight rate is above a threshold level, no longer allowing a profit on trading these products overseas. The relatively inelastic demand for shipping services constitutes the core problem for the poor financial performance of container shipping lines. Shipping lines have developed an intense concentration on costs and negotiated long-term contracts with large shippers in view of securing cargo. As transport demand is derived from individuals, groups, and industries, it can be **desegregated into a series of partial demands** fulfilled by adapting and evolving transport techniques, vehicles, and infrastructures to changing needs. Moreover, the growing complexity of economies and societies linked with technological changes forces the transport industry to constant changes. This leads to growing congestion, a potential reduction in transport safety, degradation of transport infrastructures, and concerns about environmental impacts. # 4. Transportation Yield Management Transport demand tends to be [variable in time and space, whereas the transport supply is fixed](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5688). Transit times are stable and predictable when demand is lower than supply since the infrastructures can support their load. When transport demand exceeds supply for a period of time, there is congestion with significant **increases in transit times** and **higher levels of unpredictability**. The growth of the transport demand increases the load factor of a transport network until the transport supply is reached. Speed and transit times drop afterward. The same journey can thus have different duration according to the time of the day. Conventionally, congestion tended to have limited impacts on the fare structure as many transport operators were **state-owned or highly regulated**. Services and fares were fixed. With deregulation, transport companies were able to establish a level of service reflecting market forces, as well as being able to expand or rationalize their capacity. Subsidies were removed, implying that the fare structure would be the dominant source of income to provide for the operating and capital costs of the transport service. A common issue is that while the transport supply is relatively well known, often a scheduled service, the transport demand remains predictable but subject to volatility. Many transport providers, particularly airline companies, have responded to the complexity of predicting transport demand with **yield management** approaches. > Transportation yield management is the process of managing the usage price of a transport asset, such as the fare paid by users, given continuous changes in demand. Such an approach aims to maximize profit in the context where the transport supply is fixed. [Yield management](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5700) leans on three conditions: - **A fixed transport capacity** implies that transport demand is the only function that can effectively vary. For instance, the capacity of a scheduled flight or a containership is fixed (known value) and cannot be readily changed without severe impacts on the quality of service. An exception to this rule concerns on-demand taxi services, where peak hours often lead to surges in fares, inciting additional drivers to become available during that time period. - **Unused transport capacity loses all its utility**, implying that transport suppliers cannot store the services that have not been used for another time. Once an aircraft or a ship has departed, its transport capacity is lost for the concerned airport or port. Therefore, any unused capacity is a loss of potential revenue. - **Transport users are willing to pay different rates for the same capacity or service**, implying that they value transportation differently based on their priorities and time preferences. For instance, a business traveler needing to attend a meeting values differently the same airplane seat as a tourist would. The former would be willing to pay a high price to secure a seat on a specific flight, while the latter tends to seek discounted values and would be unwilling to bid above a certain price threshold. Also, time-dependent users of cargo services (e.g. electronics) are willing to pay more for the same capacity than those who are less time-dependent. Under such circumstances, transport operators may continuously change their rates to reflect **temporal and spatial fluctuations in demand**. For instance, in the United States, domestic airfares are readjusted on average 92 times on a specific flight between the time seats are available and the scheduled departure time. Another form of yield management concerns **overbooking**, where a transportation service provider sells more capacity than is available. The expectation is that ‘no-shows’ will ensure that the existing capacity is close to being fully used. This issue is particularly prevalent in the airline and container shipping industries. The main risk is the miscalculation of the overbooked demand, leading to passengers or freight being denied a booked transport service. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_supply_demand_travel.png?resize=900%2C765&ssl=1 "Transport Supply, Demand and Travel Time | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/supdemtime-2/supply_demand_travel_time/)Transport Supply Demand and Travel Time[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_yield_management.png?resize=900%2C361&ssl=1 "Transportation Yield Management | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transportation-yield-management/yield_management/)Transportation Yield Management[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/average_price_domestic_airfare.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Price of a Domestic Airfare Based on Advance Purchase, United States, 2013 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/domestic-airfare-united-states/us_domestic_airfare/)Average Price of a Domestic Airfare Based on Advance Purchase United States 2013The provision and demand for transportation services is a complex mechanism subject to **constant fluctuations**. It is not an optimal process but efficient enough to provide the required mobility level for passengers and freight in many markets. --- ## Related Topics - [3.1 – Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260) - [1.5 – Transportation and Commercial Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=481) - [3.3 – Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5268) ## Bibliography - Button K. (2022) Transport Economics, 4th Edition, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar. - Cowie, J. and S. Ison (eds) (2017) The Routledge Handbook of Transport Economics, New York: Routledge. - Henckel, T. and W. McKibbin (2010) The Economics of Infrastructure in a Globalized World: Issues, Lessons and Future Challenges, Washington: The Brookings Institution. - Llewelyn-Davies (2004) Transport and City Competitiveness – Literature Review, Department for Transport. - Perroux, F. (1955) “Note sur la Notion de Pôle de Croissance”, Economie Appliquée, Vol. 7, pp. 307-320. - Porter, M.E. (2000) “Location, Competition and Economic Development: Local Clusters in a Global Economy”, Economic Development Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 15- 34. - Prentice, B.E. and D. Prokop (2016) Concepts of Transportation Economics, Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. - Vogel, H.L. (2012) Travel Industry Economics: A Guide for Financial Analysis, New York: Cambridge University Press. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [4.2 - Transportation and the Environment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/) **Published:** December 7, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transportation systems, from infrastructures to vehicle operations, have environmental impacts ranging from noise, the emission of pollutants to climate change. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Issue of Transport and the Environment](#1_The_Issue_of_Transport_and_the_Environment) - [2. The Transport – Environment Link](#2_The_Transport_%E2%80%93_Environment_Link) - [3. Environmental Dimensions](#3_Environmental_Dimensions) - [4. Environmental Externalities](#4_Environmental_Externalities) - [5. Assessing Environmental Externalities](#5_Assessing_Environmental_Externalities) # 1. The Issue of Transport and the Environment The issue of transportation and the environment is [paradoxical](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5733) since transportation conveys substantial socioeconomic benefits, but at the same time, transportation is impacting [environmental systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5739). On one side, transportation activities support increasing mobility demands for passengers and freight, while on the other, transport activities are associated with **environmental impacts** that can have negative effects. Further, environmental conditions affect transportation systems regarding operating conditions and infrastructure requirements such as construction and maintenance (see [Transportation and the Physical Environment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=322) for a review of these constraints). Transportation and the environment can thus be perceived as a system with retroactive effects. The transport sector, including all modes, accounts for [about 25% of global CO2 emissions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/greenhouse-gas-emissions-transportation/ "Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by the Transportation Sector"), with this share being around 28% for advanced economies such as the United States. Further to these emissions, there are environmental impacts unique to transportation, such as the procurement, refining, and distribution of fossil fuels and noise emitted by transport operations with conveyances and terminals. The growth of passenger and freight mobility has expanded the role of transportation as a source of emission of pollutants. Total emissions are generally a function of the **emission factor** of each transport mode than their **level of activity**, which implies a variety of [environmental impacts](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5743). These impacts fall within three categories: - **Direct impacts.** The immediate consequence of transport activities on the environment where the cause and effect relationship are generally clear and well understood. For instance, noise and carbon monoxide emissions are known to have direct harmful effects. - **Indirect impacts.** The secondary (or tertiary) effects of transport activities on environmental systems. They are often of a higher consequence than direct impacts, but the involved relationships are often misunderstood and more challenging to establish. For instance, particulates, which are mostly the outcome of incomplete combustion in an internal combustion engine, are indirectly linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute, among other factors, to such conditions. - **Cumulative impacts**. The additive, multiplicative, or synergetic consequences of transport activities. They consider the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem, which are often unpredictable. Climate change, with complex causes and consequences, is the cumulative impact of several natural and anthropogenic factors in which transportation plays a role. The complexities of the impacts have led to much **controversy** in environmental policy, the role of transportation, and mitigation strategies. This is made even more complex by the fact that [priorities between environmental and economic considerations shift in time](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8468), which can have an impact on public policy. The transportation sector is often subsidized, primarily through constructing and maintaining road infrastructure, which tends to be free of access. Sometimes, public stakes in transport modes, terminals, and infrastructure can be at odds with environmental issues. If the owner and the regulator are the same (different branches of the government), then there is a risk that regulations will not be effectively complied with. Total costs incurred by transportation activities, notably environmental damage, are generally not fully assumed by the service providers and users. The lack of consideration of the **real costs of transportation** could explain several environmental problems. Yet, a complex [hierarchy of costs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5746) is involved, ranging from internal (mostly operations), compliance (abiding by regulations), contingent (risk of an event such as a spill) to external (assumed by the society). For instance, external costs account, on average, for more than 30% of the estimated [automobile ownership and operating costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/car-ownership-costs/ "Average Cost of Owning and Operating an Automobile, 1975-2020"). If environmental costs are not included in this appraisal, the usage of the car can be considered to be subsidized, and costs accumulate as environmental pollution. This requires due consideration as the number of vehicles, especially automobiles, [is steadily increasing](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1874). The role of the public sector represents a conundrum as transportation infrastructures are provided to support mobility. Still, this provision also subsidizes transportation and, as such, results in additional environmental impacts. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mobility_paradox.png?resize=900%2C282&ssl=1 "The Paradox of Mobility and its Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/mobility-paradox-costs/mobility_paradox/)The Paradox of Mobility and its Costs[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/environmental_system2.png?resize=900%2C496&ssl=1 "The Environmental System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/environmental-system/environmental_system2/)The Environmental System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/public_preferences_economy_environment.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Public Preferences for Priority between the Economy and the Environment | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/public-preferences-economy-environment/public_preferences_environment/)Public Preferences for Priority between the Economy and the Environment[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/greenhouse_transport_sector.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by the Transportation Sector | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/greenhouse-gas-emissions-transportation/greenhouse_transport_sector/)Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by the Transportation Sector[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/environmental_relationships_transportation.png?resize=900%2C502&ssl=1 "The Environmental Relationships of Transportation Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/transport-systems-environment/environmental_relationships_transportation/)The Environmental Relationships of Transportation Systems[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cost_owning_automobile_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Cost of Owning and Operating an Automobile | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/car-ownership-costs/cost_ownership_automobile/)Average Cost of Owning and Operating an Automobile[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_production_fleet.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Automobile Production and Fleet | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/automobile-production-fleet-world/world_automobile_production-1/)World Automobile Production and Fleet[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/environmental_costs_hierarchy.png?resize=900%2C533&ssl=1 "Environmental Costs Hierarchy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/environmental_costs_hierarchy/)Environmental Costs Hierarchy# 2. The Transport – Environment Link ## a. Contemporary evolution The relationships between transport and the environment are **[multidimensional](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/transportation-environmental-dimensions/ "Environmental Dimensions of Transportation")**. Some aspects are unknown, and some new findings may lead to changes in environmental policies. Historically, transportation was associated with very few negative environmental impacts because of the modes used and low mobility levels. For instance, the construction of large navies composed of sailships was responsible for deforestation in Western Europe and North America from the 16th to the 19th centuries. Urbanization in the 19th century and the reliance on horses created problems concerning manure disposal. Further, industrialization and the development of steam engines led to pollution (e.g. soot) near ports and rail yards. Still, these issues remained **marginal and localized**. In the 20th century, a comprehensive perspective on the links between transportation and the environment emerged, particularly with the massive diffusion of transportation modes such as the automobile and the airplane. At the same time, manufacturing and marketing concepts such as **planned obsolescence** incited the design of modes such as the automobile and products (that are transported) that can continuously be replaced. The 1960s and 1970s were crucial decades in realizing the negative environmental impacts of human activities, which fostered the need for regulations, particularly in advanced economies. From an infrastructure perspective, the first comprehensive environmental regulation, the **National Environmental Policy Act** (NEPA), was set in 1970 and required all federal agencies of the US government to make environmental impact assessments of their actions. Since an agency such as the Department of Transportation is an important provider and manager of transportation infrastructure, this legislation substantially impacted how transportation is assessed to be linked with environmental issues. One clear consequence was the growth in the length and complexity of approving transport infrastructure projects to ensure they meet environmental standards. Opponents of a project could also use the regulatory framework to delay or even cancel its construction and, on occasion, change its design parameters. An unintended consequence was that the complexity of environmental regulations tends to impair innovations and incite current providers to keep existing infrastructure and facilities for the concern to trigger an uncertain environmental review with a new project. In time, this slowed down transport infrastructure development and substantially increased their costs. From an operational perspective, the **Clean Air Act** of 1970 set clear air quality standards and expectations for both stationary (e.g. a power plant) and mobile (e.g. an automobile) sources of air pollutants. For transportation, it immediately set emissions standards for a list of acknowledged pollutants such as carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and nitrogen oxide. The outcome was a [rapid decline in air pollutant emissions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5805) by the transportation sector through better engine technology. The **Clean Water Act** of 1977 provided a similar regulatory environment concerning water pollution and the ability to build infrastructures over wetlands. The 1990s were characterized by a realization of **global environmental issues** epitomized by the growing concerns between anthropogenic effects and climate change. Transportation also became an important dimension of the [concept of sustainability](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5725), which has become a core focus, ranging from vehicle emissions to green supply chain management practices. Sustainability was further expanded in complexity and reach by the setting of **Sustainable Development Goals** by the United Nations in 2015, which included 17 objectives involving dimensions such as poverty, food systems, inequalities, and climate. Paradoxically, transportation does not figure as a unique category, underlining its perception as a derived activity. These developments require a deep understanding of the reciprocal influence between the physical environment and transport infrastructures, modes, and terminals, and yet this understanding is often lacking. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/environmental_dimensions_transportation.png?resize=900%2C499&ssl=1 "Environmental Dimensions of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/transportation-environmental-dimensions/environmental_dimensions_transportation/)Environmental Dimensions of Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cost_owning_automobile_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Cost of Owning and Operating an Automobile | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/car-ownership-costs/cost_ownership_automobile/)Average Cost of Owning and Operating an Automobile 1975 2018## b. Multidimensional complexity The [environmental dimensions of transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5512) are related to the **causes**, the [activities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5759), the **outputs,** and the **results** of transport systems. Establishing linkages between environmental dimensions is a difficult undertaking. For instance, to what extent are carbon dioxide emissions linked to land use patterns? Furthermore, transportation is embedded in environmental cycles, notably over the carbon cycle, where carbon flows from one element of the biosphere, like the atmosphere, to another, like the ecosphere, where it can be accumulated (permanently or temporarily) or passed on. Two observations also complicate the relationships between transport and the environment: - **Level of contribution**. Transport activities contribute, among other anthropogenic and natural causes, **directly, indirectly, and cumulatively to environmental problems**. In some cases, they may be a dominant factor, while in others, their role is marginal and challenging to establish. - **Scale of impact**. Transport activities contribute at [different geographical scales](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5785) to environmental problems, ranging from local (noise and carbon monoxide emissions) to global (climate change), not forgetting continental, national, and regional problems (smog and acid rain). Establishing environmental transportation policies must consider the **level of contribution** and the **geographical scale**. Otherwise, some policies may just move the problems elsewhere and have unintended consequences. A noted example is environmental policies in advanced economies inciting the relocation of some activities with high environmental externalities (e.g. steel making) in developing economies. This transfers externalities from one location to another. Still, such a transfer usually involves new equipment and technologies with a lower environmental impact. Even if an administrative division (municipality, county, state) has adequate environmental enforcement policies, the geographical scale of an environmental impact (notably air pollutants) goes beyond established jurisdictions. This has become salient in waste disposal, such as electronic goods shipped to developing economies with lower environmental regulations to be disposed of or recycled. The structure of the [transport network, the modes used, and traffic levels](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5790) are the main factors of the environmental impact of transportation. **Networks** influence the spatial distribution of emissions (e.g. centralized versus diffuse networks), while **modes** relate to the nature of the emissions and the traffic to the intensity of these emissions. There are notable differences in the [CO2 emissions by freight and passenger modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/co2-emissions-passenger-freight-transport-mode/ "Average CO2 Emissions by Passenger and Freight Transport Mode"), but they remain difficult to compare. In addition to these environmental impacts, economic and industrial processes sustaining the transport system must be considered. These include the extraction and production of fuels, vehicles, and construction materials, some of which are very energy-intensive (e.g. aluminum), the disposal of vehicles, parts, and the provision of infrastructure. They all have a life cycle timing their production, utilization, and disposal. Thus, evaluating the link between transport and the environment without considering **cycles in the environment and the product life** alike is likely to convey a limited overview of the situation and may lead to incorrect appraisal, policies, and mitigation strategies. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_activities_environment.png?resize=900%2C425&ssl=1 "Transportation Activities Affecting the Environment | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/transport-environment-activities/transport_activities_environment/)Transportation Activities Affecting the Environment[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/spatial_durational_environmental_externalities.png?resize=900%2C511&ssl=1 "Spatial and Durational Environmental Effects of Selected Environmental Externalities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/spatial-duration-effects-environment/spatial_durational_environmental_externalities/)Spatial and Durational Environmental Effects of Selected Environmental Externalities![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/co2_passenger_freight.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average CO2 Emissions by Passenger and Freight Transport Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Average CO2 Emissions by Passenger and Freight Transport Mode[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_systems_environment2.png?resize=900%2C704&ssl=1 "Transportation Systems and the Environment | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/transport-systems-environment-2/transport_systems_environment2/)Transportation Systems and the Environment# 3. Environmental Dimensions Transportation activities support increasing mobility demands for passengers and freight, notably in urban areas. But transport activities have resulted in growing levels of motorization and congestion. As a result, the transportation sector is becoming **increasingly linked to environmental problems**. ## a. Climate change The greenhouse effect is a fundamental component of regulating the global climate and is a naturally occurring process that partially retains heat in the earth’s atmosphere. This is achieved through gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and halocarbons, gases that accumulate in the atmosphere long enough to reach a homogeneous composition across the world. Thus, irrespective of the location, their concentration is similar. This implies that a location will be impacted by the **compounded effects** of the atmospheric accumulation of gases from all the emission sources. The quantity of conventional greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere [has increased substantially](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9827) since the industrial revolution. The impacts of greenhouse gases are further complicated by differences in their atmospheric lifetime (or residence time), which is the time they spend in the atmosphere before decaying or being absorbed by biological or chemical processes. CO2 can range between 5 and 200 years, while it is about 12 years for methane and 114 years for NO2. For halocarbons, such as chlorofluorocarbons, it is at least 45 years. The activities of the transport industry release several million tons of greenhouse gases each year into the atmosphere, accounting for between 25 and 30% of all greenhouse gas emissions. There is an ongoing debate about to what extent these emissions are linked with climate change, but the debate relates more to the extent of these impacts than their nature. Some gases, particularly nitrogen oxide, also contribute to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone (O3) layer, which naturally screens the earth’s surface from ultraviolet radiation. The rise in air traffic, in addition to its emissions, has increased the number of contrails, which are mainly ice crystals formed from condensation around planes flying at high altitudes. They can contribute to climate change paradoxically as, on the one hand, they can trap heat; on the other hand, they also reflect solar radiation. In addition to contributing to climate change, [transportation is also impacted by it](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9427), particularly over infrastructure (e.g. more floods due to potentially [rising sea levels](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10084)) and operations (more weather disruptions). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/climate_change_impacts_transport.png?resize=900%2C526&ssl=1 "Climate Change and its Potential Impacts on Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/climate-change-impacts-transportation/climate_change_impacts_transport/)Climate Change and its Potential Impacts on Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/average_global_temperature_carbon_emissions.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Global Temperature and World Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning, 1880-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/average-global-temperature-world-carbon-emissions-fossil-fuel/average_global_temperature_carbon_emissions/)Average Global Temperature and World Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning 1880 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Sea-Level-Change.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "Remotely Sensed Sea Level Change, 1992-2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/sea-level-change/map-sea-level-change/)Remotely Sensed Sea Level Change 1992 2012## b. Air quality Highway vehicles, marine engines, locomotives, and aircraft are sources of pollution in the form of gas and particulate matter emissions. They affect air quality and cause damage to human health. The most common include lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), silicon tetrafluoride (SF6), benzene and volatile components (BTX), heavy metals (zinc, chrome, copper, and cadmium), and particulate matters (ash, dust). Lead emissions have declined substantially in the last decades as its use as an anti-knock agent for gasoline was banned worldwide in the 1980s. The main factors behind this ban were that tetraethyl lead (the form used as a fuel additive) was associated with neurotoxic effects on human beings and impaired catalytic converters. Toxic air pollutants are associated with cancer, cardiovascular, respiratory, and neurological diseases. Carbon monoxide (CO), when inhaled, reduces the availability of oxygen in the circulatory system and can be extremely harmful and even deadly at specific concentrations. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emissions from transportation sources reduce lung function, affect the respiratory immune defense system, and increase the risk of respiratory problems. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions in the atmosphere form acidic compounds that create acid rain when mixed in cloud water. Acid precipitation has detrimental effects on the built environment, reduces agricultural crop yields, and causes forest decline. **Smog** is a mixture of solid and liquid fog and smoke particles formed through the accumulation of carbon monoxide, ozone, hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxide, water, particulates, and other chemical pollutants. The reduction of visibility caused by smog has several adverse impacts on the quality of life and the attractiveness of tourist sites. Particulate emissions from dust emanating from vehicle exhaust and non-exhaust sources such as vehicle and road abrasion impact air quality. The physical and chemical properties of particulates are associated with health risks such as respiratory problems, skin irritations, eye inflammation, blood clotting, and various allergies. Smog is often exacerbated by local physical and meteorological conditions, creating periods of high smog concentration and public responses to mitigate them, such as restricting automobile use temporarily. Air quality issues have been comprehensively addressed in advanced economies, with substantial declines in the emissions of a [wide range of pollutants](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5805). In developing economies, rapid motorization has shifted the concern to the large cities of China and India, among those the most impacted by the deterioration of air quality. ## c. Noise [Noise](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5796) represents the general effect of **irregular and chaotic sounds** on people as well as animal life. Basically, noise is an undesirable sound. The acoustic measure of the noise intensity is expressed in decibels (dB) with a scale ranging from 1 dB to 120 dB. Long-term exposure to noise levels above 75 decibels severely hampers hearing and affects human physical and psychological well-being. Noise emanating from the movement of transport vehicles and the operations of ports, airports, and railyards affects human health by increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Ambient noise is a frequent result of road transportation in urban areas, which is the cumulative outcome of all the noise generated by vehicles (ranging from 45 to 65 dB), impairs the quality of life and property values. Falling land values nearby acute noise sources such as airports are often noted since buyers are less willing to bid on properties in areas of elevated noise levels. Many noise regulations impose mitigation measures if noise reaches a defined level, such as sound walls and other soundproofing techniques. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/highway_air_pollutants_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Estimated Air Pollutants Emitted by Highway Transportation in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/air-pollutants-highway-united-states/highway_air_pollutants_usa/)Estimated Air Pollutants Emitted by Highway Transportation in the United States 1970 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_production_world-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Automobile Production, Selected Countries, 1950-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/automobile-production-world/global_automobile_production/)Automobile Production Selected Countries 1950 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/noise_levels2.png?resize=900%2C762&ssl=1 "Noise Levels from Different Sources | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/noise-levels/noise_levels2/)Noise Levels from Di*f*ferent Sources## d. Water quality Transport activities have an impact on hydrological conditions and water quality. Fuel, chemicals, and other hazardous particulates discarded from aircraft, cars, trucks, and trains or port and airport terminal operations can contaminate hydrographic systems. Since the demand for maritime shipping has increased, marine transport emissions represent the most important segment of water quality impact of the transportation sector. The main effects of marine transport operations on water quality predominantly arise from dredging, waste, ballast waters, and oil spills. Dredging is the process of deepening harbor channels by removing sediments from the bed of a body of water. Dredging is essential to create and maintain sufficient water depth for shipping operations and port accessibility. Dredging activities have a two-fold negative impact on the marine environment. They modify the hydrology by creating turbidity that can affect marine biological diversity. The contaminated sediments and water raised by dredging require spoil disposal sites and decontamination techniques. Waste generated by vessels at sea or ports causes environmental problems since it can contain a very high level of bacteria that can be hazardous to public health and marine ecosystems when discharged. Besides, various types of garbage containing metals and plastic are not easily biodegradable. They can persist on the sea surface for long periods of time. They can be a severe impediment to maritime navigation in inland waterways and at sea and affecting as well as berthing operations. Ballast waters are required to control a ship’s stability and draft and to modify its center of gravity in relation to the cargo carried and the variance in weight distribution. Ballast waters acquired in a region may contain invasive aquatic species that, when discharged in another region, may thrive in a new marine environment and disrupt the natural marine ecosystem. Invasive species have significantly changed nearshore ecosystems, especially in coastal lagoons and inlets. Major oil spills from oil cargo vessel accidents are one of the most severe pollution problems from maritime transport activities. ## e. Soil quality The environmental impact of transportation on soil quality particularly concerns soil erosion and soil contamination. Coastal transport facilities such as ports have significant impacts on soil erosion. Shipping activities are modifying the scale and scope of wave actions, leading to damage in confined channels such as river banks. Highway construction or lessening surface grades for port and airport developments have led to an important loss of fertile land. Soil contamination can occur through the use of toxic materials by the transport industry. Fuel and oil spills from motor vehicles are washed on roadsides and enter the soil. Chemicals used for the preservation of wooden railroad ties may enter the soil. Hazardous materials and heavy metals have been found in areas contiguous to railroads, ports, and airports. ## f. Biodiversity Transportation also influences biodiversity. The need for construction materials and the development of land-based transportation have led to deforestation. Many transport routes have required draining land, thus reducing wetland areas and driving out water plant species. The need to maintain road and rail right-of-way or stabilize slopes along transport facilities has restricted the growth of certain plants or has produced changes in plants by introducing new species. Many animal species are becoming endangered due to changes in their natural habitats and the reduction of ranges due to the fragmentation of their habitat by transportation infrastructures. ## g. Land footprint Transportation facilities have an impact on the urban landscape. Port and airport infrastructure development is a significant feature of the urban and peri-urban built environment. Social and economic cohesion can be severed when new transport facilities, such as elevated train and highway structures, cut across an existing urban community. Arteries or transport terminals can define urban borders and produce segregation. Major transport facilities can affect the quality of urban life by creating physical barriers, increasing noise levels, generating odors, reducing urban aesthetics, and affecting the built heritage. The expansion of logistics activities has also been an indirect factor in the footprint of suburban and periurban areas. # 4. Environmental Externalities Externalities are an [economic concept](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=15738) that refers to the activities of a subset having **consequences**, positive or negative, intended or unintended, on other groups. These consequences, particularly if they are negative, are **not fully assumed by those causing them**. Therefore, impacts resulting from a subset of the economy are externalized to the whole economy. A common example of a **positive externality** concerns technology since it obviously benefits the innovative firm but also the whole economy through various productivity improvements or improved convenience. **Negative externalities** are highly relevant to environmental issues since many of the negative consequences of pollution are assumed by the whole society. The [environmental externalities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5800) of transportation include considering physical measures of environmental damage and evaluating involved costs for society. The main fallacy underlined by externalities is that the costs attributed to a few sources (e.g. users of cars) must be burdened by many (users and non-users alike). Knowing the sources of environmental externalities is a relatively easy undertaking. Evaluating their consequences and other costs has not yet reached comparative standards among governmental and non-governmental agencies. The challenge resides over three issues: - **Relationships**. The nature and extent of the relationships between transport and the environment must be considered. This is particularly complex as most environmental relationships are indirect and cumulative. - **Quantification**. Relationships must be quantified, and their value to environmental externalities should be appraised. This is challenging as only general figures subject to debate can be assessed. Therefore, quantifying economic, social, and environmental costs is subject to much contention. Inaccurate assessments can lead to the exaggeration or underestimation of environmental externalities and improper policies and regulations. - **Mitigation**. The level and extent of corrective actions that can be taken to alleviate environmental externalities linked to transportation, usually in a manner where those contributing bear the responsibility for their activities. Given the above points, attempts at regulation, particularly if they involve a comprehensive framework (multinational and multisector), have not reached a significant consensus. Alternatively, a consensus may be reached about the nature of an environmental externality, but not about its mitigation. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/concept_externalities2.png?resize=900%2C454&ssl=1 "The Concept of Externalities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/concept-externalities/concept_externalities2/)The Concept of Externalities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/environmental_externalities_transportation.png?resize=900%2C524&ssl=1 "Environmental Externalities Generated by Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/transportation-environment-externalities/environmental_externalities_transportation/)Environmental Externalities Generated by TransportationThe costs of environmental externalities can be considered from **economic**, **social,** and **environmental dimensions**. The basic types of transportation externalities attributed to the environment fall within air pollution, water pollution, noise, and hazardous materials. **Establishing and quantifying environmental externalities** is a complex undertaking. Quantification is at its preliminary stage, and many have used this argument to differ the application of several environmental policies by lobbying governments. For instance, in the 1970s, it took time to accumulate enough evidence to demonstrate the impacts of sulfur emissions, mainly from coal power plants, on rain acidification, and implement mitigation strategies (scrubbers, shift to natural gas). In the 1980s, the impacts of chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons on atmospheric ozone led to a series of regulations (e.g. Montreal Protocol of 1987) banning their use in manufacturing aerosols and refrigerants. Additionally, the wider the geographical scale, the more complex the environmental problem becomes since it involves **cross-jurisdictional issues**. Recent attempts to reach a consensus about climate change, such as the Paris Agreement of 2016 or the 2022 COP (Conference of Parties) conference, have underlined the complexity of multilateral environmental agreements over a complex issue that cannot be effectively quantified. Parties simply make general non-binding commitments. The **sources/emitters of pollutants rarely bear the consequences of their impacts**, with the concept of **environmental justice** brought forward to underline communities exposed to externalities disproportionately to the received benefits. This has several implications. First, when specific sources are concerned, like road transportation, users only take account of the direct costs of modal ownership like a car (vehicle, fuel, insurance, etc.). Ownership is often the only entry and utilization cost for several transportation modes. Society generally assumes the role of providing and maintaining infrastructure and other indirect costs like damage to structures and infrastructure, losses in productivity, cleanup, health services, and damage to ecosystems. Second, the geographic separation between sources and recipients is often acute. Acid rains and climate change are prominent examples. On a local level, a community may be affected by noise levels well over its contribution (notably near major highways). In contrast, another (e.g. suburbs) may be affected in a very marginal way and still significantly contribute to noise elsewhere during commuting. There is a tendency toward a shift from **direct to indirect consequences for environmental externalities**, as of the total costs involved. For instance, the absolute levels of air pollutant emissions have considerably dropped in developed economies. The problem of vehicle source reduction was addressed because it was a straightforward cause of air pollutant emissions. This has tended to displace problems elsewhere and developed new types of externalities. Thus, the relative share of air pollution impacts is lessening, but not the number of vehicles, investment in infrastructure, or noise levels, which have their own externalities. Reductions in the relative importance of one type of externality redirect the focus on other types that were less addressed but probably as important in the overall impacts of transport on the environment. **Transfers and additions of costs** are prevalent attributes of environmental externalities. Trying to lessen economic costs will either lessen or worsen social and environmental costs, depending on the externality. In the context of scarcity of resources, the distribution of economic, social, and environmental costs takes an important role in what type of damage is acceptable and in what proportions. It is clear from past strategies that several economic costs have been minimized, notably for producers and users, while social and environmental consequences were disregarded. This practice is no longer applicable since society is less willing to bear the costs and consequences of externalities for various reasons (public awareness, quality of life considerations, high health costs, etc.). # 5. Assessing Environmental Externalities Air pollution is the **most important source of environmental externalities for transportation**, mainly because the atmosphere enables a fast and widespread diffusion of pollutants. Although the nature of air pollutants is clearly identified, the scale and scope of how they influence the biosphere are subject to controversy. In terms of loss of life, road pollution is estimated to be responsible for half of the world’s annual air pollution deaths, about 1.5 million people per year. On the positive side, emissions of the most harmful air pollutants, such as carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds, have declined despite substantial growth in the number of vehicles, which is indicative of the increasing levels of environmental compliance of vehicles. Carbon dioxide emissions have increased proportionally with the growth of transportation usage. The further push toward decarbonization across a wide range of modes, including maritime shipping, will result in an overall decline in the environmental externalities of the transportation sector. As with all externalities, costs are challenging to evaluate because several consequences are not understood, the problems could be at another scale or highly correlated with others, and value (monetary or other) cannot be conclusively attributed. Two major factors contribute to air pollution, notably in urban areas. - **Structural factors** are inherently linked to the **size** and **level of consumption** of an economy. Factors such as income tend to be proportional to emissions as they influence the aggregate demand for transportation. - **Behavioral factors** are linked to individualism, consumerism, and transportation preferences. Because of convenience and its symbolism, the car is systematically the preferred mode of transportation, even when other modes are available. From a general perspective, the [costs of air pollution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5809) associated with transportation can be grouped into economic, social, and environmental costs. Externalities related to [water pollution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/water-pollution-externalities/ "Externalities of Water Pollution") are almost all indirect consequences. It is thus difficult to evaluate and appraise the specific contribution of transportation to various environmental issues, which explains that problems tend to be addressed on a modal basis. Noise emissions can be represented as a **point** (a vehicle), **line** (a highway), and **surface** (ambient noise generated by a set of streets) sources. [Noise pollution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5818) is only present as **vibrations**. For instance, for a road vehicle, vibrations are created through the internal combustion engine, moving parts (transmission), and friction on the surface over which a transport mode operates. The noise impacts are strictly local, as vibrations are quickly attenuated by the distance and nature of the landscape (trees, hills). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/externalities_noise_pollution.png?resize=900%2C588&ssl=1 "Externalities of Noise Pollution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Externalities of Noise Pollution![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/externalities_water_pollution.png?resize=900%2C545&ssl=1 "Externalities of Water Pollution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Externalities of Water Pollution![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/externalities_air_pollution.png?resize=900%2C547&ssl=1 "Externalities of Air Pollution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Externalities of Air PollutionA hazardous material is a substance capable of posing an **unreasonable risk** to health, safety, and property when transported in commerce. Considering the large amounts of freight being shipped through transport systems, hazardous materials have become a concern. Several hazardous materials (hazmat) releases are spectacular events, especially when involving a supertanker or a train convoy. However, we must consider that maritime transportation only accounts for 0.1% of the total hazmat accidents in the United States, although the volume of hazmat released is higher. Other transportation modes are thus important sources of hazmat release in the environment, even if they mostly **involve small quantities**. Minimal information is available on the nature and consequences of hazmats released during transportation, except for safety regulations. The effects of hazmat release are always punctual but intense. The nature of the effect is related to the type of accident and the hazmat involved. It can range from a small-scale accident where limited quantities of hazmat are spilled to notable accidents requiring prompt intervention and evacuation of local residents. Thus, transportation has a wide array of [environmental externalities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5800), some of which can be reasonably assessed, while others are mostly **speculative**, but often taken as facts by environmentalist groups. Externalities also occur at different geographical scales, and some may overlap over several scales. The bottom line is that better transport practices, such as fuel-efficient vehicles, that reduce environmental externalities are likely to have positive economic, social, and environmental consequences. While the public sector is incited to address the environmental impacts of transportation through policies and regulations, the private sector deals with compliance and tries to innovate. This iterative process is complex, but the environmental aspects of transportation have been addressed more comprehensively. It remains to be seen which strategy is the most beneficial as much subjectivity and often ideology prevails in environmental matters. --- ## Related Topics - [B.18 – Climate Change and the Adaptation of Transport Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9422) - [4.1 – Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/ "4.1 – Transportation and Energy") - [4.3 – The Environmental Footprint of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5721) - [4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5725) - [3.1 – Transportation Environmental Management](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) - [B.15 – Green Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6497) - [1.2 – Transportation and the Physical Environment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=322) ## Bibliography - Banister, D. and K. Button (eds) (1993) Transport, the Environment, and Sustainable Development. London: Spon Press. - Baumol, W. and W. Oates (1988) The Theory of Environmental Policy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Button, K. (1990) “Environmental Externalities and Transport Policy”, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 6, No. 2. - Chapman, L. (2007) “Transport and climate change: a review”, Journal of Transport Geography 15(5), pp. 354-367. - Hamilton, R.S. and R.M. Harrison (eds) (1991) Highway Pollution, Amsterdam: Elsevier. - Hensher, D.A. and K.J. Button (eds) (2003) Handbook of Transport and the Environment, Handbooks in Transport #4, Amsterdam: Elsevier. - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. - Le Vine, S. and M. Lee-Gosselin (2017) “Transportation and Environmental Impacts and Policy”, in. S. Hanson and G. Giuliano (eds) The Geography of Urban Transportation, 4th Edition, New York: The Guilford Press, pp. 273-301. - OECD (2010) Globalisation, Transport and the Environment. Paris: OECD Publishing. - OECD (2014) The Cost of Air Pollution: Health Impacts of Road Transport, Paris: OECD Publishing. - Ryley, T.J and L. Chapman (eds) (2012) Transport and Climate Change, Bingley: Emerald. - Ryley, T.J. and L. Chapman (2013) “Transport, Climate Change and the Environment”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Tsunokawa, K. and Ch. Hoban (eds) (1997) Roads and the Environment: A Handbook, World Bank Technical Paper No. 376, Washington, DC: World Bank. - World Health Organization (2000) Transport, Environment and Health, WHO Regional Publications, European Series, No. 89. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Operational Conditions of Cold Chain Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-operational-conditions/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/operational_conditions_cold_chain.png?resize=900%2C726&ssl=1 "Operational Conditions of Cold Chain Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Operational Conditions of Cold Chain LogisticsThree operational conditions (processes) are fundamental in a cold chain: - **Conditional demand**. The demand for a product at a market (or place of consumption) is conditional to its qualitative attributes. Each product has a [specific level of perishability](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6640). For some products, such as vaccines, value (and demand) drops to zero if the shipment has been slightly damaged since the product can no longer be used. Other products, such as produces (fruits & vegetables), see a decline in their value in relation to the level of spoilage that took place during transit, since it will limit their shelf life and, as such, their commercial potential. - **Load integrity**. Relates to the load conditions that must be provided to ensure that a product keeps its value during transport. It can include adequate packaging and packing, as well as the conditioning that the product must go through before transport (being washed or cooled down). The [reefer](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6651) has become a common temperature-controlled transport unit used to ensure load integrity since it can accommodate a wide range of temperature settings and accordingly a wide range of temperature-sensitive products. However, using reefers and many other refrigerated modes of transportation is facing the empty backhaul problem as the majority of refrigerated trades do not have a return equivalent. - **Transport integrity**. The series of tasks and safeguards that must be performed to ensure that the temperature-controlled environment remains constant. A [breach of integrity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4343) can take place during transport, at terminals and distribution centers involved in the transport chain. For instance, the temperature of a shipment is often constantly tracked so that deviations can be mediated as soon as possible. An outcome of more stringent requirements in transport integrity has been the setting of specialized modes and terminal facilities designed to support cold chain logistics. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-operational-conditions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-operational-conditions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-operational-conditions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/cold-chain-operational-conditions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Manufacturing, 2015](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-manufacturing/) **Published:** January 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Manufacturing-2015.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Global Manufacturing, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Manufacturing 2015*Source: United Nations Statistical Division.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Manufacturing-2015-1.pdf) There is little evidence behind the optimal share of GDP manufacturing should have, implying that a high share is not necessarily associated with high development levels. While manufacturing accounted for about 26.7% of the global economic output in 1970, this share [decreased](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=549) to around 16.5% in 2015. Meanwhile, the level of manufacturing output increased substantially, as well as the level of economic development. Still, a low relative share of manufacturing is associated with economic development problems. Countries with a share of less than 8-10% are generally underdeveloped as such figures are associated with limited economic diversity and capabilities to generate added value. Countries with high growth and productivity levels tend to have a higher share of their GDP in manufacturing than the average. The global manufacturing landscape is complex, with multinational production networks and different levels of integration into these networks. It is composed of three main groups: - **Developed Economies**. Manufacturing remains focused on the economic triad (North America, Western Europe, and Japan), being the entities able to successfully undertake industrialization based on mass production in the first half of the 20th century. They saw the emergence of large manufacturing firms that were among the firsts in the post-WWII setting to benefit from the liberalization of trade by exporting their surpluses. This was also associated with the setting of social contracts (labor relations) that defined the nature of the respective manufacturing system (e.g. Japanese lifetime employment system or the German model focusing on higher added value). The industrial preeminence of developed economies and their manufacturing models were challenged by outsourcing and offshoring in emerging economies. Still, these forces are implemented by their manufacturing firms that have successfully captured a large share of the resulting added value (e.g. repatriation of profits by multinationals). While gains in manufacturing output remained significant for the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, some countries experienced an absolute decline in their manufacturing output (e.g. United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Luxemburg, Finland, Iceland). The challenge for the manufacturing sector of developed economies involves keeping a balance between the forces of offshoring, their disruptive impacts on national labor markets, and the development of new added-value manufacturing activities. - **Emerging Economies**: Represent economies that were able to substantially benefit from the convergence of trade liberalization and offshoring by becoming the recipient of manufacturing investments from foreign firms as well as emerging domestic firms. This includes the periphery of Western Europe (Eastern Europe, North Africa, Turkey), East and Southeast Asia (South Korea and Taiwan being the early adopters), and parts of South Asia (India) and Latin America (Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Peru). They have experienced significant gains in their manufacturing output, with China accounting for the world’s largest net gain between 2005 and 2010 (967 billion current USD). The model adopted generally follows the export-oriented paradigm, often leading to distortions in the national allocation of infrastructure and labor as well as the value of the national currency. This created pressures to mobilize labor and provide infrastructure investments to accommodate a growing level of integration into global supply chains. The challenge for the manufacturing sector concerns the extent to which emerging economies effectively capture the added value and develop capabilities to fulfill a growing domestic demand as labor costs increase and social contracts become more complex. - **Early Developing Economies**. The share of manufacturing in these economies remains relatively low (commonly less than 10%) and concerns punctual developments linked to specific local resources (e.g. energy, food, mining). These specific capabilities are often controlled by multinational interests. Among the common factors behind the lack of integration into global manufacturing networks are political instability, heavy regulatory burden, lack of resources, poor transport infrastructure, small domestic markets, and low accessibility levels to the global transport system (e.g. landlocked countries). The challenge mostly focuses on the development of regulatory and infrastructure capabilities that are comparable to more advanced economies, which is often difficult to implement in a comprehensive manner. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-manufacturing/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-manufacturing/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-manufacturing/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/global-manufacturing/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Value of Chinese Exports and FDI, 1983-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/china-exports-fdi/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/china_fdi.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Value of Chinese Exports and FDI | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Value of Chinese Exports and FDI 1983 2021 Billions of $US*Source: WTO and UNCTAD.* China experienced a fast integration into the global economy and became one of the world’s leading manufacturing centers. This integration was facilitated through Foreign Direct Investments (FDI), bringing capital, technology, and access to foreign markets. FDI inflows boomed in the early 1990s when China purposefully debased its currency from about 3.7 Yuan per US dollar to 8.3 Yuan per US dollar. This jointly made foreign investment more attractive as well as exports cheaper in foreign currencies. The first surge in FDI enabled the setting of modern manufacturing and transport infrastructures along the coast of China with the formation of large manufacturing clusters (e.g. Pearl River Delta, Shanghai). The outcome was an [export-oriented manufacturing system](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/export-oriented-paradigm/ "Phases of the Export-Oriented Paradigm"), centered around development zones, and a spectacular growth of exports from the late 1990s. By 2007, China was the [world’s second largest trader](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4155), surpassing the position held by the United States and Japan for decades. This FDI / export growth synergy substantially increased the demand for international transportation and port development along the Chinese coast, which is correlated with the ongoing growth of FDI inflows. By the mid-2000s, as the Chinese economy was maturing, it started to be a provider of FDI with a sharp increase in outflows. These outflows mostly went into the acquisition of foreign firms to help Chinese firms expand their branding and market reach as well as resource and infrastructure development projects. The peak year of FDI outflows (2016) is associated with the setting of the Belt and Road Initiative, which began in 2013. The initiative has led to substantial investments by Chinese financial institutions and state enterprises in development projects, particularly across Central Asia, South Asia, and East Africa. The Covid-19 pandemic was associated with a surge in Chinese exports and FDI inflows. The demand for household goods and electronics was particularly robust, sectors in which China has substantial comparative advantages. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/china-exports-fdi/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/china-exports-fdi/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/china-exports-fdi/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/china-exports-fdi/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Phases of the Export-Oriented Paradigm](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/export-oriented-paradigm/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/phases_export_oriented.png?resize=900%2C359&ssl=1 "Phases of the Export-Oriented Paradigm | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Phases of the Export Oriented ParadigmA common strategy for economic growth that has been followed by several Pacific Asian economies is the export-oriented model. It can be divided into three phases: - **Phase I (Development of Comparative Advantages)**. A set of conditions is put in place to make the host country attractive in terms of its comparative advantages. For countries relatively close to multinational interests, this involved a form of openness such as setting special economic zones where foreign direct investments could take place or, more generally, financial and trade reforms facilitating the transactional environment. The national currency is devaluated, particularly in relation to the main importers. The initial sectors where production occurs tend to be labor-intensive since they involve lower risks and the highest benefits in comparative advantages. Exports will slowly increase, and the balance between exports and imports will start to widen after an initial phase of imports of capital equipment. - **Phase II (Exploitation of Comparative Advantages)**. Comparative advantages induced by the first stage are brought in full motion, implying a surge of FDI and national capital as savings accumulate into new economic opportunities. As the national economy becomes more integrated into the global economy and local expertise is developed, there is a gradual shift towards added value production. The imbalance between exports and imports increases. - **Phase III (Re-balancing)**. An export-oriented development strategy appears to be a transitory phase, as it cannot endure indefinitely. Mainly due to the associated trade imbalances, there are strong pressures to revalue the currency of the exporter. National capital provides the dominant share of investments, and the nation becomes a net provider of FDI for other markets. Due to rising living standards, production costs in many labor-intensive sectors are losing their comparative advantages while the national market takes a growing share of the production. A re-balancing of trade takes place with the share of exports declining in relation to imports. Japan and South Korea represent good examples of export-oriented economies that went through all these stages. More recently (post-COVID-19), [China](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/china-exports-fdi/ "Value of Chinese Exports and FDI, 1983-2021") reached Phase III, which was associated with substantial disruptions in its internal economy. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/export-oriented-paradigm/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/export-oriented-paradigm/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/export-oriented-paradigm/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/export-oriented-paradigm/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Temperature Standards for the Cold Chain](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/temperature-standards-cold-chain/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/temperature_standards_cold_chain.png?resize=900%2C316&ssl=1 "Temperature Standards for the Cold Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Temperature Standards for the Cold Chain*Source: Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft (GDV), Berlin 2002-2007.* Specific temperature standards are enforced depending on the type of product being transported through the cold chain. For products such as fruits and vegetables, a breach of integrity can lead to damage such as softening, bruising, unwanted ripening, color changes, texture degradation, and the development of rots and molds, all of which can degrade their value and marketability. Although optimal transport temperature is [product specific](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6640) and a wide variety of temperature settings can be selected, five temperature standards are among the most prevalent: - **Deep freeze** (-25 to -30 Celsius). The coldest temperature range that can be maintained by conventional refrigerated units. This temperature range is used mostly for transporting seafood (particularly shrimp, which is the world’s most consumed seafood) and ice cream. - **Frozen** (-10 to -20 Celsius). Used for transporting frozen meat, including beef, poultry, and pork. Frozen bakery (cakes, bread) also falls within this temperature range. - **Chill** (2 to 4 Celsius). This range comprises the standard temperatures in a refrigerator and is commonly used to transport fruit, vegetables, and fresh meat as it confers optimal shelf life without freeze damage. - **Pharmaceutical** (2 to 8 Celsius; not shown). The temperature range at which most pharmaceutical goods, like vaccines, are transported. However, pharmaceuticals are rarely transported in ISO reefers, but in smaller refrigerated packages for van and air transport. - **Banana** (12 to 14 Celsius). This temperature range is chosen for one of the world’s most-produced fruit that usually has its ripening controlled during shipping. It is also used for most tropical fruits (oranges and pineapples) and vegetables (tubers such as potatoes). Temperature standards are easier to implement and monitor since they apply to a wide range of temperature-sensitive goods. Yet, reefers can also be adapted to maintain a specific temperature requirement of any given product. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/temperature-standards-cold-chain/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/temperature-standards-cold-chain/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/temperature-standards-cold-chain/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/temperature-standards-cold-chain/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Turn Penalties at an Intersection](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/turn-penalty-intersection/) **Published:** December 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/turn_penalty_intersection.png?resize=900%2C553&ssl=1 "Turn Penalties at an Intersection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Turn Penalties at an IntersectionThe above table represents the turn penalties for a typical intersection between two streets represented as Node A. From each direction, there are three possibilities; going straight ahead, turning left, or turning right. This intersection consequently has 12 turns, each having a specific attributed penalty. Straight flows (1-3, 3-1, 2-4, and 4-2) are assumed to have no “turn” penalty. Right turns (2-1, 1-4, 3-2, and 4-3) are assigned one standard turn penalty, which can be represented as the average time it takes for completion (e.g. number of seconds). Left turns (1-2, 4-1, and 2-3) are assigned two standard turn penalties. One left turn, 3-4, is prohibited by a traffic sign and thus receives a negative value (impossible to complete). With this information, a [network data model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-topology/) has all the required information to handle routing at this intersection. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/turn-penalty-intersection/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/turn-penalty-intersection/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/turn-penalty-intersection/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/turn-penalty-intersection/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.7 - Network Data Models](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/) **Published:** December 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Network data models offer a digital representation of transportation networks that can be used for planning, operational and simulation purposes. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Nature and Utility](#1_Nature_and_Utility) - [2. Networks as Layers](#2_Networks_as_Layers) - [3. Topological Representation](#3_Topological_Representation) - [4. Object-Oriented Approach](#4_Object-Oriented_Approach) # 1. Nature and Utility [Graph theory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5976) developed a topological and mathematical representation of the nature and structure of transportation networks. However, graph theory can be expanded to analyze real-world and complex transport networks by encoding them in an information system. In the process, a digital representation of the network is created, which can then be used for a variety of purposes, such as managing deliveries or planning the construction of transport infrastructure. This digital representation is highly complex since transportation data is often multi-modal, spans several local, national, and international jurisdictions, and has different logical views depending on the user. Besides, while transport infrastructures are relatively stable, vehicles are dynamic elements. It is thus becoming increasingly relevant to use a data model where a transportation network can be encoded, stored, retrieved, modified, analyzed, and displayed. Obviously, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are among the best tools to create, store and use network data models, which are an implicit part of many GIS. There are four basic application areas of network data models: - [Topology](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-topology/ "Topology of a Network Data Model"). The core purpose of a network data model is to provide an accurate representation of a network as a set of links and nodes. Topology is the arrangement of nodes and links in a network and their relationships. The representations of location, direction, and connectivity are of particular relevance since different features can share a point, such as a street intersection connected to several lines. Even if graph theory aims at the abstraction of transportation networks, the topology of a network data model should be as close as possible to the real-world structure it represents. This is especially true for using network data models in a GIS. - [Cartography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-cartography/ "Cartography of a Network Data Model") (annotations). It allows the visualization of a transport network for the purpose of reckoning and simple navigation and indicates the existence of a network. Different network elements can have symbolism defined by some of their attributes. For instance, a highway link may be symbolized as a thick line with a label such as its number, while a street may be symbolized as a simple unlabeled line. The symbolized network can also be combined with other features, such as landmarks, to give the user a better orientation level. This is commonly the case for road maps used by the general public. - [Geocoding](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-geocoding/ "Geocoding in a Network Data Model"). Transportation network models can be used to derive a precise location, notably through a **linear referencing system**. For instance, the great majority of addresses are defined according to a number and a street. If address information is embedded in the attributes of a network data model, it becomes possible to use this network for geocoding and pinpoint the location of an address, or any location along the network, with reasonable accuracy. - [Routing](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-routing/ "Routing in a Network Data Model") **and assignment**. Network data models may be used to find optimal paths and assign flows with capacity constraints in a network. While routing is concerned with the specific behavior of a limited number of vehicles, traffic assignment is mainly concerned with the system-wide traffic behavior in a transport network. This requires a topology in which the relationship of each link with other intersecting segments is explicitly specified. Impedance measures (e.g. distance) are also attributed to each link and will impact the chosen path or how flows are assigned in the network. Routing and traffic assignment at the continental level is generally simple since small variations in impedance are of limited consequences. Routing and traffic assignment in an urban area is much more complex as stop signs, traffic lights, and congestion must be considered in determining the impedance of a route. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/topology_network_data_model.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "Topology of a Network Data Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-topology/topology_network_data_model/)Topology of a Network Data Model[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cartography_network_data_model.png?resize=900%2C624&ssl=1 "Cartography of a Network Data Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-cartography/cartography_network_data_model/)Cartography of a Network Data Model[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/geocoding_network_data_model.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "Geocoding in a Network Data Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-geocoding/geocoding_network_data_model/)Geocoding in a Network Data Model[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/routing_network_data_model.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "Routing in a Network Data Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-routing/routing_network_data_model/)Routing in a Network Data Model# 2. Networks as Layers Most conventional GIS data models separate information in **layers**, each representing a different class of geographical elements symbolized as points, lines, and polygons in the majority of cases. In the 1990s, ESRI (a major GIS software provider) developed the [**shapefile data model**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7636), which became the most common format and standard to store vector information, including points, polylines (a continuous line composed of several segments), and polygons. This format became extensively used to create, store and analyze network information. Constructing the geometry of a network depends on the mode and the scale being investigated. For urban road networks, information can be extracted from aerial photographs or topographic maps. Air transport networks are derived from airport locations (nodes) and scheduled flights between them (links). A network data model must be constructed with the limitation of having points and lines in two separate layers; thus the layer-based approach. Further, an important requirement is that the geometry of the network matches reality as closely as possible since these networks are often part of a geographic information system where an accurate location and visualization are a requisite. This has commonly resulted in the fragmentation of each logical link into a multitude of segments, with most of the nodes of these segments mere intermediate, cosmetic elements from an operational standpoint. The topology of such network data models is not well defined, and has to be inferred. However, these network data models benefit from the attribute-linking capabilities of the spatial database models they are derived from. Among the most significant attributes that can be attached to network layers are: - **Classification and labeling.** Each segment can be classified into categories such as its function (street, highway, railway, etc.), importance (number of lanes), and type (paved, non-paved). Also, a complex labeling structure can be established with prefixes, proper names, and suffixes. - **Linear referencing system**. Several systems to locate elements along a segment have been established. One of the most common is the address system, where each segment is provided with an address range. Through linear interpolation, a specific location can be derived (geocoding). - **Segment travel costs**. Can consider a vast array of impedance measures. Among the most common is the length of the segment, a typical travel time, or a speed limit. Congestion can also be assessed, either as a specific value of impedance or as a mathematical function. - **Direction**. To avoid unnecessary and often unrealistic duplication of links, especially at the street level, a directional attribute can be included in the attribute table. - **Overcrossing and undercrossing**. Since the great majority of layer-based network models are planar, they are ill-designed to deal with non-planar representations. A provision must be made in the attribute table to identify segments that are overcrossing or undercrossing a segment they are intersecting with. - [Turn penalties](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/turn-penalty-intersection/ "Turn Penalties at an Intersection"). An important attribute to ensure accurate routing within a network. Each intersection has different turn constraints and possibilities. Conventionally, in road transportation, a right turn is assumed to have a lesser penalty than a left turn. The opposite applies to countries where driving is on the left (e.g. UK). The layer-based approach is consequently good for performing effective transportation network cartography and geocoding. However, it is ill-suited to address routing and assignment transport problems comprehensively. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/esri_shapefile_model.png?resize=900%2C638&ssl=1 "The ESRI Shapefile Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/esri-shapefile-model/shapefile_model/)The ESRI Shapefile Model[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/turn_penalty_intersection.png?resize=900%2C553&ssl=1 "Turn Penalties at an Intersection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/turn-penalty-intersection/turn_penalties/)Turn Penalties at an Intersection# 3. Topological Representation Two fundamental tables are required in the [topological representation of a network data model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7614) that can be stored in a database: - **Node table**. This table contains at least three fields; one to store a unique identifier and the other to store the node’s X and Y coordinates. Although any Cartesian reference system can define these coordinates, longitudes and latitudes ensure portability to a GIS. - **Link table**. This table also contains at least three fields; one to store a unique identifier, one to store the node of origin, and one to store the destination node. A fourth field can be used to state whether the link is unidirectional. Once those two tables are relationally linked, a basic network topology can be constructed, and all graph theory indexes and measures can be calculated. Attributes such as [connectivity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7620) and the Shimbel matrix can also easily be derived from the link table. This representation enables to define the topology of networks as structured by graph theory. Many efforts have been made to create comprehensive transportation network databases to address a wide variety of transportation problems ranging from public transit to package distribution. Initially, these efforts were undertaken within transportation network optimization packages (e.g. EMME, TransCAD), creating topologically sound representations. However, many of these representations were geographically inaccurate and had limited visual and geocoding capabilities. Using a network data model for cartography, geocoding, and routing requires further developments. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relational_database_simple_network.png?resize=900%2C549&ssl=1 "Relational Database Representation of a Simple Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/relational-database-simple-network/rdbnetwork/)Relational Database Representation of a Simple Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/connectivity_matrix_link_table.png?resize=900%2C388&ssl=1 "Creation of a Connectivity Matrix with a Link Table | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/connectivity-matrix-creation-link-table/connectivity_matrix_link_table/)Creation of a Connectivity Matrix with a Link Table[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/object_oriented_network_model.png?resize=900%2C522&ssl=1 "Object-Oriented Network Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/object-oriented-network-model/object_oriented_data_model/)Object Oriented Network ModelThe Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER) model is a notable example of a topological structure that has been widely accepted. TIGER was developed by the US Census Bureau to store street information constructed for the 1990 census and has been continuously updated since then. It contains complete geographic coordinates and a line-based structure. The most important attributes include street name and address information, offering an efficient linear referencing system for geocoding, which has been very useful for the GIS industry in general and transportation in particular. It does not contain census or any other socioeconomic data, but this data can be merged with the geodataset for spatial analysis. # 4. Object-Oriented Approach The object-oriented approach represents a more recent development in spatial data models, often known as geodatabases. It assumes that each geographical feature is an object with a set of properties and relationships with other objects. As such, a transportation network is an object composed of other objects, namely nodes and links. Since the topology is one of the core concepts defining transportation networks, relationships expressing it are embedded in object-oriented representations. The basic elements of an [object-oriented transportation network data model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7632) are: - **Classes**. They categorize objects in a specific taxonomy, which has a proper set of properties and relationships. The two basic classes of a network are obviously nodes and links, but each of these classes can be subdivided into subclasses. For instance, a link can be subdivided into a road link, a rail link, a walkway, etc. - **Properties**. They refer to a set of measurable characteristics associated with a specific class. For instance, the properties of a road class could be its length, number of lanes, name, surface, speed limit, etc. - **Relationships**. They describe the type of logical relations objects have with one another. Instance (is-a) and membership (is-in) are among the most common relations. For example, a street is an instance of the road class, which itself is an instance of a transport infrastructure. A specific road segment can be considered part of a specific transport system through a membership relation. From these relations, inheritance can be derived, where the characteristics of one object can be passed to another. Using the previous example, it is logical to derive that a street is a transport infrastructure. Thus, the object street inherits the properties of the object transport infrastructure. By their structure, especially with their embedded topology, an object-oriented transport network data model effectively solves routing issues in transport. Object-oriented data models were in the design phase in the 2000s with proposals such as UNETRANS (Unified NEtwork-TRANSportation data model). By the 2010s, transport data models became common within geodatabases, including a wide array of geographic datasets such as features (points, polylines, polygons), attribute tables, raster datasets, topologies, and network datasets. More specifically, network datasets within a geodatabase include the standard structural elements, mainly links and nodes, and their topology. The object-oriented approach for GIS is becoming the standard, but requires effort to convert or adapt existing transport network databases, which are mainly layer-based, into the new representational structure. However, they offer a wider set of tools to analyze transportation systems once implemented. --- ## Related Topics - [2.1 – The Geography of Transportation Networks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=623) - [A.3 – Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6741) - [Graph Theory: Definition and Properties](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5976) - [Graph Theory: Measures and Indices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5981) - Traffic Assignment ## Bibliography - Adams, T.M., N.A. Koncz, and A.P. Vonderohe (2001) Guidelines for the Implementation of Multimodal Transportation Location Referencing Systems. NCHRP Report 460, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. - Butler, J.A. (2008) Designing Geodatabases for Transportation, Redlands, CA: ESRI Press. - Guimera, R. and L. Amaral (2005) “Cartography of complex networks: modules and universal roles”, Journal of Statistical Mechanics, No. 2. - Zeiler, M. (1999) Modeling our World: The ESRI Guide to Geodatabase Design, Redlands, CA: ESRI Press. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.16 - The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/) **Published:** January 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transportation infrastructures are becoming increasingly complex, requiring new forms of financing. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Private Participation in Transport Infrastructure](#1_Private_Participation_in_Transport_Infrastructure) - [2. Causes and Forms of Public Divestiture](#2_Causes_and_Forms_of_Public_Divestiture) - [3. Privatization and Financing Models](#3_Privatization_and_Financing_Models) - [4. Limitations of Private Capital](#4_Limitations_of_Private_Capital) - [5. Private-Public Partnerships](#5_Private-Public_Partnerships) # 1. Private Participation in Transport Infrastructure Infrastructures can be **funded**, implying that the public sector provides capital from general funds or taxation and that this capital is not expected to be recovered. Infrastructures can also be **financed**, mostly by private sources, and in this case, capital recovery is expected. Transportation infrastructure, like several infrastructure classes, has a significant level of public involvement ranging from direct ownership and management to a regulatory framework that defines operational standards for dominantly privately-owned infrastructure. In many jurisdictions, government roles involve well-defined responsibilities that are not expected to change. Conventionally, transportation, particularly roads, was seen as a **public good** not to be subject to market forces and be free of access. A similar trend applied to port and airport infrastructures that were placed under the management of public authorities. Even for [rail systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1995) where the infrastructure is dominantly private and where operations are being privatized, there was a tradition of strong regulatory oversight. For instance, although rail freight has essentially been a private endeavor in the United States, it was significantly regulated by the Interstate Commerce Commission in terms of fares and service level. Private rail operators mostly manage rail terminals, while the warehousing/distribution industry is almost completely private. Like many civil engineering sectors, the private sector can be involved in transportation **project delivery**, which can include design and construction, **project management** such as maintenance and operations, and **project financing**, namely raising capital. Contemporary transportation infrastructure financing is facing the following challenges: - **Lack of funding**. Transport funding initiatives are generally **not sufficient for maintaining and improving the performance** of transport systems. This was a major driver behind privatization and deregulation in the passenger and freight transport industries worldwide. The infrastructure financing model is gaining momentum. - **Divergence of purpose**. Transport finance initiatives should be designed to **promote productivity gains**, such as increased accessibility, capacity, and performance. Many investment projects are politically instead of commercially driven, which creates a divergence in the purpose of transportation. - **Uncertainty in the outcome**. Transport finance initiatives differ in their **probable impacts on transport system performance**. This underlines the difficulty of [assessing multiplying effects](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5318) linked with specific infrastructure investment projects. - **Time frame misalignment**. There is often a misalignment between the **time range of the infrastructure project** and the **time range of the financing**. This underlines the paradigm between the [long term character of infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5423) and the short term perspective prevailing in finance. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_socioeconomic_benefits.png?resize=900%2C509&ssl=1 "Socioeconomic Benefits of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-socio-economic-benefits/transportation_socioeconomic_benefits/)Socioeconomic Benefits of Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/life_span_transport_asset.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Lifespan (Life Cycle) of Main Transport Assets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/life_span_transport_asset/)Lifespan Life Cycle of Main Transport Assets[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/actors_transport_finance.png?resize=900%2C553&ssl=1 "Actors in Transport Finance | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/transport-finance-actors/actors_transport_finance/)Actors in Transport FinanceThe trend towards [greater private involvement in the transportation sector](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8696) initially started with the privatization (or deregulation) in the 1980s of existing transportation firms. New relationships started to be established with financial institutions since public funding and subsidies were substantially reduced, and new competitors entered the market. Then, many transportation firms were able to expand through mergers and acquisitions into new networks and markets. Some, particularly in the maritime and terminal operation sectors, became large multinational enterprises controlling substantial assets and revenues. As the freight transport sector became increasingly efficient and profitable it received the attention of large equity firms in search of returns on capital investment. The acquisition costs of intermodal terminals, particularly [port facilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8703), has **substantially increased** in recent years as large equity firms are competing to acquire facilities with secure traffic (and thus low risks). A new wave of mergers and acquisitions took place at the global and national levels as equity firms see terminals as an asset class with different forms of [value proposition](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8709): - **Asset (intrinsic value)**. Globalization and the growth of international trade have made many terminal assets more valuable since they are key elements in establishing and maintaining global supply chains. Terminals occupy premium locations conferring accessibility to either maritime, rail, or road transport systems. These locations, such as waterfronts, are rare and cannot easily (if at all) be substituted for other locations. Traffic growth is commonly linked with the growth in the valuation of a transport infrastructure since the same amount of land generates a higher income. Thus, terminals and some transport infrastructure are seen as fairly liquid assets with an anticipation that they will gain in value. - **Source of income (operational value)**. In addition to being an asset, intermodal terminals also guarantee a source of income linked with the traffic volume they handle. They have a constant revenue stream with a fairly limited seasonality (unlike many bulk terminals), which makes terminals particularly attractive in light of substantial traffic growth that most terminal facilities have experienced. Traffic growth expectations result in income growth expectations. - **Diversification (risk mitigation value)**. Intermodal terminals offer a form of functional and geographical asset diversification for a holding company and help lower risks. Terminals represent an asset class on their own. They also offer a potential for geographical diversification as holding terminals at different locations helps mitigate risks linked with a specific regional or national market. Financial problems related to the residential real estate sector are likely to incite many holding companies to diversify their assets, even outside the United States. # 2. Causes and Forms of Public Divestiture Facing the growing inability of governments to manage and fund transport infrastructure, the last decades has seen deregulation and more active private participation. Many factors have placed pressures on public officials to consider the privatization of transport infrastructure: - **Fiscal problems**. The level of government expenses in a variety of social welfare practices is a growing burden on public finances, making privatization and divestiture an attractive option. Current fiscal trends underline limited fiscal margins for most levels of governments and that accumulated deficits have led to burdensome debt levels. The matter becomes how public entities default on their commitments. Since transport infrastructures are assets of substantial value, they are commonly a target for privatization. This is also known as “monetization” where a government seeks a large lump sum by selling or leasing an infrastructure for budgetary relief. This problem has been compounded by challenges in getting infrastructure tax revenues from existing schemes. For instance, many public highway infrastructure constructions and maintenance funds are based on fuel taxes. Technological improvements in vehicle fuel efficiency, fluctuations in petroleum prices and limited growth in the number of vehicle-kilometers traveled provide limited prospects for taxation generated funding of transport infrastructure. - **High operating costs**. Mainly due to managerial and labor costs issues, the operating costs of public transport infrastructure, including maintenance, tend to be higher than their private counterparts. Private interests tend to have better control of technical and financial risks, are able to meet construction and operational guidelines as well as providing a higher quality of services to users. If publicly owned, any operating deficits must be covered by public funds, namely through cross-subsidies. Otherwise, users would be paying a higher cost than a privately managed system. This does not provide many incentives for publicly operated transport systems to improve their operating costs as inefficiencies are essentially subsidized by public funds. High operating costs are thus a significant incentive to privatize. - **Cross-subsidies**. Several transport infrastructures are subsidized by revenues from other streams since their operating costs cannot be compensated by existing revenue. For instance, [public transport systems are subsidized](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5233) in part by revenues coming from fuel taxes or tolls. Privatization can thus be a strategy to end cross-subsidizing by tapping private capital markets instead of relying on public debt. The subsidies can either be reallocated to fund other projects (or pay an existing debt) or removed altogether, thus reducing taxation levels (unlikely). - **Equalization**. Since public investments are often a political process facing pressures from different constituents to receive their “fair share”, many investments come with “strings attached” in terms of budget allocation. Infrastructure investment in one region must often be compensated with a comparable investment in another region or project, even if this investment may not be necessary. This tends to significantly increase the general cost of public infrastructure investments, particularly if equalization creates non-revenue generating projects. Thus, privatization removes the equalization process for capital allocation as private enterprises are less bounded to such a forced and often wasteful redistribution. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Farebox-Ratio.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Farebox Recovery Ratio, Selected Transit Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/world-farebox-ratio/map-world-farebox-ratio/)Farebox Recovery Ratio Selected Transit SystemsOne of the core goals of privatization concerns the derived efficiency gains compared to the transaction costs of the process. Efficiency gains involve a higher output level with the same or fewer input units, implying a more productive use of the infrastructure. Transaction costs are the costs related to the exchange (from the public to private ownership) and could involve various buyouts, such as compensations for existing public workers. For public infrastructure, they tend to be very high and involve delays due to the regulatory changes of the transaction. # 3. Privatization and Financing Models Once privatization is considered, an important issue concerns which form it will take. There are several options ranging from a complete sale of the infrastructure to a management contract where the public sector retains ownership and a share of the revenues. Three forms of privatization are particularly dominant: - **Sale or concession agreement (lease) of existing facilities**. Divestiture is part of a political agenda that began with deregulation. As discussed before, budget relief is sought because of mismanagement; the public sector is essentially forced to sell or lease some of its infrastructures. For a sale, the infrastructure is transferred on a freehold basis with the requirement that it will be used for its initial purpose unless another agreement was negotiated and in this case, the outcome is an abandonment of the infrastructure. This is the case when infrastructure is obsolete and it is more suitable to build a new one at another more suitable site. For a concession agreement, it commonly takes the form of a long term lease with the requirement that the concessionaire maintains, upgrade, and build infrastructure and equipment. - **Concessions for new projects**. Tap new sources of capital outside conventional public funding. It can take place in the context of fiscal restraints or as a way to experiment with a more limited form of privatization since existing assets remain untouched. It also confers the advantage of getting the latest technical and managerial expertise for the infrastructure project. - **Management contract**. While ownership remains public, management is given to a private operator, commonly through a bidding process. This strategy has been particularly popular in the terminal operation business as many rail and maritime terminals are managed by private operators who do not own the facilities but have long term leases. The outcome commonly involves efficiency improvements and public revenue from the lease. Concessions are a **simple and fair** strategy involving a bidding process, which underlines the importance to have it take place in a transparent and open manner. This is particularly relevant in the current context as retirement funds, sovereign wealth funds, investment banks, and other financial institutions are increasingly involved in the funding of transportation infrastructure. A lack of transparency can be perceived negatively by the general public and can transform a simple transaction into a complex political process sidetracked by special interest groups. Since some concessions are set over long time periods (50-75 years), they bring the issue of **changing market conditions** that may force a renegotiation of the contract. It is next to impossible to foresee long term market changes and traffic levels, so a provision for renegotiation should be considered in concession agreements. Again, this renegotiation can be subject to controversy and public debate, particularly if performed in an un-transparent manner. Due to their nature and function, several other forms of privatization can be established for [intermodal freight terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3368). Considering that intermodal terminals have an intensive use of equipment, leasing agreements are an important dimension of privatization and of the strategies of existing private infrastructure operators. # 4. Limitations of Private Capital Even if public and private actors have established institutional and finance arrangements, many have been hard-pressed to meet the demands imposed by growing volumes of passengers and freight traffic. Shifts in regional and global patterns of trade patterns associated with trade agreements and globalization have also created pressures to develop infrastructures supporting global supply chains. A challenge resides in identifying the respective roles and competencies of the public and private sectors, which varies substantially depending on the concerned mode. Although a level of privatization is commonly perceived as a desirable outcome for the efficient use and operation of transportation infrastructures, privatization comes with limitations. In some instances, privatization can be unsuccessful. The main reasons are linked with the private contractor unable to **honor the commitments** (which is rare) or the **new cost structure** is perceived to be unfair by users since the privatized infrastructure now offers market pricing (more common). If customers are used to low and subsidized costs they will not well respond to market prices, particularly if they are not introduced in an incremental manner. Although private initiatives commonly result in efficiency gains, private capital involves many limitations concerning capital costs and the issue of domestic versus foreign capital: - **Capital costs**. Nominal costs for private capital are often higher than for public debt since the later is guaranteed by the full faith in the credit of the state. This can create a moral hazard as the capital costs and their risks are transferred to the public in terms of guarantees to cover operating costs (cross-subsidy) or bail-outs in case of default. This process is very common in a variety of public enterprises which is in spite of acute losses operate on the assumption that their financial shortfalls will be covered by the state. Thus, depending on the size and capitalization of a transport operator, capital costs can be higher than for a public counterpart. - **Domestic vs. foreign finance**. Local private capital markets can be very limited, particularly in developing countries. Transportation assets are also so substantial that they are only accessible to the largest equity firms. Modern transportation infrastructure projects are easily beyond the range of local and regional governments. Finance can thus be tapped from foreign markets. Even in the United States, terminal assets are mainly accessible only to a few large equity firms, many of which are foreign-owned. This can be controversial as the case of Dubai Ports World purchasing the port terminal assets of P&O in 2006 demonstrated. Because of political pressures, DPW was forced to sell the American port assets of the transaction to AIG holding company. Fluctuations in exchange rates can also be a significant risk factor, but if a currency is undervalued (debased), investments can pour in to take advantage of the discount to capture valuable and revenue-generating assets. # 5. Private-Public Partnerships Public-private partnerships (PPP) are **contractual agreements** between a public agency (federal, state, or municipal) and a private sector entity that allows for the design, building, operation, or financing of transport infrastructure. They thus confer a [wide range of options](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/public-private-partnership-options/ "Public / Private Partnership Options") in terms of capital allocation and respective levels of participation. They can cover the standard design / build contracting process common in many road projects or involve innovative approaches where a private operator takes charge of constructing and managing a transport infrastructure over a long-term concession. This business model has been used for centuries, particularly in the public utility sector. PPP takes place in situations where stakeholders alone cannot clearly evaluate the respective advantages of the investment and find it too risky to finance. The public sector thus helps **leverage the position of the private sector**, which commonly results in a better allocation of resources than if they would have done so independently. While public perception tends to relate PPP to [toll roads](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/highways-public-private-partnerships-united-states/ "Examples of Highway Public / Private Partnerships in the United States"), the reality places these initiatives in every segment of the transportation industry, from modes to terminals. PPP takes a particular dimension in the freight sector as freight transportation is much the realm of the private sector with public interests, mainly covering the regulatory framework. The most significant infrastructure assets are related to freight transport terminals, particularly ports, and rail, which is why they are dominantly owned or operated by large private interests, which makes public involvement problematic. Thus, there is a conventional approach to PPP, which is gradually been supplemented by an emerging framework where private entities are taking a higher level of responsibility, so the term private-public partnerships appears increasingly more appropriate. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pubic_private_partnership_options.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Public / Private Partnership Options for Building Transportation Facilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-options/pubic_private_partnership_options/)Public Private Partnership Options[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Terminal-Surface-1.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Container Terminals of the World's Major Port Holdings, 2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/container-terminals-port-holdings/map-terminal-surface-1/)Container Terminals of the Worlds Major Port Holdings 2019[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/risk_transfer_ppp.png?resize=850%2C556&ssl=1 "Risk Transfer and Private Sector Involvement in Public-Private Partnerships | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-risk-transfer/risk_transfer_ppp/)Risk Transfer and Private Sector Involvement in Public Private PartnershipsHowever, like most initiatives where governments are involved, there are **unintended consequences**, implying a difference between the expected and the real outcomes. The two most prominent unintended consequences of a PPP involve undermining innovation and risk: - **Innovations**. Since a PPP results in less competition as the private company is securing an intrinsic monopoly, there are limited incentives to innovate, particularly to reduce operating costs. Innovations, such as new management methods and new infrastructures, may also be impaired by regulations and conditions related to the contract. Therefore, as long as the contract remains effective, inertia (status quo) will endure, which means that long-term contracts can become factors delaying innovation. It can also be expected that investment capital, commonly the outcome of the accumulation of profits, would come from the public sector. Since governments often put maximum profits clauses in contracts (windfall profits), there are limited incentives to use innovations to increase productivity and profits above the arbitrary threshold. - **Risk**. Strategies involved in exploring new market opportunities, such as new services for customers, are common business practices, and always involve a level of risk. While a PPP may [reduce several risk factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8725) because of the implicit public support, both from a financial and regulatory perspective (the government retains its potential to tax and coerce to achieve its goals), the abatement of risks also has unintended consequences. The goal becomes compliance with government policies at the expense of focusing on new opportunities and mitigating the associated risk. Thus, the rewards of risk-taking are essentially removed. This can be seen as a reverse form of moral hazard where a government guarantee undermines the risk-taking behavior of private enterprises. --- ## Related Topics - [Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260) - [Transport Terminal Governance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3904) - [Transport Planning and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6284) ## Bibliography - Flyvbjerg, B. (2009) “Survival of the Unfittest: Why the Worst Infrastructure Gets Built and What We Can Do About It”, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 344–367. - Kenny, C. (2009) “Transport construction, corruption and developing countries”, Transport Reviews, 29(1), pp. 21-41. - US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (2007) Financing Freight Improvements, Publication #FHWA-HOP-06-108. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/?share=reddit) - --- ### [6.4 - Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/) **Published:** November 21, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Brian Slack > Rail terminals are facilities used for the transfer of passengers and freight to other modes of transportation. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Location Dynamics](#1_Location_Dynamics) - [2. Passenger Terminals](#2_Passenger_Terminals) - [3. Freight Terminals](#3_Freight_Terminals) # 1. Location Dynamics When rail transportation systems emerged in the second half of the 19th century, the importance of rail terminals, including their location, became apparent. Using rail transportation requires **purposely designed terminals** where passengers can embark and disembark and where freight can be transferred. [Rail terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3606), while not quite as space extensive as airports and ports, are less prone to site constraints. This involves two major issues: - **Location**. An important distinction concerns passengers and freight rail terminals, which commonly involve very different locations. Many rail terminals were established in the 19th century during the heyday of rail development. While sites may have been on the edge of urban areas at the time, decades of urban development, including residential and industrial areas, have surrounded older rail terminals, leaving limited expansion opportunities. Passenger terminals are more compact and tend to occupy central locations, commonly the defining element of urban centrality. Freight terminals have seen a growing separation from central locations, with new facilities often built in an exurban location, including high-speed train stations. - **Setting**. Because of the linear characteristic of their mode, rail terminals are dominantly rectangular-shaped facilities. Their capacity is a function of the number of track spurs available, which is a characteristic difficult to change once the terminal has been built. Individually rail terminals may not be as extensive as airports or ports. Still, cumulatively the area occupied by all the rail sites in a metropolitan area may exceed those of the other modes. For example, in Chicago, the combined area of rail freight yards exceeds that of the airports. Rail terminals have a unique characteristic related to shunting (or switching), which requires **separate yard facilities** often adjacent to the terminal and, at times, independent facilities. The wagons composing a train often need to be assembled or broken down in classification yards. This is particularly the case for freight trains that must be assembled at their origin, switched at intermediary locations (if long-distance hauling is concerned), and broken down at their destination. This is less of an issue for passenger rail, where shunting yards are needed to store, maintain, and assemble passenger rail cars. Shunting remains fundamental to rail operations. Rail terminals have significant [structuring and agglomeration effects](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3611) that impacted urban land markets since their introduction. This includes related activities, such as retail, restaurants, and hotels for passenger terminals or warehousing and distribution centers for freight terminals. This is in part due to the **accessibility they provide** and, in part, because of the **traffic they generate**. Before the prominence of the automobile and trucking, economic activities clustered around their respective rail terminals. Entire urban districts emerged around rail terminals as part of emerging urban transit and commuter systems. However, as the trucking industry matured and highway infrastructure expanded and improved, rail terminals lost much of their primacy. Even if rail transportation is generally more fuel-efficient than other modes, the mobility of passengers and freight quickly responded to the availability of the ubiquitous highway infrastructure. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_rail_terminals.png?resize=900%2C432&ssl=1 "Types of Rail Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/types-rail-terminals/types_rail_terminals/)Types of Rail Terminals[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/structuring_rail_terminals.png?resize=900%2C531&ssl=1 "Structuring Effects of Rail Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/rail-structuring-effects/structuring_rail_terminals/)Structuring Effects of Rail Terminals[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_1801.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Quai d'Orsay Museum, Paris, France | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/quai-orsay-museum/img_1801/)Quai dOrsay Museum Paris FranceRail terminals were initially developed to complement the shortcomings of other modes, particularly to service gaps in fluvial (canal) and maritime transportation. As rail passenger traffic declined in the second half of the 20th century, the need for many rail stations diminished, particularly in North America. A rationalization resulted in the **conversion of many stations** to other uses, sometimes with striking effects, such as the [Musee d’Orsay in Paris](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/quai-orsay-museum/ "Quai d’Orsay Museum, Paris, France") and Windsor Station in Montreal. Railyard conversion has been less spectacular, partly because the sites are less interesting from an architectural standpoint. Many former downtown freight facilities have been redeveloped into residential or commercial developments. Indeed, the CN Tower-Skydome complexes in Toronto are on former rail land. In other cases, yards can be converted to related activities such as warehouses or [urban logistics centers](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=284). The current setting of rail systems underlines an almost **complete separation between passenger and freight rail terminals**. Although they can share access to the same rail network, they serve entirely different mobility requirements subject to different locational behavior. Any proximity between passengers and freight terminals tends to be coincidental. # 2. Passenger Terminals Passenger rail terminals tend to be **functionally simple facilities**. In their most basic form, they include a quay for passengers to embark or disembark and a common area for ticket purchases, waiting, and activities servicing passengers (e.g. retail and restoration). While some are along a line that requires a stop of a few minutes so that passengers can embark or disembark, others are terminal locations at the head of an intercity corridor. Like any other terminal facility, rail terminals have a size and complexity directly related to the number of passengers they serve. There is a hierarchy of the importance of passenger rail terminals, which is illustrated in the rail network structure. It ranges from simple stops with only a platform to central rail stations with enclosed facilities with multiple piers and amenities. [Central railway stations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3624) are typically in the heart of downtown cores and are primary elements of national or regional passenger rail systems. At one time, their sites may have been on the edge of the pre-industrial city, as is the case for London and Paris. The commercial and business activity shift has conferred many with a prominent central function. These stations are typically imposing buildings reflecting the power and importance represented by the railway in the 19th and 20th centuries. For many cities, [railway stations are the key elements of urban centrality](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/major-rail-stations-paris-metropolitan/ "Major Rail Stations and Rail Lines in the Paris Metropolitan Area") and represent an impressive architectural achievement unmatched by any other type of transportation terminal and occupy a large footprint. While many passenger terminals used to be privately owned by the railways that built and operated them, a large share was transferred into public trusts such as transit agencies. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/DCP00482.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Centraal Train Station, Amsterdam | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Centraal Train Station Amsterdam![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Paris-Metro.png?resize=900%2C623&ssl=1 "Major Rail Stations and Rail Lines in the Paris Metropolitan Area | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Rail Stations and Rail Lines in the Paris Metropolitan AreaNotable landmarks include the Grand Central Station in New York, St. Pancras Station in London, the [Gare de Lyon in Paris](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3631), and the Shinjuku train station in Tokyo, the world’s busiest, with more than 3.5 million people per day. Since many central rail stations handle large amounts of commuters, they also tend to be the nexus of public transit systems, as subway stations are directly connected to the terminal facility. Even if, in several cases, the long-distance function has subsided, the imprint of passenger rail terminals on the structure of urban transit systems has endured. The development of [high-speed rail systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1921) has offered **new opportunities for rail terminals** with the [renovation of existing facilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3638), many of which are central railway stations, or the construction of new facilities in suburban areas. The centrality of rail stations became a positive factor in developing high-speed rail systems as it confers direct accessibility to core business activities. In many cases, the high-speed rail station has become a new nexus of activity with co-located developments such as office buildings, retail stores, hotels, and parking facilities. The development of activities near high-speed rail stations is often more driven by the availability of land and parking space, particularly in suburban stations than the connectivity of the high-speed rail network. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/DCP00423.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "TGV Train at Gare de Lyon, Paris, France | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/gare-de-lyon-tgv/dcp00423/)TGV Train at Gare de Lyon Paris France[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-HSR.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World High Speed Rail Systems, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/map-world-hsr/)World High Speed Rail Systems 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_1585-scaled.jpg?resize=900%2C1200&ssl=1 "Antwerp Centraal Train Station | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/antwerp-cantraal-station/img_1585/)Antwerp Centraal Train Station[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/travel_times_high_speed_rail.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Travel Times before and after the Introduction of a High-Speed Rail Service | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-travel-time/high_speed_travel_times/)Travel Times before and after the Introduction of a High Speed Rail Service hours[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_share_high_speed_rail.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Modal Share before and after the Introduction of a High-Speed Train | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-modal-share/high_speed_travel_times_madrid_paris/)Modal Share before and after the Introduction of a High Speed TrainAn additional level of integration concerns the design of airport terminals with high-speed train stations, such as the case of Charles de Gaulle (Paris), Schiphol (Amsterdam), and Pudong (Shanghai), which connect long-distance air travel with regional accessibility. Over specific corridors in France, Spain, Germany, China, South Korea, and Japan, high-speed rail stations effectively **compete with national air services**, substituting the airport for the rail station. Where high-speed rail services are available, and for destinations of less than 2 hours, an airline can lose up to 90% of its market share. To adapt, air carriers such as Air France and Lufthansa offer services that include a rail segment, implying that the train station becomes a proxy for the airport. In some instances, such as Hong Kong, a centrally located public transit station servicing an airport terminal with a rail connection (light or heavy rail) offers ticket and luggage check-in services. Therefore, better integration between passenger rail and air transportation enables the **substitution** of air travel and the possibility of using **satellite airport terminals**. This is linked with new forms of airport competitiveness. # 3. Freight Terminals Unlike passenger terminals, **rail freight yards** did not have to be centrally located, and because they required a great deal of space for multiple tracks for marshaling, they were more likely located on greenfield sites. Sites adjacent to rail yards attracted manufacturing activities relying on rail distribution capabilities, and many adjacent areas became important industrial zones. When dealing with bulk commodities, rail terminals, and spurs will be close to the source as they are the main means for these commodities to be shipped to markets. They also vary in complexity because of the different freight markets they service (grain, coal, cars, containers), each requiring specialized loading/unloading facilities and equipment. Rail freight terminals perform four major functions: - **Bulk**. These rail terminals are linked with extractive industries such as agriculture, mining, and wood products. Terminals are generally designed to be commodity-specific. For instance, [grain elevators](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/grain-elevator-rail-terminal-regina/ "Grain Elevator Rail Terminal, Regina, Saskatchewan") are bulk terminals commonly used to store, mix, and load grain into railcars. Another important characteristic of bulk rail terminals is their unidirectional flows, implying that they are designed specifically to either load or unload bulk. Rail terminals doing both are uncommon, which reflects the nature of bulk trades. - **Roll-on / roll-off**. Used to transport vehicles such as [cars](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/roro-rail-gothenburg/ "Roll On / Roll Off Rail Terminal, Port of Gothenburg"), trucks, or construction equipment where vehicles are rolled in a railcar using a ramp. Such terminals commonly require a large amount of parking space to store vehicles, particularly if they concern cars bound for retail outlets. Many serve as storage facilities supplying regional markets. - **Breakbulk**. Involves handling various cargoes that can be bagged, in drums, rolls, or crates. They are commonly related to a specific activity, such as a manufacturing plant or a warehouse handling break-bulk cargo, and serviced by dedicated rail spurs. Containerization has reduced the need for breakbulk terminals. - **Intermodal**. The function of loading and unloading unitized freight from railcars. Containerization has dramatically expanded the intermodal productivity of rail terminals since it permits quick loading and unloading sequences but at the expense of more trackside space available. Depending on the type of operation, specific intermodal equipment will be used. Intermodal terminal can be part of a port facility ([on-dock or near-dock facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/on-dock-rail-veracruz/ "On Dock Intermodal Rail Facility, Port of Veracruz")) or a stand-alone inland terminal. - **Shunting**. The function of assembling, sorting, and breaking freight trains. Since trains can be composed of up to about 100 railcars (even more in North America), often of various nature, origins, and destinations, shunting can be a complex task performed on several occasions. Comparatively, unit trains that carry the same commodity, such as coal, cars, or containers, require little shunting. Bailey yard in North Platte, Nebraska, operated by Union Pacific, is the largest classification yard in the world and handles 10,000 railcars per day. Shunting also takes place for passenger trains, but it is less common since once a passenger train has been assembled, it will remain as such for a period of time. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_7283-scaled.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Grain Elevator Rail Terminal, Regina, Saskatchewan | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/grain-elevator-rail-terminal-regina/img_7283/)Grain Elevator Rail Terminal Regina Saskatchewan[![Roll On Roll Off Rail Gothenburg](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_3561.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Roll On / Roll Off Rail Terminal, Port of Gothenburg | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/roro-rail-gothenburg/img_3561/)Roll On Roll Off Rail Terminal Port of Gothenburg[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0239-scaled.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "On-Dock Intermodal Rail Facility, Port of Veracruz | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/on-dock-rail-veracruz/img_0239/)On Dock Intermodal Rail Facility Port of Veracruz[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/configuration_intermodal_rail_terminal.png?resize=900%2C502&ssl=1 "Configuration of a Rail Intermodal Container Terminal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/intermodal-rail-terminal-configuration/configuration_intermodal_rail_terminal/)Configuration of a Rail Intermodal Container Terminal[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bnsf_logistics_park_joliet.png?resize=900%2C435&ssl=1 "BNSF Logistics Park Terminal, Joliet, Illinois | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/bnsf-logistics-park-joliet/bnsf_logistics_park_terminal/)BNSF Logistics Park Terminal Joliet IllinoisThe first forms of intermodal application to rail appeared in the late 19th century with practices dubbed “circus trains” because lorries were rolled in on flatcars using a ramp, a practice that was pioneered by circuses (Barnum in 1872). This simple ramp-based technique enabled many rail terminals to become “intermodal” by offering “[piggy back](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2575)” services that became widely available in the 1950s. By the end of the 20th century, many industries around rail freight yards had relocated or disappeared. In many cities, these former industrial parks have been targets of urban revitalization. At the same time, new intermodal practices emerged, notably lifting trailers or containers directly onto a flatcar. However, this required capital investments in intermodal equipment as well as paved terminal surfaces for storage. Only terminals with sufficient size and volume could be profitable. This has been accompanied by the closure of some rail yards, either because they were too small for contemporary operating activities, or because of a reduction of the local traffic base. As intermodal traffic grew, the number of intermodal terminals declined, each covering an extensive market area of about one day of trucking. This led to an extensive network of large intermodal terminals. In [North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8658) and Europe, many older rail freight yards have been converted into [intermodal facilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3670) because of the burgeoning traffic involving containers and road trailers, a process that started in the 1960s. The ideal configuration for these terminals is different from the typical general freight facility with their need for multiple spurs to assemble wagons to form train blocks. The loading and unloading of wagons tended to be a manual process, often taking days, tying up terminal rail capacity. Retrofitting conventional rail yards for contemporary intermodal operations proved challenging. Intermodal trains serve a more limited number of cities and are more likely to be dedicated to one destination. They offer the notable advantage of being quickly loaded or unloaded, thus tying up less terminal rail capacity. They, however, need fewer but longer rail spurs. The configuration typically requires a site over three kilometers long and an area of over 100 hectares. Besides, good access to the highway system is a requisite, as well as a degree of automation to handle the transshipment demands of intermodal rail operations. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_2908.JPG?w=900&ssl=1 "CP Lachine Intermodal Rail Terminal, Montreal, Canada | The Geography of Transport Systems ")CP Lachine Intermodal Rail Terminal Montreal Canada![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mi-jack-intermodal-935x4301.jpg?resize=900%2C414&ssl=1 "Intermodal Rail Rubber-tired Gantry Crane (Translift) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Intermodal Rail Rubber tired Gantry Crane TransliftOne of the important growth factors of rail transportation has been its closer integration with maritime shipping. This is particularly the case at port terminals with new on-dock container rail facilities. The term “on-dock” can be misleading since a direct ship-to-rail transshipment rarely occurs. A dray carries the container from alongside the ship to alongside the rail track (and vice versa), but frequently, containers are brought back and forth from a stack. [Transloading](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3689), the practice of transferring loads between truck and rail transportation, has also experienced remarkable growth. Various forms of [bundling](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3702) are possible, from the usage of direct trains (terminal to terminal) to a hub and spoke distribution requiring intermediary terminals. As long-distance trucking is getting increasingly expensive due to growing energy costs, congestion, and labor availability, many shippers see the advantages of using rail transportation to a location in the vicinity of their markets. At this location, freight loads are broken down into Less-than-Truckloads (LTL) and shipped to their final destinations by short-distance trucks. Former rail terminals and port sites have been among the **most important redevelopment areas** in most major urban centers. The redevelopment of old port sites, because of their scale (very large), location (adjacent to downtown), and sites (waterfront), have been at the forefront of the process. Their renovation has had a significant influence on the surrounding regions. Many cities have experienced significant benefits from waterfront redevelopment in downtown revitalization and economic revival. Similar experiences have occurred in the United States (Boston, New York, Baltimore, San Francisco, Seattle) and Europe (London, Manchester, Bristol, Liverpool, Rotterdam). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rail_road_transloading.png?resize=900%2C683&ssl=1 "Road / Rail Transloading | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/transloading/road_rail_transloading/)Road Rail Transloading[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rail_bundling_operational_time.png?resize=900%2C521&ssl=1 "Rail Bundling Strategies and Operational Time | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/rail-bundling/rail_bundling/)Rail Bundling Strategies and Operational Time[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA_Intermodal_Terminal_Ownership_2015-1.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Ownership of North American Intermodal Rail Terminals, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/intermodal-rail-terminals-north-america/map-na_intermodal_terminal_ownership_2015/)Ownership of North American Intermodal Rail Terminals 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Intermodal-Chicago.png?resize=900%2C617&ssl=1 "Intermodal Rail Yards in the Chicago Metropolitan Area | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/intermodal-rail-yards-chicago-area/map-intermodal-chicago/)Intermodal Rail Yards in the Chicago Metropolitan Area[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Triple-Crown.png?resize=900%2C784&ssl=1 "Triple Crown Intermodal Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/triple-crown-intermodal-network/map-triple-crown/)Triple Crown Intermodal Network--- ## Related Topics - [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3009) - [6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3123) - [5.3 – Rail Transportation and Pipelines](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1759) - [Inland Ports (Terminals)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139) (PEMP external link) - [B4 – High Speed Rail Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7457) - [B.5 – Transcontinental Bridges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7237) - [B.22 – Rail Deregulation in the United States](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9468) ## Bibliography - Bertolini, L. and T. Spit (1998) Cities on Rails: The Redevelopment of Railway Station Areas. London: E&FN Spon. - Kreutzberger, E. and R. Konings (2013) “The Role of Inland Terminals in Intermodal Transport Development”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Meeks, C.L.V. (2012) The Railroad Station: An Architectural History, New York: Dover Publications. - Rodrigue, J-P (2015) “The Structuring Effects of Rail Terminals”, in C. Comtois and B.P.Y. Loo (eds) Sustainable Railway Futures: Issues and Challenges, Transport and Mobility series, London: Ashgate, pp. 23-37. - Rodrigue, J-P and T. Notteboom (2012) “Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?”, Research in Transportation Business & Management, Vol. 5, pp. 4-15. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Intermodal Terminals and Selected Co-Located Logistic Zones Projects in North America](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/intermodal-terminals-logistics-zones-north-america/) **Published:** January 8, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** **Logistic Zone****Acreage****Ownership****Notes**CentrePort Canada20,000PublicRail-airport co-locationGlobal Transportation Hub3,250PublicCN Calgary Logistics Park580PrivateOpened in 2013Alliance Texas17,000PrivateOpened in 1994CenterPoint Intermodal Center – Elmwood2,200PrivateCenterPoint Intermodal Center – Joliet3,600PrivateOpened in 2004; BNSFCenterPoint Intermodal Center – Houston Metro630PrivateOpened in 2011CenterPoint Intermodal Center – Suffolk921PrivateOpened in 2009CenterPoint Intermodal Center – Crete1,000PrivateOpened in 2010; CSXCenterPoint Intermodal Center – Kansas City1,340PrivateKCSDallas Logistics Hub6,360PrivateHuntsville International Intermodal Center1,470PublicOpened in 1986Rickenbacker Global Logistics Park1,300PPPOpened in 2008Raritan Center2,350PrivateRail link plannedTerminal Intermodal Logistica de Hidalgo400PrivateOpened in 2012The principle of co-location is fundamental to the operational efficiency of an inland port. Several recent logistic zone projects in North America are capitalizing on this advantage. The planning and setting of a new intermodal rail terminal are done concomitantly with a logistics zone project. This partnership fundamentally acts as a filter for the commercial potential of the project as both actors must make the decision to go ahead with their respective capital investments in terminal facilities and commercial real estate. The above table depicts selected recent logistic zone projects that were designed in co-location with a new or renovated intermodal rail facility. Some involve substantial acreage, and it remains to be seen if the allocated land will eventually be fully used. Co-located logistics zone projects tend to be significantly larger than conventional logistics zones solely serviced by road. The convergence between the need for rail companies to develop large terminals to accommodate economies of scale and the capital intensiveness of these investments has incited partnerships with large commercial real estate developers who have the capital and expertise to develop large logistics zones. CenterPoint Properties, which was acquired in 2006 by a branch of CalPERS (California Public Employees’ Retirement Fund), is a salient example of a commercial developer actively involved with several rail operators in the development and management of logistics zones. While in most cases, CenterPoint will bring forward a project after a terminal development project has been announced, the trend is shifting towards concomitant planning of the intermodal rail terminal and the logistics zone. In one case (Crete, Illinois), CenterPoint decided to develop a logistics zone beforehand, and the rail operator CSX latched on afterward with its National Gateway Program. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/intermodal-terminals-logistics-zones-north-america/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/intermodal-terminals-logistics-zones-north-america/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/intermodal-terminals-logistics-zones-north-america/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/intermodal-terminals-logistics-zones-north-america/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Benefits of Logistics Improvements](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/benefits-logistics-improvements/) **Published:** January 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/benefits_logistics_improvements2.png?resize=900%2C452&ssl=1 "The Benefits of Logistics Improvements | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Benefits of Logistics ImprovementsThe growth in international trade and its related freight distribution systems also requires the development of logistics capabilities, which are supported by both physical (infrastructures) and managerial assets. Globalization has imposed more complex, geographically dispersed, and flexible supply chains requiring advanced logistics. Logistics involves a wide set of activities dedicated to the transformation and distribution of goods, from raw material sourcing to final market distribution, as well as the related information flows. Logistics investments are, therefore, the allocation of capital to improve the efficiency of freight distribution through: - Infrastructures, such as terminals, real estate, and telecommunications. - Operations, including transport modes and equipment. - Human resources related to labor, management, governance as well as research and development. The outcomes of investing in logistics capabilities are numerous, but mainly related to increased integration into global trade and supply chains, a better utilization of national transport assets, more competitive exports, lower costs for imports, as well as employment opportunities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/benefits-logistics-improvements/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/benefits-logistics-improvements/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/benefits-logistics-improvements/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/benefits-logistics-improvements/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Examples of Highway Public / Private Partnerships in the United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/highways-public-private-partnerships-united-states/) **Published:** January 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** **Chicago Skyway****Indiana Toll Road****Year**20052006**Infrastructure**7.8 miles (12.5 km) of toll urban highway with a bridge156.9 mi (252.5 km) of toll intercity highway connecting the Chicago Skyway to the Ohio Turnpike**Lessor**City of ChicagoState of Indiana**Lessee**Skyway Concession CompanyCintra and Macquarie Atlas Roads consortium**Lease duration**99 years75 years**Amount**$1.85 billion$3.85 billionPublic / Private Partnerships are commonly advocated as a suitable alternative for governments to receive financial compensation in by leasing an infrastructure. The lessee operates the infrastructure and collect tolls. The effectiveness of such projects is contingent upon a number of factors, particularly expected toll revenues and relation to the value of the bid. Private companies bidding for private infrastructure, particularly roads, must thus carefully forecast the traffic potential of the road since the level of traffic will directly be related to toll revenue. In 2006, Cintra, a Spanish construction firm, and Macquarie Atlas Roads, an Australian toll road company, successfully bid for the operation of the Indiana Toll Road. In exchange for a $3.85 billion payment, the consortium was given a 75 years concession to operate the road and collect tolls. However, toll revenues did not reach expectations. The financial crisis of 2008-09 resulted in a [significant drop in ridership](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1879). By 2010, toll revenues where half of what was expected, but traffic started to increase afterwards, but not to a level that generated enough revenues. In 2014, the consortium filed for bankruptcy. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/highways-public-private-partnerships-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/highways-public-private-partnerships-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/highways-public-private-partnerships-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/highways-public-private-partnerships-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.19 - Transportation and Pandemics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/) **Published:** January 28, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dr. Thomas Luke (Department of Virology, Naval Medical Research Center) and Dr. Michael Osterholm (Director of the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP), University of Minnesota) > Transportation systems due to their speed and ubiquity act as a vector in the diffusion of pandemics. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Pandemics](#1_Pandemics) - [2. Vectors and Velocities](#2_Vectors_and_Velocities) - [3. Continuity of Freight Distribution](#3_Continuity_of_Freight_Distribution) - [4. Possible Mitigation Strategies](#4_Possible_Mitigation_Strategies) - [5. Post-Pandemic Recovery](#5_Post-Pandemic_Recovery) # 1. Pandemics There are approximately 1,500 microbes that are known to be a source of disease among the human population. **Influenza** is a [virulent disease](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=20352) because of its ability to mutate and be efficiently transmitted through the respiratory route. Under normal circumstances, influenza’s impacts are relatively benign since populations have developed a level of immunity to its debilitating effects. Yet, it is estimated that between 1 to 1.5 million people per year die of influenza or related complications with a distinct [seasonality](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8875) that runs between October and March in the northern hemisphere and between May and September in the southern hemisphere. Influenza pandemics are thus considered among the most significant threats to the welfare of the global population. > **Pandemic**. An epidemic of infectious disease that spreads through human populations across a large area, even worldwide. Over the last 300 years, ten major influenza pandemics have occurred. The 1918 pandemic (Spanish Flu) is considered the most severe. 30% of the world’s population became ill, and 50 and 100 million died. One important reason the Spanish Flu spread quickly and extensively was through modern transportation, which offered global coverage at the beginning of the 20th century. The virus was spread around the world by infected crews and passengers of ships and trains, and severe epidemics occurred in shipyards and railway personnel. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/r0_infectuous_diseases.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Basic Reproduction Number (R0) of Major Infectious Diseases | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/basic-reproduction-number-r0-of-major-infectious-diseases/r0_infectuous_diseases/)Basic Reproduction Number R0 of Major Infectious Diseases[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/influenza_illnesses_google.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Influenza-Like Illnesses per 100,000 Population, Selected Countries, 2003-2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/influenza-symptoms-selected-countries/influenza_estimated/)Influenza Like Illnesses per 100000 Population Selected Countries 2003 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/global_space_time_convergence2.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Global Space / Time Convergence: Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-circumnavigation-days/global_space_time_convergence2/)Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/factors_global_spread_diseases.png?resize=900%2C420&ssl=1 "Main Factors behind the Global Spread of Diseases | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/main-factors-global-spread-diseases/factors_spread_diseases/)Main Factors behind the Global Spread of Diseases[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Passengers-Airports-2018.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Passenger Traffic at the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-passengers-airports/map-passengers-airports-2018/)Passenger Traffic at the Worlds Largest Airports 2018In a contemporary setting, there are a [variety of factors that can promote the spread of diseases](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=20941), such as ubiquitous air travel. Concerns about the emergence of a new pandemic are salient, particularly in light of recent outbreaks such as SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) in 2002-2003, the Avian Flin in 2005, the Swine Flu in 2009, and the coronavirus in 2019-2020 (COVID-19) which quickly spread because of the convenience and ubiquity of [global air travel](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3743). Pandemics, such as the Spanish Flu and COVID-19, have shown that widespread illness or absenteeism in freight transportation sectors can cause cascading disruptions of social and economic systems. The relationships between transportation and pandemics involve two major sequential dimensions: - **Transportation as a vector**. With ubiquitous and fast transportation comes a quick and extensive diffusion of communicable diseases. From an epidemiological perspective, transportation can thus be considered a vector, particularly for passenger transportation systems. The configuration of air transportation networks shapes the diffusion of pandemics. The global air transport system is composed of airports with different volumes and connectivity, implying that depending on the airport, there is a potentially different scale and scope of diffusion. This issue concerns the early phases of a pandemic (first ten days), where transportation systems are likely to spread any outbreak at the global level. - **Continuity of freight distribution**. Once a pandemic occurs or immediately thereafter, the major concerns shift to freight distribution. Modern economic activities cannot be sustained without continuous deliveries of food, fuel, electricity, and other resources. However, few events can be more disruptive than a pandemic, as critical supply chains can essentially shut down. Disruptions in the continuity of distribution are potentially much more damaging than the pandemic itself. # 2. Vectors and Velocities The more efficient transportation, the more efficiently the vector can transmit infectious diseases. International and long-distance transport, such as air and rail, modes and terminals alike, concentrates passengers and increases the risk of exposure. In the past, this could be an advantage as a ship could be quarantined since there was ample time during the voyage for an infection to carry its course and the symptoms to become apparent. In a contemporary setting, the velocity conferred by transportation systems for long-distance travel is superior to the incubation time of many flu variants (the period after the infection before symptoms are revealed). On the positive side, the fact that transportation quickly spreads diseases enables global populations to develop immunity to a wide array of less virulent diseases, which may improve their overall immunity to more virulent diseases. This cross-immunity may contribute in the future to the mitigation of severe pandemics. Since the incubation time for the average influenza virus is **between 2 to 7 days**, and 3 to 10 days for COVID-19, there is ample time for someone infected to travel to the other side of the world before noticing symptoms. This represents the **translocation phase**, which is the most crucial in a pandemic. Thus, in a window of a few days before an outbreak could become apparent to global health authorities, a virus could have easily been translocated to many different locations around the world. At this point, the vector and [velocity of modern transport systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/transport-velocity-pandemic/ "Impacts of Transportation on the Velocity and Extent of a Pandemic") would ensure that an epidemic becomes a pandemic, as was the case for COVID-19. On occasion, the velocity of global transportation systems is higher than at the regional level, which paradoxically implies that a virus can **spread faster globally** – between major gateways – than at the regional level. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_velocity_pandemic.png?resize=900%2C358&ssl=1 "Impacts of Transportation on the Velocity and Extent of a Pandemic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/transport-velocity-pandemic/transportation_velocity_pandemic/)Impacts of Transportation on the Velocity and Extent of a Pandemic[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pandemic_diffusion_global_transport_network.png?resize=900%2C429&ssl=1 "Diffusion of a Pandemic through a Global Transportation Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/diffusion-pandemic-transport-network/pandemic_diffusion_global_transport_network/)Diffusion of a Pandemic through a Global Transportation Network[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/daily_air_travel_usa2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Daily Air Travelers in the United States, 2019-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/daily-air-travelers-united-states/daily_air_travel_usa2/)Daily Air Travelers in the United States 2019 2022[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/covid_19_daily_new_cases.png?resize=900%2C414&ssl=1 "Coronavirus (COVID-19) Reported Daily New Cases, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/coronavirus-covid-19-reported-daily-new-cases/covid_19_daily_new_cases/)Coronavirus COVID 19 Reported Daily New Cases 2020Once an outbreak becomes apparent, the global passenger transportation system, such as air travel and passenger rail, can **quickly be shut down** in whole or in part, either voluntarily (more likely if the outbreak is judged to be serious) or by the unwillingness of passengers to be exposed to risks. Although travel restrictions may not prevent the total number of infected individuals, they slow down the rate of spread and give more opportunities for actors such as public health agencies, corporations, and individuals to prepare and implement mitigation strategies. The latter happened during the SARS outbreak in 2003 and the coronavirus (COVID-19) in 2020. While the public transportation systems of several large Chinese cities were still operational, the number of users precipitously dropped because of risk avoidance. The SARS outbreak also had a substantial impact on the global airline industry. Cities with direct flights to Hong Kong were 25 times more likely to record a SARS case than cities that were not directly connected. Cities requiring two or more connecting flights to reach Hong Kong did not record a single case. After the disease hit, flights in Pacific Asia decreased by 45% compared to the previous year. During the outbreak, the number of flights between Hong Kong and the United States fell by 69%. In early 2020, the [coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=21983) underlined the impacts of **China’s high connectivity in the diffusion of the disease**, particularly for the following reasons: - The epidemic took place during the **Chinese New Year**, representing the peak period of passenger mobility within China. In 2019, about 415 million people traveled for the occasion. - The **growth of domestic air travel** and the setting of **China’s high-speed rail network** have supported substantial growth in national passenger mobility. In 2019, the Chinese air transport network handled more than 659 million passengers, up from 266 million in 2009. - The number of **Chinese citizens traveling abroad for tourism and business** purposes has surged. The airports of several large Chinese cities offer direct services to a number of destinations across the world. In 2019, there were 166 million outbound Chinese tourists. - China became the **world’s second-largest cruise source market,** with 2.4 million passengers in 2018. During the COVID-19 pandemic, cities such as Wuhan (the emergence point) were quarantined, and a large part of the civilian air network was shut down. International airlines canceled their services to almost all Chinese cities. As the pandemic spread to Europe and the Middle East, air services were curtailed because of a significant drop in demand, cancelations, and no-shows. Later, the United States shut down flights with most European countries in an attempt to curtail the spread of the pandemic. By April 2020, air passenger activity [declined by a factor of 90 to 95%](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/daily-air-travelers-united-states/ "Daily Air Travelers in the United States, 2019-2022") in most air markets in Europe and North America. The last time an event of that scale happened was in 2010, when European and transatlantic air travel was forced to shut down because of an [Icelandic volcanic eruption](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=394). Any economic activity involving social interaction was seriously curtailed. This was particularly the case for the tourism industry, with the cruising industry completely ceasing operations for the remainder of 2020. # 3. Continuity of Freight Distribution However dramatic the impacts of modern transportation as a **high-velocity vector** for a pandemic, a potentially greater risk resides in the geographical and functional structure of supply chains because the **continuity of freight distribution** could be compromised. Up to the mid-20th century, the scale of production, transport, and retail was dominantly local (food) or regional (durable goods such as cars). Since then, globalization has substantially expanded the scale at which a wide array of goods is distributed, such as minerals, energy, grains, parts, and finished goods. Thus, the interconnectedness of the global economy, while being a net advantage from a supply chain standpoint, could make an influenza pandemic more devastating than the ones before it. Even the slightest disruption in the availability of parts, finished goods, workers, electricity, water, and petroleum could halt many aspects of contemporary life. The global economy has been favored by exploiting comparative advantages and tight management of supply chains. Inventories are kept to a minimum through strategies such as just-in-time. Virtually **no production surge capacity exists**. As a consequence, most markets depend on the timely delivery of many critical products (such as pharmaceuticals, medical supplies, food, and equipment parts) and services (such as communications support). Contemporary supply chains are **complex and interconnected** and can be subject to shocks and disruptions. Only the actors organizing and managing them have a true perspective about their scale, scope, and vulnerability. However, this perspective is limited to specific supply chains as actors involved in food distribution differ from those involved in pharmaceuticals or energy. It is consequently difficult to assess the impacts of a pandemic on supply chains because of the variety of actors, locations, modes, terminals, and distribution centers involved in each. Supply chains are also **specialized and fragmented**, implying that if the demand changes in one sector, other related sectors are not necessarily able to adjust. This is particularly the case between commercial and consumer demand. For instance, food supply chains are usually divided between groceries, institutional, and restaurant providers. If a large share of the population does not work and commute during a quarantine, commercial demand will drop while consumer demand will rise. Supply chains may not be able to respond to the switch in the demand pattern, even if the aggregate demand remains similar. Shifting supply chain channels requires new interactions between actors. Further, the origins, destinations, modes of transportation, and even the packaging and shipping of the cargo have to be modified. Consequently, pandemics [impact supply chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=20858) over two dimensions: - **Supply shocks**. An unexpected sudden change in the availability of raw materials, parts, goods, and manufacturing capabilities. It is usually accompanied by price surges, but the availability of essential components can be undermined because of a lack of raw materials, parts, or the lack of labor necessary for their procurement. Depending on the existing buffer, such as stockpiles of energy, grain, or raw materials, the supply shock can take some time to **propagate**. - **Demand shocks**. Demand shocks imply a sudden change in demand due to unforeseen circumstances. For items such as food, hoarding may trigger a temporary surge in demand, with several items becoming unavailable. In other sectors, such as energy, the demand may drop substantially because of declines in commuting and travel. Demand shocks back-propagate along the supply chain, impacting distributors, manufacturers, and suppliers. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-2020.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "World's Major Container Ports, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/map-teu-throughput-2/)Worlds Major Container Ports 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Freight-AIrports-2018.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Freight Traffic at the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-freight-airports/map-freight-airports-2018-2/)Freight Traffic at the Worlds Largest Airports 2018The transportation industry has **consolidated** into a[ small number of global and national mega-players](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=594) to achieve massive economies of scale. This is the case for the two most important global freight transportation modes; [maritime shipping](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3373) and [air cargo](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3750). Since the frequency, speed, and reliability of shipments are high under normal circumstances, manufacturers have relocated their facilities to lower-cost locations. Because transportation costs are lower than inventory management costs, retailers and secondary manufacturers employ just-in-time inventory systems – their stockpile flows in the transportation stream as **inventory in transit**. Most supply chains are re-stocked continuously, on par with the demand labeled pull logistics. Typically, air cargo shipments such as pharmaceuticals and electronics are shipped directly from the place of production to markets in a matter of hours. Maritime shipments can take two to three weeks to reach their destinations on transoceanic routes. The typical efficiency, and potential non-resiliency, of critical supply chains, as a function of transportation would be placed under stress during a pandemic. The most important include: ## a. Food Contemporary food production and distribution rely on low inventory levels to avoid waste of perishable products on store shelves. On average, supermarkets have between 2 and 5 days of inventory of perishable goods (dairy, produce, meat) and about 1 to 2 weeks for other goods (pasta, canned goods, etc.). It is worth underlining that these figures are for a normal and stable demand. In the case of a pandemic, available food supplies could quickly be exhausted through **[hoarding behavior](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=21024)** and a shift in consumption patterns. The main driver for hoarding is the fear that essential items will not be readily available in the future. Such behavior is commonly observed during an acute weather event such as a hurricane, where store shelves of essential goods and supplies are quickly emptied. The main difference with a pandemic is that instead of a local or regional surge in hoarding, the process takes place at the national level, placing intense pressure on food distribution. Hoarding stresses supply chains by moving the inventory from stores and distribution centers to residences. Further, during an acute weather event, the fear is that the supply system, including public utilities, will be damaged, physically delaying replenishment. This is not the case during a pandemic, as all physical infrastructure remains intact, making hoarding behavior unwarranted. Replenishing inventory may take time, particularly if a pandemic impacts production and distribution systems. On the positive side, hoarding lessens future demand as people consume items they have hoarded and will impose limited demand on stressed distribution systems. However, food hoarding may remove supply from those who need it at a critical time or for those who decide not to change their consumption. The closing of restaurants may also shift additional demand towards grocers, particularly in advanced economies where a large share of food expenses are for eating out. The food production and distribution capabilities of restaurants and caterers must remain available during a pandemic. Therefore, food security is defined by the ability of transportation workers to move food from producers to bulk-storage facilities, processors, and grocers. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/walgreens_nj_2020.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Empty Drugstore Shelves from Hoarding Behavior, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Empty Drugstore Shelves from Hoarding Behavior![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/wti_spot_oil_price.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "West Texas Intermediate, Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price (1970-2022) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")West Texas Intermediate Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price 1970 2022## b. Energy The provision and distribution of energy are critical to the functioning of a modern economy and society. For instance, about 40% of the world’s electricity supply is generated by burning coal. In the United States, this share was 50% until the mid-2000s but fell to 35% recently due to a higher reliance on natural gas. Coal power plants maintain a fairly low stockpile, about 30 days, and rely on a constant supply from major coal mining regions, which tend to be far away. While a pandemic does not directly damage energy systems, many energy distribution systems can be threatened by removing essential personnel from the workplace for weeks or months and impaired transportation capabilities to supply power plants. On the positive side, a pandemic should be associated with a **substantial drop in energy demand** as institutional and manufacturing activities are curtailed, as commuting is reduced, and as international transportation such as air travel and maritime shipping decline. As observed in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, the outcome is a [sharp drop in energy prices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5880) due to the lack of demand. ## c. Medical supplies A pandemic is associated with a surge in medical facilities, equipment, and pharmaceutical products. It is likely to be the only sector where a surge in demand is expected to endure once hoarding has subsumed. Global drug production is controlled by a few large conglomerates that maintain a limited number of facilities at selected locations. Commonly, a single drug is produced at a single plant. If global distribution systems were impaired during a pandemic, many essential drugs would have difficulties reaching patients, while limited stockpiles maintained at medical facilities would quickly run out. For instance, over 95% of all generic drugs used in the United States are made offshore, primarily in China and India. A similar pattern applies to critical medical equipment such as ventilators. Even simple respiratory masks could quickly run out. In 2017, Hurricane Maria hit Puerto Rico, substantially damaging infrastructures, particularly the power generation system. In the aftermath, a shortage of saline solutions was felt because Puerto Rico was a major supplier of these solutions to hospitals across the Americas. During the COVID-19 pandemic, personal protective equipment, particularly masks, became a salient issue since it suddenly shifted from a specialized market geared towards the medical industry to a mass-market consumer good. The COVID-19 pandemic was a stress on available food, energy, and medical resources, which faced shortages and scarcity, but remained functional. Thus, supply chain issues, if not properly mitigated, are expected to compound the impacts of a pandemic seriously. # 4. Possible Mitigation Strategies Since pandemics have been an enduring concern with frequent risk reminders, many government agencies have developed pandemic plans. Paradoxically, there is no lack of pandemic plans but an oversupply of such schemes. The outcome has been confusion about responsibilities and strategies, as plans tend to be duplicative. Further, many pandemic preparation plans fail to account for the importance and ramifications of global supply chains. They are essentially designed with the assumption that national economies are mostly self-reliant. The geographic and functional realities of the global economy are quite different from this assumption, and the COVID-19 pandemic clearly underlined the importance and vulnerability of global supply chains. [Cascading disruptions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=20858) in vulnerable freight transportation systems and strategic supply chains can compound the difficulties of maintaining social cohesion and critical infrastructures during a pandemic. Transportation systems, due to their nature and operations, are facing radically different impacts and mitigation strategies: - **Transit systems**. These systems are essential for workers and personnel to commute to their functions to support economic activities and critical services. Because of the high density of passengers carried in close proximity and often in direct contact, such as on trains, subways, buses, and transit stations, transit systems represent a high contamination risk. While the option is to shut transit systems down to reduce the risks of contagion, key transit infrastructure should remain operational during a pandemic, particularly if the system is automated or the operators are separated from the passengers. Service frequency should be reduced, and passengers should be informed that while the transit system remains operational, using such a system represents a risk and that precautions such as masks and social distancing should be taken. Since [commuting demand drops substantially](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/home-to-work-united-states-2/ "Home-to-Work Trips Modes, United States, 1985-2021"), passenger density in public transit systems would decline proportionally. - **Road and highways**. Individual mobility represents a safe form of transportation during a pandemic, as individual car and truck drivers have a very low level of contamination exposure while operating their vehicles. This allows for the continuity of essential commuting and freight deliveries to distribution centers, retail outlets, institutions such as hospitals and elderly care facilities, and home deliveries. The main risks are during refueling, loading, and unloading, but these risks can be reasonably mitigated. Individual passenger and freight mobility should not be excessively restricted during a pandemic, with the mobility of trucks becoming a priority. **Retaining home delivery capabilities through e-commerce is particularly important** as it allows people access to essential supplies while minimizing contamination risks, particularly for the most susceptible. Over this matter, the Covid-19 pandemic was associated with a surge in e-commerce and related home deliveries. - **Air travel**. The demand for [air travel declines dramatically during a pandemic](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/covid-19-passenger-freight-activity/ "Impacts of COVID-19 on Airport Passenger and Freight Activity, 2019-2020") as travel restrictions are implemented, events such as conferences and sports competitions are canceled, and tourists are unwilling to travel, even to areas that may be unaffected. Many midsized airports risk losing their air connectivity and the associated cargo services entirely. A pandemic has the indirect advantage of freeing substantial airlift capabilities that can be used to carry large quantities of essential cargo using passenger aircraft. Therefore, airlines and key airports must maintain air travel capabilities with a pool of available aircraft, pilots, controllers, and ground personnel. Travel restrictions should, therefore, focus on passengers and allow airlines to continue offering services. The drop in air traffic may incite airports to rationalize their operations by closing terminals (or sections of terminals) and concentrating activities such as customs and security. - **Maritime shipping**. The demand for maritime transportation declines at the onset of a pandemic, but at a lesser rate than air travel. The shift in demand patterns, such as lower consumption of discretionary goods, has a deflationary effect on container shipping. The demand for raw materials and energy declines as well, impacting bulk shipping. Ports may face a rationalization by shutting down some terminals and concentrating activities at terminals that are the safest and most efficient (e.g. automated terminals). The international maritime domain presents unique challenges as it plays a fundamental role in supporting the global distribution of essential commodities (food and energy), parts, and finished goods. The naval services of nations should prepare to establish task forces in international waters to quickly provide vaccines/antivirals and other health assistance to the multinational mariners of commercial vessels as they transit into or out of maritime chokepoints and sea lanes. International military and civilian entities can provide the organizational framework to protect global maritime commerce. Since cargo ship crews may stay onboard for several months as part of their rotation, suitable ports must be found to allow crew exchanges, including their repatriation. For freight transport systems, this may involve **prioritizing lanes for cargoes of crucial importance**, such as food, medicine, medical equipment, or any goods in critical shortage. To support such operations, transportation workers must receive a high priority for support, including vaccines, prophylactic antivirals, and access to personal protective equipment. Pandemic planners must cooperatively develop plans and obtain the agreements and resources necessary to conduct health assurance campaigns at major transportation chokepoints and corridors. Transportation workers must also have a **well-enunciated priority** for healthcare services if they become ill during work travels. This requires that some national, state, and local health resources and response activities are reprioritized from traditional priority groups (elderly, etc.) to ensure that all citizens have a reliably adequate supply of essential supplies and services. Using modern communication systems, national, state, and local licensing and regulatory authorities, industry, and unions can identify, locate, educate, and train the transportation workforce. Governments and transportation stakeholders (industry, unions, and workers) must create a cooperative plan identifying roles, resources, and responsibilities. This leads to considering **[logistics strongholds](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=20692)** that include ports, airports, and logistics zones. These key infrastructures and their surrounding areas must be secured to ensure the continuous supply of essential goods so that basic economic functions, namely supplying energy, food, and medical services, can be maintained. The characteristics of each supply chain must be addressed independently as each may be impacted differently, such as for the stages of production, manufacturing, and distribution. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/home_to_work_trips_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Home-to-Work Trips Modes, United States, 1985-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Home to Work Trips Modes United States 1985 2021![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/impacts_pandemics_supply_chains2.png?resize=900%2C352&ssl=1 "Impacts of Pandemics on Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of Pandemics on Supply Chains![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/covid_airport_activity.png?resize=900%2C453&ssl=1 "Impacts of COVID-19 on Airport Passenger and Freight Activity, 2019-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of COVID 19 on Airport Passenger and Freight Activity 2019 2020![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_stronghold2.png?resize=900%2C356&ssl=1 "The Logistics Stronghold Concept | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Logistics Stronghold ConceptBecause transportation workers must cross international and local borders, national and local entities, industry and unions, health agencies, and other stakeholders must provide this support without regard to their nationality or state of origin. # 5. Post-Pandemic Recovery Pandemics and sanitary concerns, particularly the recent COVID-19 event, underline that the level of disruption over transport systems is a function of the level of involved human interaction. **Passenger transportation was more impacted than freight**, particularly since a share of passenger movements is discretionary and can be subject to substitution. The pandemic underlined the crucial importance of e-commerce, which experienced remarkable growth due to substitution effects from conventional retail, as passenger transport systems, particularly tourism, cratered, freight distribution endured. Once a pandemic is receding, the main concern shifts towards resuming economic and transport activities. Since a pandemic does not diffuse uniformly in space and in time, the sequencing of the recovery is also not uniform and reflects a prioritization related to the importance of specific modes, terminals, and corridors. Concerning passenger transportation, the **[substitution effect](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/substitution-generation-information-technologies-mobility/ "The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on Mobility")** supported by information technologies can lead to a recovery, resulting in lower demands, such as commuting and even social interactions. As organizations realize the convenience of remote work for specific tasks, they may reduce their office footprints and the associated commuting patterns. Concerning freight, the deferred demand effect, changing consumer patterns, and public economic policies can have substantial impacts, with the recovery resulting in demand surges. Transportation systems do not handle surges well since capacity is expensive to add without a constant demand. This can create difficulties for freight terminals such as ports, creating bottlenecks at critical gateways, tying up transport capacity, and exacerbating shortages. As a pandemic exposes specific [vulnerabilities within supply chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/types-supply-chain-risks-resilience/ "Types of Supply Chain Risks and Their Resilience"), such as concentration, changes in sourcing to reduce risk, including re-shoring, can also be observed. This involves re-evaluating the just-in-time model for critical supply chains as cargo owners seek more accessible and resilient suppliers. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ict_substitution_generation.png?resize=900%2C511&ssl=1 "The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on Mobility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on Mobility![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_supply_chain_resilience.png?resize=900%2C432&ssl=1 "Types of Supply Chain Risks and Their Resilience | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Supply Chain Risks and Their ResilienceCOVID-19 was a global crisis, but taking place in a context where each nation-state is responsible for its national health policy and associated restrictions concerning transportation and trade. Evaluating the effectiveness of pandemic recovery measures in the transportation sector remains challenging, with several perceived best practices. - **Revise policy and investment strategies**. A pandemic can accelerate or slow ongoing transformations in the transportation sector. This allows governments and enterprises to revise and reassess investments in infrastructures and modes, either through delays or acceleration. - **Prioritize measures to reflect risk factors**. Lockdowns and restrictions seriously affected mobility and opportunities for consumers and labor, particularly for the retail sector and its supply chains. It was observed during COVID-19 that overreactions, such as complete lockdowns, can have significantly more damaging economic and social effects than epidemiological benefits. - **Support digitalization**. Since a pandemic is likely to accelerate the transition toward new business models, digitalization is a strategy supporting substituting from several forms of mobility and potential contacts. During COVID-19, this was reflected in the growth of online activity, including e-commerce, but also in the digitalization of social interactions and business transactions. - **Expand the resilience of transportation**. A pandemic is a stress test over the capacity and operations of transportation modes and terminals, which allows for identifying key bottlenecks. While COVID-19 focused on supply chain crisis management with their ad hoc responses, the situation is evolving toward supply chain resilience as a proactive strategic objective. A major problem is **estimating post-pandemic demand**, as a pandemic can disrupt price sensitivity mechanisms and demand patterns and be simultaneously inflationary and deflationary. --- ## Related Topics - [9.3 – Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6289) - [9.4 – Transportation, Disruptions and Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6295) - [B.14 – The Logistics of Global Food Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12791) - [5.5 – Air Transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1765) - [7.2 – Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3919) ## Bibliography - Luke, T.C. and J-P Rodrigue (2008) “Protecting Public Health and Global Freight Transportation Systems during an Influenza Pandemic”, American Journal of Disaster Medicine, Vol. 3, No. 2., pp. 99-107. - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2014) A Guide to Regional Transportation Planning for Disasters, Emergencies, and Significant Events. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. - Nicolaides C, L. Cueto-Felgueroso, M.C. González and R. Juanes (2012) “A Metric of Influential Spreading during Contagion Dynamics through the Air Transportation Network”, PLOS ONE 7(7). - ITF (2020) Transport Policy Responses to the Coronavirus Crisis, Covid-19 Transport Brief. - US DOT (2022) Supply Chain Assessment of the Transportation Industrial Base: Freight and Logistics. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.15 - Market Area Analysis](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/) **Published:** February 8, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Concepts and methods in the analysis of market areas such as market size and level of competition. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Market Size and Shape](#1_Market_Size_and_Shape) - [2. Economic Definition of a Market Area](#2_Economic_Definition_of_a_Market_Area) - [3. Competition over Market Areas](#3_Competition_over_Market_Areas) - [4. Geographic Information Systems and Market Areas Analysis](#4_Geographic_Information_Systems_and_Market_Areas_Analysis) # 1. Market Size and Shape Each economic activity has a location, but the various demands (raw materials, labor, parts, services, etc.) and flows each location generates also have a spatial dimension called a market area. > A **market area** is a surface over which a demand or supply offered at a specific location is expressed. For a factory, it includes the areas where its products are shipped; for a retail store, it is the tributary area from which it draws its customers. Transportation is particularly important in market area analysis because it impacts the location of economic activities as well as their accessibility. The size of a market area is a function of its [threshold and range](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9297): - **Market threshold**. Minimum demand necessary to support an economic activity such as a service. Since each demand has a distinct location, a threshold has a direct spatial dimension. The [size of a market](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9304) has a direct relationship with its threshold. - **Market range**. The maximum distance each unit of demand is willing to travel to reach a service or the maximum distance a product can be shipped to a customer. The range is a function of transport costs, time, or convenience in view of intervening opportunities. To be [profitable](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9311), a market must have a range higher than its threshold. In the case of a single market area, its shape in an isotropic plain is a simple concentric circle having the market range as the radius. Since the purpose of commercial activities is to service all the available demand, when possible, and the range of many activities is limited, more than one location is required to service an area. For such a purpose, a hexagonal-shaped structure of market areas represents the [optimal market shape](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/optimal-market-area-shape/ "The Optimal Shape of a Market Area") under a condition of isotropy. This shape can be modified by [non-isotropic conditions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-area-non-isotropic-conditions/ "Non-Isotropic Conditions and the Shape of Market Areas"), mainly related to variations in density and accessibility. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/market_threshold_range2.png?resize=900%2C695&ssl=1 "Market Threshold and Range | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-threshold-range/market_threshold_range/)Market Threshold and Range[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/market_size_threshold.png?resize=900%2C525&ssl=1 "Market Size and Threshold | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-size-threshold/market_size_threshold2/)Market Size and Threshold[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/market_profitability.png?resize=900%2C448&ssl=1 "Market Profitability | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-profitability/market_profitability2/)Market Profitability[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/optimal_market_area_shape.png?resize=900%2C613&ssl=1 "The Optimal Shape of a Market Area | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/optimal-market-area-shape/market_area_optimal_shape/)The Optimal Shape of a Market Area[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/non_isotropic_shape_market_areas.png?resize=900%2C318&ssl=1 "Non-Isotropic Conditions and the Shape of Market Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-area-non-isotropic-conditions/non_isotropic_market_area/)Non Isotropic Conditions and the Shape of Market Areas# 2. Economic Definition of a Market Area A market depends on the [relationships between supply and demand](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9329). It acts as a price-fixing mechanism for goods and services. **Demand** is the quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing to buy at a given price. It is high if the price of a commodity is low in relation to its usefulness, while in the opposite situation – a high price – demand is low. Outside market price, demand can generally be influenced by the following factors: - **Utility**. While goods and services that are necessities (such as food) do not see much fluctuation in demand, the demand for items deemed of lesser utility (even frivolous) would vary according to income and economic cycles. There are important differences between discretionary and non-discretionary spending. - **Income level**. Income, especially disposable income, is directly proportional to consumption. A population with a high-income level has much more purchasing power than a population with a low income. - **Inflation**. Involves an increase in the money supply in relation to the availability of assets, commodities, goods, and services. Although it directly influences prices, inflation is outside the supply-demand relationship and decreases the purchasing power, if wages do not increase accordingly. - **Taxation**. Sale and value-added taxes can have an inhibiting effect on the sales of goods and services as they add to the production costs and claim a share of consumers’ income. - **Savings**. The quantity of capital available in savings can provide the potential to acquire consumption goods. Also, people may restrain from consuming if saving is a priority, namely in periods of economic hardship. The wide availability of credit in a fiat currency system has considerably skewed the relationships between savings and consumption as it promotes current consumption levels at the expense of future consumption. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_demand_equilibrium.png?resize=900%2C630&ssl=1 "Supply, Demand and Equilibrium Price | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/supply-demand-equilibrium-price/supply_deamand_equilibrium/)Supply Demand and Equilibrium Price[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/delimitation_market_areas2.png?resize=900%2C766&ssl=1 "Delimitation and Variations in Market Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/delimitation-market-areas/delimitation_market_areas2/)Delimitation and Variations in Market Areas Supply is the number of goods or services that firms or individuals are able to produce, taking into account of a selling price. Outside price, supply can generally be influenced by the following factors: - **Profits**. Even if the sales of a product are limited, if profits are high, an activity providing goods or services may be satisfied with this situation. This is particularly the case for luxury goods. If profits are low, an activity can cease, thus lowering the supply. - **Competition**. Competition is one of the most important mechanisms for establishing prices. Where competition is absent (an oligopoly), or where there is too much (over-competition), prices artificially influence supply and demand. According to the market principle, supply and demand are determined by the price, which is an equilibrium between both. It is often called the equilibrium price or market price. This price is a **compromise** between the desire of firms to sell their goods and services at the highest price possible and the desire of consumers to buy goods and services at the lowest possible price. For many economists, the market is a point where goods and services are exchanged and do not have a specific location since it is simply an abstraction of the relationships between supply and demand. It is important to underline that since most of the time consumers must move in order to acquire a good or receive a service. The producer must also ship a commodity to a location where the consumer can buy it; a store or a residence (in the case of online shopping). The concept of distance must thus be considered concomitantly with the concept of the market. In those conditions, the real price includes the **market price plus the transport price** from the market to the location of final consumption. # 3. Competition over Market Areas Competition involves similar activities trying to attract customers from a similar pool. Although the core foundation of competition for a comparable good or service is the **price**, there are several **spatial strategies** that impact the price element. The two most common are: - **Market coverage**. Activities offering the same service will occupy locations in view of offering goods or services to the whole area. This aspect is well explained by the central place theory and applies for sectors where spatial market saturation is a growth strategy (convenience stores, fast food, coffee shops, etc.). The range of each location is a function of customer density, income distribution, transport costs, and the location of other competitors. - **Range expansion**. Existing locations try to expand their ranges in order to attract more customers. Economies of scale resulting in [larger retail activities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9334) are a trend in that direction, namely the emergence of shopping malls. Taken individually, each store would have a limited range. However, as a group, they tend to attract additional customers from wider ranges. First, a complementarity of goods or services is offered. A customer would thus find it convenient to be able to buy clothes, shoes, and personal care products at the same location. Second, a diversity of similar goods or services is offered (more choice) even if they compete with one another. Third, other related amenities are provided, such as safety, food, indoor walking space, entertainment, and parking space. Developing operational market area models has been the object of numerous approaches. Initial work undertaken in the first half of the 20th century focused on simple market competition ([Hotelling’s law](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9339)), which was the foundation of market area analysis by considering factors such as retail location and distance decay. Later, factors such as market size were taken into consideration ([Reilly’s law](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9345)), permitting to build complex market area representations. Since market areas are often non-monopolistic and subject to customer preferences, this factor was included with market areas becoming ranges of probabilities that customers will attend specific locations ([Huff’s law](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9349)). Although market areas are particularly relevant for retail analysis, the methodology also applies to time-dependent activities, such as [freight distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4545), since distribution centers are located to service specific national or regional markets. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_decay_curves_retail.png?resize=900%2C660&ssl=1 "Conventional Distance Decay Curves for Retail Activities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/retail-distance-decay-curve-conventional/distance_decay_curves/)Conventional Distance Decay Curves for Retail Activities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hotelling_principle_market.png?resize=900%2C508&ssl=1 "Hotelling's Principle of Market Competition | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/hotelling-market-competition/hotelling_market_competition/)Hotellings Principle of Market Competition[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/reilly_law.png?resize=900%2C519&ssl=1 "Reillys' Law | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/reilly-law-retail/reilly_law2/)Reillys Law[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/huff_law.png?resize=900%2C522&ssl=1 "Huff's Law | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/huff-law-retail/huff_law2/)Huffs Law[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/map_top10_log_networks.png?resize=900%2C678&ssl=1 "Optimal Location and Throughput by Number of Freight Distribution Centers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/optimal-distribution-center-location/map_top10_log_networks/)Optimal Location and Throughput by Number of Freight Distribution CentersThe emergence of e-commerce has **substantially modified competition over market areas** through a **substitution** from a retail distance decay function to parcel distribution capabilities. Market accessibility remains fundamental, but how this market is serviced changes. When customers travel to a store, proximity to population clusters is fundamental. Market areas are structured by the combination of mobility options available, such as walking, public transit, and the automobile. When parcels are delivered, proximity to distribution capabilities becomes the most important factor. Passenger mobility ceases to be a relevant factor, while freight mobility becomes the main impedance factor related to delivery time. # 4. Geographic Information Systems and Market Areas Analysis Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have become fundamental tools for evaluating market areas, especially in retailing. With basic data, such as a list of customers and their addresses (or ZIP codes), it is relatively simple to evaluate market areas with reasonable accuracy. This task would have been much more complex beforehand. With GIS, market area analysis left the realm of abstraction to become a **practical tool** used by retailers and service providers in complex real-world situations. In the spatial representation of a GIS, the market area is a polygon that can be measured and used to perform operations such as intersection (zones of spatial competition) or union (area serviced). Among the [major methods](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9355) a GIS can be used to evaluate market areas are: - **Concentric circles**. The simplest method since it assumes an isotropic effect of distance in all directions. The radius represents the maximum distance a customer is willing to travel. It is useful to have a rough overview of the situation when limited information is available. - **Share by polygon**. When data is available at the zonal level, such as the ZIP code, the market area can be expressed as a market share for each zone. - **Star map**. Composed of straight lines between each customer and location. It thus requires information and the location of each customer. It indicates the extent and the shape of the market area and is particularly relevant for distribution systems where relationships between distribution centers and their customers are shown. - **Spatial smoothing**. A trend surface based on the location of actual customers. The higher the density of customers (the importance of each customer can be weighted), the higher the membership to a market area. - **Transport distance**. Particularly useful for retailing or any activity that depends upon consumer accessibility or timed deliveries. A measure of transport distance, often driving time in minutes, is calculated on-road segments radiating from the facility location. Under such circumstances, the market area is a direct function of the efficiency, connectivity, and accessibility of the local transport systems. - **Manual polygon**. Based on the local knowledge, common sense, and judgment. It may implicitly consider other methods. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gis_estimate_market_areas.png?resize=900%2C503&ssl=1 "GIS Methods to Estimate Market Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/gis-market-area-method/methods_market_areas/)GIS Methods to Estimate Market Areas--- ## Related Topics - Location Analysis - [Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6741) - [Transport and Location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1498) - [Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3123) ## Bibliography - Holmes, T.J. (2006) “The Diffusion of Wal-Mart and Economies of Density”, University of Minnesota, Department of Economics. - Hotelling, H. (1929) “Stability in Competition”, The Economic Journal, Vol. 39, No. 153, pp. 41-57. - Huff, D.L. (1973) “The Delineation of a National System of Planning Regions on the Basis of Urban Spheres of Influence”, Regional Studies, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 323–329. - Isard, W. (1956) Location and Space-Economy: a general theory relating to industrial location, market areas, land use, trade, and urban structure, Cambridge: MIT Press. - Marshall, J.U. (1989) The structure of urban systems, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Collaborative Distribution Strategies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/collaborative-distribution/) **Published:** February 25, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/collaborative_distribution_strategy.png?resize=900%2C693&ssl=1 "Collaborative Distribution Strategies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Collaborative DistributionCollaborative distribution usually involves **multiple shippers combining shipments to create truckloads** rather than shipping individually by more expensive less-than-truckload (LTL). It is an advanced form of cargo consolidation often requiring Third Party logistics providers (3PLs) since the cargo can involve several suppliers, customers, and freight forwarders. For instance, instead of having two trucks traveling LTL going to the same distribution center and coming from a similar origin, there is a possibility of having that load consolidated into a single full load. At start, there must be a match between the type of cargo being transported since, for instance, refrigerated cargo loads cannot be effectively combined with non-refrigerated cargo. There are two main categories of collaborative distribution: - **Backhaul matching**. This collaboration aims to match different distribution legs so that costly empty back-haul movements are minimized. For instance, in the above figure, two legs (A-B and D-C) are serviced independently, and in both cases, the drivers return empty for the whole back-haul movement. By matching backhaul opportunities, the length of empty trips is reduced. The range to pick up a back-haul load must be within an acceptable limit; otherwise, the benefits of getting a back-haul movement as opposed to an empty trip could only be marginal. - **Sequence matching**. The goal of this collaboration is to match trips towards a customer (e.g., a distribution center) that are done separately and less frequently into a longer and more frequent sequence. This enables lower inventory carrying costs as well as the required warehousing space since suppliers can now ship fewer quantities but more frequently. Sequence matching can also involve one supplier and several customers, representing a common problem in city logistics. The most suitable cases for collaborative distribution concerns flow within a large corporation (e.g., retail or food) since it can enforce such strategies on its transport service providers. It is also particularly suitable for city logistics since the proximity of suppliers and customers offers opportunities for consolidation, particularly sequence matching. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/collaborative-distribution/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/collaborative-distribution/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/collaborative-distribution/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/collaborative-distribution/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Most Suitable Cereal](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/most-suitable-cereal/) **Published:** February 17, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Suitability For Agriculture](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Suitability_for_Agriculture.png?resize=900%2C470&ssl=1 "Suitability for Agriculture | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Most Suitable Cereal*Source: UNEP (2010): The GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO, TERRASTAT I Global GIS Databases Poverty and Food Insecurity Mapping Project. United Nations Environment Programme.* It is possible to assess the suitability of a biophysical area to different forms of crop production, such as cereals, by looking at their potential yield under natural conditions and their average market price. For an area, the cereal with the highest value of the yield/value ratio is considered the best suited. The most suitable cereal usually corresponds to the practiced agricultural form, but these vary according to market changes. An increase in the price of a specific cereal is usually associated with an expansion of its areas under cultivation. There is substantial potential for expanding rice cultivation but at the expense of complex ecosystems such as the rain forest. Irrigation also enables [agriculture in areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/world-agricultural-area/) that are technically unsuitable. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/most-suitable-cereal/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/most-suitable-cereal/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/most-suitable-cereal/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/most-suitable-cereal/?share=reddit) - --- ### [6.1 - The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/) **Published:** November 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Brian Slack > A terminal is a facility where passengers and freight are assembled or dispersed during transportation. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transport Terminals](#1_Transport_Terminals) - [2. Importance and Performance](#2_Importance_and_Performance) - [3. Passenger Terminals](#3_Passenger_Terminals) - [4. Freight terminals](#4_Freight_terminals) - [5. Terminal Costs](#5_Terminal_Costs) # 1. Transport Terminals [Passengers and freight](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3013) cannot travel individually but in **groups or **batches****. Passengers must go to bus terminals and airports first, where they are “assembled” into busloads or planeloads to reach their final destinations, where they are dispersed. Freight must be consolidated at a distribution center, a port, or a rail yard before shipment. Terminals may also be points of interchange involving the same transport mode. Thus, a passenger wishing to travel by train from Paris to Rotterdam may have to change trains in Brussels, or an air passenger wishing to fly between Montreal and Los Angeles may have to change planes in Toronto. Terminals may also be interchange points between different modes of transportation and their respective networks. Goods being shipped from the American Mid-West to the Ruhr in Germany may travel by rail from Cincinnati to the port of New York, put on a ship to Rotterdam, and then placed on a barge for delivery to Duisburg. Therefore, transport terminals are central and intermediate locations for the mobility of passengers and freight. > **Terminal**. Any location where freight and passengers either originate, terminate, or are handled in the transportation process. Terminals are central and intermediate locations in the mobility of passengers and freight. They often require specific facilities and equipment to accommodate the traffic they handle. Terminals may be ****interchange** points** within the same modal system, ensuring the continuity of transport flows. This is particularly true for air and port operations with hubs connecting parts of the network. Terminals are also critical **points of transfer** between modes. Buses and cars deliver people to airports, trucks haul freight to rail terminals, and rail brings freight to docks for loading on ships. One core attribute of transport terminals is their convergence function. They are obligatory points of passage, capitalizing on their geographical location, which is generally **intermediate** to commercial flows. Thus, transport terminals are created by centrality or intermediacy processes involving the locations they are connected to. The importance of a transport terminal is often a **function of its size**. Large transport terminals, particularly ports and airports, confer the status of [gateway or hub](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1411) to their location since they become obligatory points of transit between different segments of the global transport system. Containerization has favored the emergence of a **hierarchy of terminals** fulfilling different functions and added value, from the mega-gateway coordinating the flows of a large market area to a small rail yard or truck depot servicing a local market. The same observation applies to passenger transport, where a specific hierarchy of terminals is evident. At the top are large hub airports located in global cities, connecting continents, and at the bottom are small local airports with limited daily services to a few destinations. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/operational_differences_passengers_freight-scaled.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "Operational Differences between Passengers and Freight Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/operational-differences-passenger-freight/operational_differences_passengers_freight/)Operational Differences between Passengers and Freight Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gateways_hubs2.png?resize=900%2C414&ssl=1 "Gateways and Hubs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/gateways-hubs/gateways_hubs2/)Gateways and Hubs[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_terminal_hierarchy.png?resize=900%2C632&ssl=1 "Freight Terminal Hierarchy and Added Value | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/terminal-added-value-hierarchy/terminaladdedvaluehierarchy/)Freight Terminal Hierarchy and Added Value[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/functions_transport_terminals.png?resize=900%2C331&ssl=1 "The Functions of Transport Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/transport-terminal-function/function_transport_terminals/)The Functions of Transport Terminals# 2. Importance and Performance Three major attributes are linked with [the importance and the performance of transport terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3022): - **Location**. The major locational factor of a transport terminal is obviously to serve a large concentration of economic activities, representing a terminal’s market area. Specific terminals have specific locational constraints, such as port and airport sites. The former requires a suitable coastline and nautical profile, while the latter requires a large footprint of open flat land. New transport terminals tend to be located outside central areas to avoid high land costs and congestion and find available land. - **Accessibility**. Accessibility to other terminals (at the local, regional, and global scale) and how well the terminal is linked to the regional transport system are of importance. For instance, a maritime terminal has little relevance if it is poorly connected to its market area through a high-capacity inland transport system (rail, road, or barge). - **Infrastructure**. The primary function of a terminal is to handle and transship freight or passengers since [modes are physically separated](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/physical-separation-terminals/ "Physical Separation between Modes and Passengers / Cargo at Terminals"). Modern terminal infrastructures require massive investments and are among the largest structures ever built. Airports, ports, and distribution centers are visible on remote sensing images. Terminals have a **[nominal capacity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-infrastructure-static-dynamic-capacity/ "Static and Dynamic Capacity of Transport Infrastructure")**, related to the amount of land they occupy and their technological, labor, and managerial intensity. Infrastructure considerations are essential as they must accommodate current traffic and anticipate future trends along with technological and logistical changes. A utilization rate of 75 to 80% of design capacity is considered to be optimal since, above this level, congestion starts to rise, undermining the reliability of terminal operations. A terminal rarely has a consistent utilization, often characterized by periods of high and low activity (daily, weekly, monthly). The time a conveyance (bus, truck, train, or ship) is allowed to load or unload passengers or freight at a terminal is usually defined as **dwell time**. For passenger terminals, travelers expect the lowest dwell time possible. The situation is more complex for freight terminals as dwell time refers to when cargo stays in a terminal yard or storage area while waiting to be loaded. Dwell time can be **operational**, which reflects the performance of terminal infrastructures and management, including the scheduling and availability of transport services. It can also be **transactional**, usually linked with the performance of clearance procedures (such as checking in and customs). Finally, dwell time can be **storage related**, implying that the cargo owner or the carrier deliberately leaves the cargo at the terminal as part of a transport or supply chain management strategy. Intermodalism has incited new relations between transport terminals, becoming nodes in integrated transport chains. This is particularly the case between port, rail, and barge terminals. New forms of integration are also emerging, such as between [ports and airports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3034). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/physical_separation_modes_passengers_cargo.png?resize=900%2C627&ssl=1 "Physical Separation between Modes and Passengers / Cargo at Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/physical-separation-terminals/physical_seperation/)Physical Separation between Modes and Passengers Cargo at Terminals[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/inventory_transit_freight_terminals.png?resize=900%2C493&ssl=1 "Inventory in Transit at Freight Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/inventory_transit_freight_terminals/)Inventory in Transit at Freight Terminals[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/static_dynamic_capacity2.png?resize=900%2C499&ssl=1 "Static and Dynamic Capacity of Transport Infrastructure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-infrastructure-static-dynamic-capacity/static_dynamic_capacity2/)Static and Dynamic Capacity of Transport Infrastructure[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_airport_integration.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Integration between Port and Airport Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/port-airport-integration/port_airport_integration/)Integration between Port and Airport Terminals# 3. Passenger Terminals With one exception, passenger terminals require relatively **little specific equipment**. Individual mobility is how passengers access buses, ferries, or trains. Indeed, services such as ticketing, shelter, food, and security are required, but the layouts and activities taking place in passenger terminals **tend to be simple**. They may appear congested and chaotic during their peak daily use. Still, the flow of people can be managed successfully with good design of platforms and access points and with appropriate scheduling of arrivals and departures. The amount of time passengers spend in such terminals tends to be brief. As a result, bus terminals and railway stations tend to be made up of simple components, from ticket offices and waiting areas, with retailing catering to this transient mobility (fast-food restaurants, convenience stores). Airports are of a completely different order. They are among the **most complex of terminals**. Moving people through an airport has become a very significant problem, not least because of security concerns. Passengers may spend several hours transiting, with check-in and security checks on departure and baggage pickup and, in many cases, customs and immigration on arrival. Planes may be delayed for many reasons, implying complex management of gates and scheduling of flights. The result is that a **wide range of services** has to be provided for passengers not directly related to the transfer function, including restaurants, bars, stores, and hotels, in addition to the activities directly related to operations such as check-in halls, passenger loading ramps, and baggage handling facilities. At the same time, airports must provide for the specific needs of the aircraft, such as runways, fueling, maintenance facilities, fire protection, and air traffic control. **Measurement** of activities in passenger terminals is generally straightforward. The most common indicator is the **number of passengers handled**, sometimes differentiated according to arrivals and departures. **Transfer passengers** are counted in the airport totals even though they do not originate there, so airports that serve as major transfer facilities inevitably record high passenger totals. This is evident in airports such as Atlanta, Chicago, and Dubai, where in-transit passengers account for over 50% of the total passenger movements. High transfer passenger activity has been enhanced by the actions of many of the leading airlines adopting hub and spoke networks. This results in many passengers being forced to change planes at hub airports. By selecting certain airports as hubs, the carriers can dominate activity at those airports, thereby controlling most landing and departure slots and the best gate locations, thus fending off rival airlines. In this way, they can extract monopoly profits. A further measure of airport activity is the number of **aircraft movements**, a figure that must be used with some caution because it pays no regard to the capacity of planes. Both a 50-seat regional jet and a 300-seat wide-body aircraft count as one movement. High numbers of aircraft movements may thus not be highly correlated with passenger traffic totals. Still, the number of aircraft movements is an important variable as it indicates the level of usage of the runways as aircraft take about the same landing or takeoff capacity, irrespective of their size. # 4. Freight terminals Freight handling requires **specific loading and unloading equipment** in addition to the facilities needed to accommodate ships, trucks, and trains (berths, loading bays, and freight yards, respectively). A wide range of handling gear and storage is required, which is determined by the types of cargo. Freight transport terminals have a set of [characteristics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3040) linked with **core** (terminal operations) and **ancillary activities** (added value such as distribution). The result is that terminals are **differentiated functionally** by the mode involved and the commodities transferred. A basic distinction concerns bulk, general cargo, and containers: - **Bulk** refers to goods handled in large quantities that are unpackaged and available in uniform dimensions. Liquid bulk goods include crude oil and refined products that can be handled using pumps to move the product along with hoses and pipes. Relatively limited handling equipment is needed, but significant storage facilities may be required. Dry bulk includes a wide range of products, such as ores, coal, and cereals. More equipment for dry bulk handling is needed, because the material may have to utilize specialized grabs and cranes and conveyor-belt systems. For specific bulk cargoes, some changes in their characteristics may be required to ensure the continuity of the transportation process, such as its load unit or its physical state (from solid to liquid or gas, or any combination). - **General cargo** refers to goods of many shapes, dimensions, and weights, such as machinery, [processed materials](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4333), and parts. Because the goods are so uneven and irregular, handling is difficult to mechanize. General cargo handling usually requires labor. - **Containers** are standard units that have had a substantial impact on [terminal operations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3043). Container terminals have minimal labor requirements and perform a wide variety of [intermodal functions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3063). They, however, require a significant amount of storage space, which are simple [paved areas](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3050) where containers can be stacked and retrieved with intermodal equipment (cranes, straddlers, and holsters). Depending on the intermodal function of the container terminal, specialized cranes, such as portainers (container cranes), are required. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/characteristics_intermidal_terminals.png?resize=900%2C357&ssl=1 "Main Characteristics of Intermodal Transport Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/characteristics_intermidal_terminals/)Main Characteristics of Intermodal Transport Terminals[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerization_operations_transport_terminals.png?resize=900%2C623&ssl=1 "Containerization and the Changing Operational Characteristics of Transport Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/containerization-operation-terminals/rolefunction_terminals-2/)Containerization and the Changing Operational Characteristics of Transport Terminals[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_intermodal_terminals.png?resize=900%2C750&ssl=1 "Types of Intermodal Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/types-intermodal-terminals/types_intermodal_terminals/)Types of Intermodal Terminals[![Steel Wires Warehouse Port Halifax](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_1860.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "Steel Wires in a Warehouse, Port of Halifax | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/steel-wire-halifax/steelwirehalifax/)Steel Wires in a Warehouse Port of Halifax[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0664.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Container yard, Port of Le Havre | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/container-yard-le-havre/containeryardlehavre/)Container yard Port of Le HavreA feature of most freight activity is the **need for storage**. Assembling individual bundles of goods may be time-consuming, and thus some storage may be required. This requires terminals to be equipped with specialized infrastructures such as grain silos, storage tanks, refrigerated warehouses, or space to stockpile, such as for containers or bulk commodities. Because of its large volumes, containerization has forced a significant modal and temporal separation at terminals and the need for a buffer in the form of storage areas. In addition, a variety of **transloading** activities (transferring cargo from one load unit to another) can take place in the vicinity of terminals, particularly if long-distance inland transportation is involved. Transloading, when suitable, reduces transportation and inventory costs by placing the cargo in the most suitable transportation mode. Measurement of freight traffic through terminals is more complicated than for passengers. Because freight is so diverse, standard measures of weight and value are **difficult to compare and combine**. Because bulk cargoes are inevitably weighty, terminals specialized in such cargoes will record higher **throughput measured in tons** than others more specialized in general cargoes. This is evident in the world’s two leading ports, Singapore and Rotterdam, handling large quantities of petroleum. The reverse may be true if the **value of commodities** handled is the measure employed. The problem of measurement involving weight or volumes becomes very difficult when many types of freight are handled because one is adding together goods that are inherently unequal. Interpreting the significance of freight traffic totals is thus subject to caution. For container terminals, a common measure of productivity concerns the number of lifts per container gantry crane-hour, which are usually 25-40 moves per hour for quay cranes and 40-60 for rail cranes. The difficulty of comparing traffic totals of different commodities has led to attempts to weigh cargoes based on some indication of the **value-added they contribute to the terminal**. The most famous is the “Bremen Rule” developed in 1982 by the port of Bremen and based on a survey of the labor cost incurred in handling one ton of different cargoes. The results found that handling one ton of general cargo equals three tons of dry bulk and 12 tons of liquid bulk. Although this is the most widely used method, other rules have been developed by individual ports, such as the Antwerp and Rotterdam Rules. The “Antwerp Rule” indicates that the highest value-added is fruit handling. Using this benchmark, forest product handling requires 3.0 tons to provide the same value-added as fruit, cars 1.5 tons, containers 7 tons, cereals 12 tons, and crude oil 47 tons. The “Rotterdam Rules” are more recent (2009) and relate to common practices to ensure the transport of freight “door-to-door” with a sea transport leg. # 5. Terminal Costs SInce they jointly perform **transfer** and **consolidation** functions, terminals are essential economically because of the costs incurred in carrying out these activities. The traffic they handle is a source of employment and benefits regional economic activities, notably by providing accessibility to suppliers and customers as well as social interactions and leisure for passenger terminals, which have a more relative value. [Terminal costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/terminal-costs/ "Terminal Costs") represent an important component of total transport costs. They are fixed costs incurred regardless of the length of the eventual trip and vary significantly between modes. They can be considered as follows: - **Infrastructure costs**. Include construction and maintenance costs of structures such as piers, runways, cranes, and facilities (warehouses, offices, etc.). - **Transshipment costs**. The costs of loading and unloading passengers or freight, mostly related to labor and energy. - **Management costs**. Many terminals are managed by institutions such as port or airport authorities or private companies (e.g. terminal operators), incurring management costs. For instance, ground and air traffic control are necessary for airport operations. Complex terminals have extensive information systems to must be operated and maintained. Because ships have the largest carrying capacities, they incur the **largest terminal costs** since loading or unloading a vessel may take many days. Conversely, a truck or a passenger bus can be loaded much more quickly; hence, the terminal costs for road transport are the lowest. Terminal costs play an important role in determining the competitive position between the modes. Because of their high freight terminal costs, ships and rail are generally unsuitable for short-haul trips. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/terminal_costs2.png?resize=900%2C423&ssl=1 "Terminal Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/terminal-costs/terminal_costs2/)Terminal Costs[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/added_value_freight_terminals.png?resize=900%2C543&ssl=1 "Added Value Functions Performed Around Freight Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/added_value_freight_terminals/)Added Value Functions Performed Around Freight Terminals**Cost comparisons** frequently measure competition between the modes. Efforts to reduce transport costs can be achieved by using more fuel-efficient vehicles, increasing the size of conveyances (economies of scale), and reducing the required labor with automation and information technologies. However, the benefits will not be realized unless terminal costs are reduced. For example, in water transportation, potential economies of scale achieved by ever larger and more fuel-efficient vessels would be negated if it took longer to load and unload the mega-ships. Significant steps to reduce terminal costs have been taken. These include introducing **information management systems** that speed up information processing and remove transactional delays. The most significant development has been the mechanization of loading and unloading activities. Mechanization has been facilitated by using units of standard dimensions such as pallets and, most importantly, containers, which have revolutionized terminal operations. Maritime shipping is the mode most affected by high terminal costs. Ships used to spend as much as three weeks in a port undergoing the unloading of inbound cargo and loading of outbound cargo. Ships now spend less than a couple of days for each port call. A Panamax container ship requires approximately 750 workers/hours to be loaded and unloaded. Before containerization, it would have required 24,000 workers/hours to handle the same cargo volume. The rail industry has also benefited from containerization, enabling trains to be assembled in freight yards in a matter of hours instead of days. Many mechanized terminals are being **automated**, further expanding their productivity and lowering labor costs. Still, automation involves significant capital expenditures and is therefore not applied uniformly. **Reduced terminal costs** have had a major impact on transportation and international trade. Not only have they reduced freight rates, thereby reshaping competition between the modes, but they have profoundly affected transport systems. Ships spending far less time in port are able to make many more revenue-generating trips per year. Efficiency in airports, rail facilities, and ports greatly improves the effectiveness of transportation through better **asset utilization**. Activities in transport terminals represent not just the transit of passengers and freight but constitute an **important economic activity**. Employment in various terminal operations represents an advantage to the local economy. Dockers, baggage handlers, crane operators, and air traffic controllers are an example of jobs generated directly by terminals. In addition, a wide range of ancillary activities are linked to transportation activities at the terminals. These include the carriers (airlines, shipping lines) and intermediate agents (customs brokers, freight forwarders) required to carry out transport operations at the terminal. It is no accident that nodes that include a major airport, port, or rail terminal are also important economic poles. Terminals and related activities are increasingly seen as agents of [added value](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3092) within supply chains. --- ## Related Topics - [6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3123) - [6.3 – Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3235) - [6.4 – Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3601) - [6.5 – Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3717) ## Bibliography - Blow, C. (2005) Transport Terminals and Modal Interchanges, Oxford: Architectural Press. - Fleming, D.K. and Y. Hayuth (1994) “Spatial characteristics of transportation hubs: centrality and intermediacy”, Journal of Transport Geography, 2 (1): 3-18. - McCalla, R.J., Slack, B. & Comtois, C. (2001) “Intermodal freight terminals: locality and industrial linkages”, Canadian Geographer 45(3): pp. 404-413. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Boeing 747](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/boeing-747/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/747.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Boeing 747 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Boeing 747*Source: The Boeing Company.* The 747, which entered service in 1969, served as the backbone of intercontinental air transportation from the 1970s to the early 2000s, with a carrying capacity of about 400 passengers. From its introduction, it was the largest commercial airplane, a position it held until 2008 when the 555 passengers A380 was introduced. Several versions of the airplane were produced, including for air cargo operations (747-400F). The 747 remains one of the most significant aircraft supporting the advent of affordable air transportation. By the second decade of the 21st century, 747s started to be removed from commercial passenger services for more energy-efficient aircraft. It is expected that by 2025, the majority of the fleet will be retired. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/boeing-747/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/boeing-747/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/boeing-747/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/boeing-747/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Forms of Digitalization in Freight Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-freight-transportation-forms/) **Published:** September 26, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/digitalization_forms_freight_transportation.png?resize=900%2C475&ssl=1 "Forms of Digitalization in Freight Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Forms of Digitalization in Freight TransportationFreight transportation is a system that can substantially benefit from emerging [digital mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1713) paradigms. This can take four major forms: - The **goods** being carried can be equipped with various tracking and reporting devices. This can range from a simple bar or QR code that can be scanned, to RFID tags that can be queried all the way to an array of sensors that can provide real time information about location (GPS) and conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity). This revolution is particularly relevant for the container, which is a unit that needs to be monitored along complex [intermodal transport chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2551). - **Conveyances** are transportation modes subject to digitalization. Vehicles such as trucks, delivery vans, trains, and ships are also equipped with sensors reporting a wide array of attributes related to their operations (location, speed, engine condition). Routing and navigation are particularly notable forms of digitalization as they enable much improved operations considering existing constraints such as congestion and the availability of a slot at a terminal. The next and much more complex step in digitalization involves vehicle automation. - **Infrastructure** include the physical support of transportation activities such as roadways, terminals and distribution centers. They can be equipped with sensors to monitor their use and condition, which allows for more effective traffic management systems to optimize their scarce capacity. Terminal automation, such as for [ports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3291) and [distribution centers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4591), is an ongoing digitalization paradigm. - **Business process** supports the transaction-rich environment related to freight distribution. Many internal business processes have been digitalized (e.g. inventory management), leading to productivity improvements along a supply chain. The fast growth of the data handled lends to the setting of electronic data exchange protocols, within the branches of corporate entities, but the requirements to more efficiently convey information between the actors involved led to more open standards such as EDI. [Blockchains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11189) are an evolution of this concept by enabling the setting of digital ledger systems. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-freight-transportation-forms/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-freight-transportation-forms/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-freight-transportation-forms/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/digitalization-freight-transportation-forms/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Corporate Adaptation to Transport Innovations: American Express and Wells Fargo](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/corporate-adaptation-transport-innovations-american-express-wells-fargo/) **Published:** January 6, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/corporate_adaptation_transport_innovation.png?resize=900%2C512&ssl=1 "Corporate Adaptation to Transport Innovations: American Express and Wells Fargo | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Corporate Adaptation to Transport Innovations American Express and Wells FargoAmerican Express and Wells Fargo are large financial institutions that emerged during the 19th century to support the growing interstate trade. Both were set in the 1850s to provide **freight forwarding services** and a range of financial services such as banking, money orders, and buying and selling gold. These activities were highly competitive because of their low entry barriers, so any business that could succeed had to offer diversified and innovative services. Wells Fargo established comprehensive stagecoach and mail services in the western part of the United States, while American Express pursued a similar strategy in the northeast. American Express started offering money order services (in competition with the US postal system) and the innovation of traveler’s cheques (convertible monetary instruments) to support emerging international travel. A core early advantage was their capacity to build a **transactional network** connecting several locations and generate added value from these transactions. The existence of a physical freight forwarding network supported the profitable financial transactions network, enabling a gradual shift toward financial activities. Financial activities would thus not have emerged without the commercial network that American Express and Wells Fargo were building in the late 19th century. The completion of the transcontinental railway in 1869 undermined long-distance stagecoach and parcel delivery services. Both American Express and Wells Fargo shifted strategies and started to be involved in **developing railway services** through their financing and operations. They also provided express train services to move mail and parcels between major cities and became among the largest rail operators in the United States. The consolidation of express rail services by the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1918 forced the sale of railroad assets and a further transition towards **financial services**. By the 1920s, American Express and Wells Fargo became dominant financial institutions that focused on consolidating regional banks, loans, and domestic and international financial transactions. They expanded their network, creating additional multiplying effects. A transforming innovation was the introduction of credit card services in the late 1950s and early 1960s, which became the major support of personal transactions and a significant source of revenue. Both corporations are illustrative of a shift from conventional transportation assets and services towards financialization through the multiplying effects of their networks. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/corporate-adaptation-transport-innovations-american-express-wells-fargo/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/corporate-adaptation-transport-innovations-american-express-wells-fargo/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/corporate-adaptation-transport-innovations-american-express-wells-fargo/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/corporate-adaptation-transport-innovations-american-express-wells-fargo/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Development of Operational Speed for Major Transport Modes, 1750-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/operational-speed-transport-modes-development/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/operational_modal_speed_development.png?resize=900%2C549&ssl=1 "Development of Operational Speed for Major Transport Modes, 1750-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Development of Operational Speed for Major Transport Modes 1750 2020![](img/opspeed.png)Technological developments have two significant consequences on transportation modes. The first involves the emergence of **new modes,** and the second concerns **improving their operational capabilities, such as speed**. Operational speed represents a speed that can be maintained across a network and is limited by regulations such as speed limits. For instance, an average automobile can reach a speed of 120 to 130 km/hr, but it is uncommon for a highway system to allow speeds above 110 km/hr (there are exceptions, such as the autobahn in Germany). Many modes follow a similar pattern where a significant growth of their operational speed takes place in their introduction phase. Once technical constraints are solved (such as engine technology), and modal networks expanded, operational speeds reach a threshold that remains until the mode becomes obsolete and is abandoned (stagecoach, clipper ships, and liners) or new technology is introduced with a new wave of technical improvements (jet planes, high-speed rail; HSR). Once the operational speed has been reached, the focus is to improve modal efficiency, particularly energy use, to reduce operational costs and expand the market reach of the mode. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/operational-speed-transport-modes-development/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/operational-speed-transport-modes-development/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/operational-speed-transport-modes-development/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/operational-speed-transport-modes-development/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Share of the Population in Agriculture, Early Industrial Countries, 1820-1910](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/agriculture-population-1820-1910/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/share_population_agriculture_early_industrial.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of the Population in Agriculture, Early Industrial Countries, 1820-1910 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of the Population in Agriculture Early Industrial Countries 1820 1910*Source: Rioux, J-P (1989) La révolution industrielle 1780-1880, Paris: Éditions du Seuil, p. 197.* Urbanization began to occur on a larger scale during the later part of the Industrial Revolution (1850-1925), mainly through migration from the countryside to cities. By 1870, about half of the population of the first main industrial nations was no longer in the agricultural sector. England had reached this stage in 1820. By 1910, 94% of the English population lived in cities. This spurred a significant demand for urban transportation and the development of the first transit systems. The spatial distribution of the population changed, notably its concentration level, as it urbanized. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/agriculture-population-1820-1910/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/agriculture-population-1820-1910/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/agriculture-population-1820-1910/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/agriculture-population-1820-1910/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Estimated Oil Reserves, Selected OPEC Countries, 1980-1991 (billions of barrels)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/estimated-oil-reserves/) **Published:** December 19, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/OPEC_reserves_surge.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "OPEC_reserves_surge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Estimated Oil Reserves Selected OPEC Countries 1980 1991 billions of barrels*Source: US Energy Information Agency, International Energy Annual Report.* The reserves reported by several OPEC countries surged during the 1980s. What is unusual about this surge is that it was sudden, without the discovery of any significant new oil fields and taking place in a context of declining oil prices. For instance, in 1988 the reserves of Iraq doubled, from 47 to 100 billion barrels, while Saudi Arabia “discovered” 88 billion barrels of new reserves in 1990, the equivalent of the Kuwaiti reserves (which surged by 26 billion barrels in 1985). The main rationale behind these inflated reserve figures was attempts at increasing the respective national quotas of oil exports which are a function of reported reserves. These accounting manipulations created a lot of friction within OPEC, a factor behind the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq in 1990. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/estimated-oil-reserves/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/estimated-oil-reserves/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/estimated-oil-reserves/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/estimated-oil-reserves/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Oil and Gas Reserves](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/oil-gas-reserves-types/) **Published:** December 19, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/oilgasreservestypes.png?resize=600%2C486&ssl=1 "oilgasreservestypes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Oil and Gas Reserves*Source: adapted from M. Simmons (2008).* Oil reserves come in two forms: - **Conventional**. Oil that comes in liquid form, which is transportable and possible to refine. It represents the form that is the most desirable to extract since it is of high quality. - **Unconventional**. Oil that comes in other forms that are much more difficult to extract let it be in deep waters or as oil shale, and of lower quality. The availability of oil resources is correlated with market price and technology. Like many resources, quality (often measured in the level of concentration) is inversely proportional to quantity. High-quality oil and gas resources have mostly been tapped, leaving more marginal resources such as tar sands and gas shale to be considered. Still, extracting low-quality resources is an expensive and technically intensive endeavor. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/oil-gas-reserves-types/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/oil-gas-reserves-types/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/oil-gas-reserves-types/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/oil-gas-reserves-types/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Modes Used for Petroleum Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/modes-oil-transportation/) **Published:** December 19, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modes_petroleum_transport.png?resize=900%2C420&ssl=1 "Modes Used for Petroleum Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Modes Used for Petroleum Transportation*Source: adapted from Ken Dymock (2007) General Manager, Distribution, Petro Canada, Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport, Transportation Situation & Outlook Conference.* ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/modes-oil-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/modes-oil-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/modes-oil-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/petroleum-transportation-resource/modes-oil-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Core / Periphery Division of the World](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-core-periphery/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Core-Periphery.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "Core / Periphery Division of the World | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Core Periphery Division of the WorldThe world can be perceived as a spectrum from core to periphery countries where high development levels, manufacturing systems, a capacity for innovation, and convergence of trade flows characterize core countries. The emergence of **core countries** is the outcome of a historical process of economic development that began in England and northern Europe during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. With industrialization and economic development, North America, Japan, and Australia became core areas of the world economy by the early 20th century. On the opposite, the periphery is composed of countries that have experienced more limited economic development, implying growing differences from the core. The core has a level of dominance over the periphery, which is reflected in trade and the structure of transportation networks. Historically, this dominance was political through incorporating the periphery into colonial empires, but from the second half of the 20th century, economic factors became the key drivers. Accessibility is higher within the elements of the core than within the periphery. Most high-level economic activities and innovations are located in the core, with the periphery subjugated to processes conferring a lower added value, such as resource extraction and labor-intensive manufacturing. This pattern was particularly prevalent during the colonial era, where the development of transport systems mainly favored the accessibility of core countries to the resources and markets of the periphery, a situation that endured until the 1960s and 1970s. The semi-periphery has a higher level of autonomy and has been the object of significant improvements in economic development (China, South Korea, Brazil, Malaysia, etc.). Concomitantly, the accessibility of the semi-periphery improved, permitting the integration of its comparative advantages in labor and resources. Thus, the core-periphery concept is dynamic as economic development incites the integration of economics into what can be considered the core. South Korea can now be considered a core economy, while Vietnam is clearly in the semi-periphery. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-core-periphery/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-core-periphery/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-core-periphery/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/world-core-periphery/?share=reddit) - --- ### [10.4 - Future Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transportation changes are either incremental or revolutionary. The future of transportation will be influenced by a higher integration between physical and information systems. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Past Trends and Uncertain Future](#1_Past_Trends_and_Uncertain_Future) - [2. Automation and Information Technologies](#2_Automation_and_Information_Technologies) - [3. Alternative Modes and Fuels](#3_Alternative_Modes_and_Fuels) - [4. Drivers of Change](#4_Drivers_of_Change) # 1. Past Trends and Uncertain Future > Where are the flying cars? Where are the supersonic passengers jets? Just around the corner… Throughout history, transportation remained limited in scale and scope. In the two centuries since the introduction of mechanized transportation, the capacity, speed, efficiency, and geographical coverage of transport systems have improved dramatically. The goal to move passengers and freight faster, in greater quantities, safely, and efficiently remains the core motivation to improve transport technology. Modes, terminals, and networks alike have been subject to remarkable changes that come with two functional aspects: - **Revolutionary changes**. Concerns an entirely new technology that creates new markets and growth opportunities for transportation and the economy. It often marks the obsolescence of an existing transport mode as the new mode has substantial cost, capacity, or time benefits. Revolutionary changes tend to be rare but profound since they commonly involve the setting of entirely new networks. They often cannot be predicted, but it is possible to assess their potential impacts once they occur. Yet, in the early phase of their introduction, the potential of innovation can be exaggerated. This can lead to over-investments in technologies with limited market potential and profitability. - **Incremental (evolutionary) changes**. Concerns the stepwise improvement of existing transport technology and operations. This increases productivity with more capacity, lower costs, and better modal or terminal performance. These changes can result from better-performing infrastructure and vehicles or using information technologies to manage operations more effectively. Incremental changes are possible to extrapolate, but the rate of change they bring is difficult to assess. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_transport_technology.png?resize=900%2C488&ssl=1 "Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/evolution-transport-technology/evolution_transport_technology/)Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th Century[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/operational_modal_speed_development.png?resize=900%2C550&ssl=1 "Development of Operational Speed for Major Transport Modes, 1750-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/operational-speed-transport-modes-development/operational_modal_speed_development/)Development of Operational Speed for Major Transport Modes 1750 2020 km per hour[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Flying_car2C_cover_of_Popular_Mechanics2C_Feb_1951.jpg?resize=423%2C600&ssl=1 "The Flying Car Concept, 1951 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/flying-cars-1951/flying_car_cover_of_popular_mechanics_feb_1951/)The Flying Car Concept 1951Considering these changes, the following observations can be made: - Due to its geographical and technical specifications, each mode was characterized by different technologies and [different rates of innovation and diffusion](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/evolution-transport-technology/ "Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th Century"). A transport innovation can thus be an **additive/competitive force** where a new technology expands or makes an existing mode more efficient and competitive. It can also be a **destructive force** when a new technology marks the obsolescence and the demise of an existing mode and its business model, often through a paradigm shift. Still, in many cases, an older technology will endure because of its broad level of adoption, utilization (preferences), accumulated capital investment, or even regulations. This is commonly known as **path dependency**. Vested interests in an existing mode, particularly if publicly owned, may also delay or prevent innovation. - Technological innovation was linked to **[faster and more efficient transport systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/operational-speed-transport-modes-development/ "Development of Operational Speed for Major Transport Modes, 1750-2020")**. This process implied a space-time convergence where a greater amount of space could be exchanged for a lesser amount of time. The comparative advantages of space could thus be more efficiently used. - Technological innovation in the transport sector has been linked with the **phases of the economic development of the world economy**. Transportation and economic development are interlinked, as one cannot occur without another. Any technological change within the transport sector is linked with new economic and social opportunities. One of the pitfalls in discussing future trends involves looking at the future as an **extrapolation of the past**. It is assumed that the future will include an existing technology, but merely operating on an extended scale beyond what is currently possible. It can be seen as an **incremental change bias**. The parameters of such an extrapolation commonly involve greater speed, mass availability, higher capacity, and better accessibility, implying similar or lower costs. Popular literature (such as [Popular Mechanics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/flying-cars-1951/ "The Flying Car Concept, 1951") or Popular Science) of the first half of the 20th century is abundant with extrapolations and speculations, some spectacular, about how transportation technology would look in the (their) future. Looking at such perspectives is labeled “paleo-futurology”; how the past perceived the future. [Predicting future outcomes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1625) must consider what is within the realm of forecasting, scenario building, or speculation. Forecasting evaluates near-term outcomes by considering that parameters do not change much. In contrast, scenario building assesses possible outcomes based on expected fluctuation in key parameters. A [common flaw](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1629) in predictions is their incapacity to anticipate **paradigm shifts** brought by new technologies as well as economic and social conditions. Another drawback relates to the expectation of a massive diffusion of new technology with profound economic and social impacts, and this over a short period of time (the “silver bullet effect”). This rarely occurs as most innovations go through a cycle of introduction, adoption, growth, peak, and then obsolescence, which can take several years, if not decades. Even in the [telecommunication sector](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1316), which accounts for the fastest diffusion levels, adopting a technology takes place over a decade. Any discussion about the future of transportation must start with the realization that much of what is being presented as plausible is unlikely to become a reality, especially if the extrapolation goes several decades into the future. Thus, as much as someone would have been unable at the beginning of the 20th century to even dream of what transportation would look like half a century later (e.g. air transportation and the automobile), similar limitations may be applied in the 21st century. However, since substantial technological innovations took place in the 20th century and the laws of physics are much better understood, evaluating future technological trends is achievable. Still, the socioeconomic impacts of new transport technologies and systems remain complex and rarely lead to an accurate assessment. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/prediction_future_outcomes.png?resize=900%2C561&ssl=1 "The Prediction of Future Outcomes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/prediction-future-outcomes/future_outcomes/)The Prediction of Future Outcomes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/common_flaws_forecasting.png?resize=900%2C461&ssl=1 "Common Flaws in Forecasting | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/flaws-forecasting/flaws_forecasting-2/)Common Flaws in Forecasting# 2. Automation and Information Technologies Since the introduction of commercial jet planes, high-speed train networks, and containerization in the late 1960s, no significant technological change has impacted passengers and freight transport systems, at least from a paradigm shift perspective. The early 21st century is an era of car and truck dependency, which tends to constrain the development of alternative modes of transportation. A **new paradigm shift** is emerging, which will likely trigger the most important technological transition in transportation since the introduction of the automobile. The development of **information and communication technologies** (ICT) to improve the speed, efficiency, safety, and reliability of mobility, aims at complete or partial automation (driving assistance) of the vehicles and terminals (ports, airports, rail stations, and distribution centers). These systems could involve improving existing modes, such as automated highway systems, or creating new modes and transshipment systems, such as [automated vehicles for public transit](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1643), and freight transportation (automated terminals). Automation remains a highly disruptive force that has the potential to impact [employment negatively in transportation and related sectors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11559). The diffusion of global positioning systems, sensors, and mobile communication technology has substantially improved navigation and congestion mitigation. A network of connected and identifiable devices commonly labeled as the **Internet of Things** is taking shape. These devices can be embedded in transportation modes, such as vehicles and containers, which then can be more effectively managed and routed, which provides practical support for better routing and demand forecasts. A vehicle can thus be rerouted if congestion or another form of disruption occurs, and any transport asset can be better maintained through predictive analysis and reports from sensors. A further evolution considers the **Physical Internet** as a metaphor for integrating digital and physical transportation and logistics assets to create a network of logistics networks. **On-demand mobility services** are emerging, creating a hybrid operational model between the taxi and the private vehicle. With information technologies, fleets of cars can be managed and leased in real-time, resulting in fewer vehicles required to convey a similar level of mobility. In turn, less parking space is needed, improving congestion in high-density areas. Empirical evidence underlines that such schemes can increase the productivity of vehicles between 30 and 50% when on-demand services are compared with conventional taxi services. The main factors behind this rise in productivity involve a more efficient matching technology between the driver and the passenger, the large scale of on-demand car services (more supply to match the demand), restrictive taxi regulations (often limiting their numbers and market areas), and flexible supply models coupled with yield management systems (surge pricing). This also changes the ownership structure of dominantly privately-owned vehicles, towards a leasing system. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_automation.png?resize=900%2C455&ssl=1 "Forms of Transport Automation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/forms-of-transport-automation/transport_automation/)Forms of Transport Automation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/probability_automation_occupation.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Probability of Automation by Occupation Group, United States, 2018-2030 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/probability-automation-occupation-group-united-states/probability_automation/)Probability of Automation by Occupation Group United States 2018 2030[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ultra.jpg?resize=850%2C567&ssl=1 "ULTra (Urban Light Transport) System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ultra-urban-light-system/ultra/)ULTra Urban Light Transport System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/benefits_on_demand_taxi.png?resize=900%2C853&ssl=1 "Potential Benefits of On Demand Services Compared with Conventional Taxi Services | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/on-demand-services-taxi/benefit_on_demand_vehicles2/)Potential Benefits of On Demand Services Compared with Conventional Taxi Services[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/forces_shaping_ict_transportation.png?resize=900%2C306&ssl=1 "Forces Shaping the Diffusion of Information and Communication Technologies in Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/information-communication-technology-diffusion/force_shaping_information_technology/)Forces Shaping the Diffusion of Information and Communication Technologies in Transportation**Driverless (automated) vehicles** are a further evolution of the integration of ICT into transportation. Still, in an urban setting, a large amount of safety factors to consider make such implementation more of a social than a technical constraint. Improved navigation and coordination of vehicles can reduce congestion substantially, particularly when bottlenecks are created by driver behavior (e.g. sudden braking). Fewer accidents will be a substantial relief from the causes of congestion. There are other applications of automation technology, particularly in air transportation, which would raise many safety considerations. Therefore, remote-controlled airplanes are more likely to be initially applied to air cargo operations. A similar potential exists for maritime transportation as the recent decades have seen automation considerably reduce crew sizes required to operate ships. However, it is self-driving trucks that may offer the most significant potential. The long-distance segment uses well-defined highways and stable driving conditions prone to automation. In such a setting, trucks can coordinate their respective mobility by **assembling convoys** (or platoons) where each vehicle follows the other closely, improving fuel consumption. Self-driving trucks can also service repetitive short-distance hauls, such as between ports, rail yards, and distribution centers. This can be highly disruptive from a labor standpoint since 3.5 million truck drivers were reported in the United States in 2021, representing the highest employment sector. The introduction of automated trucks is likely to be incremental and route-specific. Automated vehicles are already used at port terminals to move containers between docks and stacking yards. Truck automation creates a paradigm where the long haul is most prone to automation but shows the least potential for electrification due to powertrain requirements. Another category of automated vehicles concerns drones that can have a variety of usage, such as the monitoring and inspection of infrastructure as well as being able to undertake the fast delivery of light packages. Driverless vehicles are also likely to **improve the mobility of marginal groups** (e.g. the elderly and people with disabilities). Still, as importantly, they would enable more efficient use of vehicle assets. With fewer accidents, the social costs of automobile use and insurance rates would drop. Security standards could change since driverless vehicles are less prone to accidents, implying that vehicles could be built with fewer physical safety features and less weight. Since fewer parking spaces may be required, this could free a substantial amount of road space and land that could be converted for other uses. This raises the question of the role of mass transit in a context where users could have access to mobility almost on demand. This question is relevant since many transit systems are heavily subsidized, and their ridership is either stable or declining. Many gains remain to be achieved by better managing existing infrastructures and vehicles. Yet, the [diffusion of ICT](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1654) is influenced by the business models of the transport sectors in which it takes place. # 3. Alternative Modes and Fuels There is a range of modes that could replace but more likely complement existing modes, particularly for the transportation of passengers. One such technology is **maglev**, short for magnetic levitation, which has the advantage of having no friction (except air friction), enabling reaching operational speeds of 500-600 km per hour. Higher speeds are possible if the train circulates in a low-pressure tube. This represents an alternative for passengers and freight land movements in the range of 75 to 1,000 km. Maglev improves from the existing technology of high-speed train networks, which face technical limitations at speeds higher than 300 km per hour. Maglev was the first fundamental innovation in railway transportation since the Industrial Revolution. The first large-scale commercial maglev system opened in [Shanghai in 2003](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1661) and has an operational speed of about 440 km per hour. Still, this system operates on a short 30 km segment and appears unprofitable. Further variations of the **guided tube concept** involve capsules circulating in a partially depressurized tube using an electric induction engine (dubbed as “hyperloop”). However, outside test projects, no functional system has yet emerged. This underlines that some areas can circumvent transport technology and directly adopt a new one without the prior capital investments in infrastructure. For instance, several developing economies have avoided setting wire-based telecommunication networks to move directly to cellular networks. A similar trend could apply to the maglev/hyperloop technology circumventing conventional high-speed rail systems. If this is the case, several regions could move directly to a more effective mobility system without costly investments in high-speed rail. Alternative fuels mainly concern existing modes, but the sources of fuel, or engine technology, are modified. For instance, hybrid vehicles involve the use of two types of motor technologies, commonly an internal combustion engine and an electric motor. Simplistically, braking is used to recharge a battery, which then can be used to power the electric motor. Although gasoline appears to be the most prevalent fuel choice, diesel has a high potential since it can also be made from coal or organic fuels. Diesel can thus be a fuel part of a lower petroleum dependency energy strategy. Hybrid engines have often been perceived as a transitional technology to cope with higher energy prices. There is also a possibility of greater reliance on **biofuels** as an additive (and possibly a supplement) to petroleum. However, their impacts on ecosystems and food production must be carefully assessed. Still, **electric car engines** are one of the most promising alternative technology. One of its first advantages relates to a lower environmental footprint, such as fewer CO2 emissions, even if electricity generation comes from a fossil fuel plant. Electric vehicles are less mechanically complex since they have fewer moving parts (no internal combustion engine and transmission) and a longer life cycle. Such vehicles could be cheaper to build and maintain, increasing the range of manufacturing locations, but reducing the need to transport a complex variety of parts. Lower acquisition and operating costs improve the affordability of mobility, particularly if electric vehicles are shared. It is, however, on the conventional internal combustion engine services that electric vehicles are likely to have the most influence. About half of the car maintenance expenses are related to the engine. Therefore, switching to electric vehicles will negatively impact the vehicle repair and refueling industry. Regarding refueling, the usage of electric vehicles continues to raise the question of **electricity supply** in terms of additional demands on the grid, which can be substantial. One electric vehicle can easily double the power consumption of a single residence. As more electric vehicles are introduced, upgrading residential wiring and local distribution grids will be necessary. Switching to electric delivery trucks can also be challenging as a single distribution center consumes, on average, 0.5 MW of electrical power per day. If delivery trucks were to be converted to electricity, these 300 vehicles would consume about 8 MW daily, 16 times more electricity. Wireless power transfer technologies have the potential to be used to charge electric vehicles simply by being in proximity to a recharge node or even being recharged as they drive around equipped roads. Therefore, the diffusion of electric vehicles must include strategies for the supply of electrical power, preferably from alternative sources such as solar or wind energy. Battery charging strategies could improve the stability of energy systems through better coordination between the supply and demand of electricity. In periods of low demand, more electric vehicles could be charged, taking advantage of lower electricity prices. A fleet of electric vehicles can even store surplus electricity, which could be distributed in the grid in a period of peak demand. Another consideration relates to the whole retail structure linked with existing petroleum refueling stations, which is a source of revenue to compensate for the relatively low-profit margins of fuel sales. This also brings the issue of fuel taxation and subsidies since, for many governments, fuel taxes are used to fund infrastructure maintenance and developments while other governments are subsidizing fuel costs to support poorer segments of their populations. Far more reaching in terms of the energy transition are **fuel cells**, which involve an electric generator using the catalytic conversion of hydrogen and oxygen. The electricity generated can be used for many purposes, such as supplying an electric motor. Current technological prospects do not foresee high-output fuel cells, indicating they apply only to light vehicles, notably cars, or small power systems. Nevertheless, fuel cells represent a low environmental impact alternative to generating energy. Additional challenges in the use of fuel cells involve hydrogen storage (especially in a vehicle) as well as establishing a distribution system to supply users. **New materials** can also be implemented on both vehicles and infrastructures. For instance, the latest generation of aircraft is made from polymers and composites, reducing weight, improving durability, and lowering maintenance costs. Advanced materials can also be used to construct and maintain transportation infrastructure, particularly with modular construction that can assemble structures such as bridges faster. Advances in nanotechnology also allow better and longer-lasting materials, such as asphalt, concrete, and even steel, to be used for roads. This increases the lifespan and the durability of infrastructure and reduces maintenance costs. Transportation modes can also be introduced to deal with specific transportation constraints that mainstream transportation modes are less able to accommodate. The use of a [new generation of dirigibles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1667) to transport mostly freight in areas difficult to access (such as the Arctic) is an example. On the other side of the mobility spectrum, urban transportation shows potential for more effective use of alternative modes, such as a greater reliance on micro-mobility and walking, particularly in car-dependent cities, and this for passengers and freight transportation. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/maglev_shanghai.jpg?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Maglev Train, Shanghai | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/maglev-shanghai/maglev_shanghai/)Maglev Train Shanghai[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ARH-50.jpg?resize=850%2C478&ssl=1 "Visualization of a Cargo Airship Prototype | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/cargo-airship-prototype/arh-50/)Visualization of a Cargo Airship Prototype# 4. Drivers of Change There have been few cases in [recent history](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-economy-development-phases/ "Phases of Development of the Global Economy") where revolutionary transport technology was the outcome of a public endeavor. Still, the public sector played a growing role as transport innovations became more complex and incited a concerted approach in infrastructure, management, or regulation. For instance, the massive diffusion of the automobile in the 20th century was associated with regulations concerning operations (e.g. speed limits), safety (e.g. seatbelts), emissions, as well as public investments in road infrastructures (national highway systems). While vehicle production came to be dominantly private, **road infrastructures were perceived as a public good**. Similar processes took place for maritime transportation (port authorities), air transportation (national carriers and airport authorities), rail (national carriers), public transit (transit agencies), and telecommunications (frequencies). The complexity of transport systems, particularly with information technologies, is likely to rise in the future. Will this complexity be linked with additional public-sector involvement? Future transportation systems are also facing growing concerns related to energy, the environment, safety, and security. Transport systems will either be developed to accommodate additional demands for mobility or offer alternatives (or a transition) to existing demand. A significant challenge relies on the balance between market forces and public policy, as both have a role to play in the transition. Since transportation is a derived demand, a core aspect of future transportation pertains to **economic activity** and the extent to which it will be linked with specific passengers and freight volumes. Economic development and globalization have been important factors behind the surge in mobility. More recent trends toward [automation and new manufacturing processes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/value-chain-drivers-fourth-industrial-revolution/ "Value Chain Drivers of the Fourth Industrial Revolution") impact supply chains and their geographical characteristics. It remains to be seen to what extent this process will endure and if the global transportation system will become more globalized or regionalized: - **Globalization**. Assumes affordable energy prices, growing accessibility, and an enduring openness to trade. The exploitation of comparative advantages continues, leading to a more complex lattice of trade and transportation systems. Various transnational relations are superposed over networks of regional transportation. - **Regionalization**. Assumes higher energy prices and a commercial environment more prone to protectionism, which conveys more friction to long-distance interactions. The exploitation of comparative advantages is thus done on a more regional foundation. This environment does not forbid international trade, but the latter mostly concerns goods and services that cannot be adequately substituted. It is also prone to the setting of more effective regional transport systems. A fundamental component of future transport systems, freight, and passengers alike, is that they must provide **increased flexibility and adaptability** to changing market circumstances (origins, destinations, costs, speed, etc.), some of which are unforeseen while complying with an array of environmental, safety and security regulations. This cannot be effectively planned, and governments have consistently been poor managers and slow to understand technological changes, often impeding them through regulations and preferences for specific modes or particular technologies. Regulations tend to **prevent technological innovations** and their potential positive impacts. This is often referred to as the **status quo bias,** where the dominant strategy of a public agency is to maintain existing conditions. Also, if a new mode or technology competes with a nationalized transport system, or with a transportation sector with strong political influence, the government will likely intervene to prevent its emergence with regulations (e.g. permits) and delays (e.g. public safety hearings). Recent history indicates that when deregulation occurred, it was associated with changes and innovations in the related transportation sectors. One of the most salient examples is the Staggers Act in American rail transportation, which was linked with substantial productivity improvements and new investments. New transportation technologies are becoming increasingly **complex**, and governments often have budgetary constraints and the lack of capabilities to implement them directly. Thus, it is likely that future transport systems will be the outcome of private initiatives, or public-private partnership schemes, with the market (transport demand) being the ultimate judge of the true potential of new transport technology. Economic history has shown that market forces will always try to find and adopt the most efficient transportation form available. Some transport systems or technologies have become obsolete. They have been replaced by others that are more efficient and cost-effective based on the prevailing input conditions, such as labor, energy, and commodities. This fundamental behavior is likely to endure in the setting of [future transportation systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1675), reflecting the abundance, or scarcity, of resources, energy, space, and time. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/phases_development_global_economy.png?resize=900%2C370&ssl=1 "Phases of Development of the Global Economy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/global-economy-development-phases/phases_development_global_economy/)Phases of Development of the Global Economy[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_chain_drivers_fourth_revolution.png?resize=900%2C477&ssl=1 "Value Chain Drivers of the Fourth Industrial Revolution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/value-chain-drivers-fourth-industrial-revolution/value_chain_drivers_fourth_revolution/)Value Chain Drivers of the Fourth Industrial Revolution[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/drivers_change_future_transportation.png?resize=900%2C395&ssl=1 "Drivers of Change for Future Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/driver-change-future-transportation/driver_change_future_transport/)Drivers of Change for Future TransportationStill, anticipating future transport trends is very hazardous since technology is a factor that historically created paradigm shifts and is likely to do so again in the future with **unforeseen consequences**. For instance, one of the major concerns about future transportation for London, England, in the late 19th century was that by the mid-20th century, the amount of horse manure generated by transport activities would become unmanageable… --- ## Related Topics - [1.4 – The Setting of Global Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1000) - [4.4 – Transport, Sustainability and Decarbonization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5725) - [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621) - [B.16 – The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8689) - [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1685) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/?share=reddit) - --- ### [North American Coastal Trade System, 18th Century](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/north-america-coastal-trade-18th-century/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA_Coastal_19th_Century.png?resize=900%2C680&ssl=1 "North American Coastal Trade System, 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")North American Coastal Trade System 18th Century*Note: Boundaries are contemporary.* The early stages of North American development were strongly influenced by coastal and fluvial transportation since no other forms of transportation were readily available. Roads were limited and not suitable for any form of heavy haulage. Inland transportation costs compared with maritime or fluvial costs were very high; moving one ton of goods 30 miles (48 km) inland was as expensive as moving the same ton across the Atlantic. Consequently, most of the population lived close to the coast, which was related to developing a system of coastal cities with small hinterlands connected by a network of coastal shipping. Gateways such as New Orleans and Montreal were at the head of a long-distance hinterland that could be serviced through a river system (Mississippi and St. Lawrence / Great Lakes, respectively) and various portages. The constraints imposed by this system were finally broken in the early 19th century when the [first canals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1128) and [turnpikes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1853) were built, enabling the development of a better-connected inland transport system. The invention of the steamboat in the 1840s improved inland navigation along the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/north-america-coastal-trade-18th-century/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/north-america-coastal-trade-18th-century/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/north-america-coastal-trade-18th-century/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/north-america-coastal-trade-18th-century/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Crownless Pineapples in Cold Chain Inspection Room](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/crownless-pineapples-in-cold-chain-inspection-room/) **Published:** June 8, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Crownless Pineapples Cold Chain Inspection](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/crownless_pineapples_cold_chain_inspection.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Crownless Pineapples in Cold Chain Inspection Room | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Crownless Pineapples in Cold Chain Inspection Room*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2019. Gloucester Marine Terminal, Holt Logistics.* Pineapples are usually shipped crownless as it allows to transport more units through denser packing. Further, crownless pineapples are less likely to carry pests as crowns are difficult to clean or fumigate. Thus, the smoother and more uniform a fruit is, the less likely it is to be inspected by Customs and Border Protection (CBP). Under such circumstances, bananas are among the fruits the least likely to be inspected, while the rate of inspection for pineapples is higher. CBP Inspections are usually done at a dedicated space within the cold chain terminal facility where the perishable shipments arrive by reefers. This allows for quick processing. If pests are found, the shipment may require to be fumigated before being allowed to clear customs. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/crownless-pineapples-in-cold-chain-inspection-room/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/crownless-pineapples-in-cold-chain-inspection-room/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/crownless-pineapples-in-cold-chain-inspection-room/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/crownless-pineapples-in-cold-chain-inspection-room/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.10 - Transport Technical and Economic Performance Indicators](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/) **Published:** November 10, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Claude Comtois > Performance indicators are widely used to empirically assess the technical performance of different transport modes, namely their capacity to move passengers or freight around. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Network and Operational Indicators](#1_Network_and_Operational_Indicators) - [2. Road Traffic Performance](#2_Road_Traffic_Performance) - [3. Economic Performance Indicators](#3_Economic_Performance_Indicators) # 1. Network and Operational Indicators Multimodal transportation networks rest upon a combination of **costs and performance of transport modes**, or what is referred to as economies of scope. For instance, a container shipped overseas from its origin can go from road to maritime, rail, and road again before reaching its destination. The arrangement of this sequence is seeking the lowest transport cost. For passengers, a commuter may also undertake a journey involving a sequence of modes such as walking, riding a bus, and then a subway. The providers of transportation services, therefore, require quantitative tools for decision-making in order to compare the performances of various transport modes and transport networks. Time efficiency becomes imperative for freight and passenger mobility in private and public sector activities. Performance indicators are widely used to empirically assess the **technical performance** of different transport modes, namely their **capacity to move passengers or freight** around. They are ratios since a value such as traffic or capacity does not express a performance, but the ratio of traffic overcapacity is a performance indicator. Technical performance should not be confused with economic performance, which mostly relates to how much transport output (e.g. traffic) can be supported with specific inputs (e.g. capital or labor) and how profitable a service is. Performance measures are relative, implying that they mean little by themselves. They must be interpreted within a comparative framework, which can be across space (e.g. systems or jurisdictions) or time (e.g. seasonal variations). Basic technical performance calculations can be particularly useful for the analysis of global network performance as well as for modal comparison, analysis, and evaluation by bridging both physical attributes (length, distance, configuration, etc.) and time-based attributes (punctuality, reliability, etc.) of networks. Some indicators are currently used to measure the technical performance of freight and passenger transport: - **Passenger or freight density**. A standard measure of transport efficiency represents the number of passengers or freight units per distance unit. - **Mean distance traveled**. A measure of the ground covering capacity of networks and different transport modes and used to assess the relative performance of transport modes. - **Mean per capita ton output** (freight) or **mean number of trips per capita** (passenger). A measure of the material intensity of an economy. Economies having an important manufacturing sector tend to have more tonnage output per capita than service-based economies. For passengers, the measure reflects mobility levels. - **Mean utilization coefficient**. A measure comparing the frequency a transport asset is used over the total period this asset is available. This is especially useful with the increasing complexity of logistics associated with containerization, such as the [problem of empty returns](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9481). It can also be used to measure transit ridership. More specifically, such indicators allow the **cross-temporal analysis** of a transport nexus or given modes. Another fundamental dimension of technical performance concerns **operations** and specific parts of the transport network, such as a segment or a terminal. The most salient indicators include: - **Transport time / speed / turnover**. An expression of the velocity of passengers or freight along segments (speed) and at terminals or distribution centers (turnover). - **Reliability**. The consistency of operations within defined parameters such as capacity, safety, duration, and punctuality. - **Punctuality**. The on-time performance of transport services. Particularly important for scheduled services such as [flights](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3866), public transit, railways, and containerized maritime shipping. - **Load factor**. The level of transport asset utilization of modes and terminals in relation to their capacity. High load factors may indicate congestion and limited capacity to handle additional traffic. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/on_time_arrivals_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "On-Time Flight Arrivals in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")On Time Flight Arrivals in the United States 1995 2020 in # **2. Road Traffic Performance** Technical performance indicators have dominantly been applied to road transportation, although other modes, such as air and maritime transport, are also increasingly monitored. There are two major operational types of traffic influencing the capacity of modern roads, which are [continuous and discontinuous traffic](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19337). The **capacity of a road** is the maximal hourly flow of people or vehicles that can be supported by any link. This value is influenced by three major concepts: - **Road conditions**. Physical attributes of the road such as its type (paved, non-paved), number of lanes, width of lanes, design speed, and vertical and horizontal alignment. - **Traffic conditions**. Attributes of the traffic using the road, such as its temporal distribution and direction. - **Control conditions**. Attributes of the control structures and existing traffic laws such as speed limit, one-ways, and priority. Considering the above conditions, the capacity of a road is about **1,000 vehicles per lane per hour** for continuous traffic roads and about 500 vehicles per lane per hour for discontinuous traffic roads. The operational goal of traffic planning is thus to ensure that road, traffic, and control conditions ensure an adequate, if not optimal, service. Several guidelines will favor such a goal, such as wide enough lanes for a maximum safe speed in both directions and limited grades to limit speed differentials. The capacity of a road is also linked to the [level of service](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/levels-of-service-road-transportation/ "Levels of Service for Road Transportation"), which is a qualitative measure of the operational conditions of roads and their perception by users. The spatial distribution of [bottlenecks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/causes-road-transportation-bottlenecks/ "Causes of Road Transportation Bottlenecks"), notably within urban areas, also strongly impacts capacity as they are the choke points of the whole road transport system. Traffic can be valued according to three primary measures, which are speed, volume, and density: - **Speed** is the rate of distance covered per unit of time. The average speed is the most commonly used measure to characterize traffic on a road. - **Volume** is the number of vehicles observed at a point or a section over a time period. - **Density** is the number of vehicles occupying a section at any time. For example, a road section having a volume of 1,000 vehicles per hour with an average speed of 50 km/hour will have a density of 20 vehicles/km. The [critical density](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19364) is the density at which the volume is maximal, and the [critical speed](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19364) is the speed at which the volume is maximal. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/continuous_discontinuous_traffic.png?resize=900%2C571&ssl=1 "Continuous and Discontinuous Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Continuous and Discontinuous Traffic![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/level_of_service_road2.png?resize=900%2C578&ssl=1 "Levels of Service for Road Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Levels of Service for Road Transportation![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/causes_road_transport_bottlenecks.png?resize=900%2C834&ssl=1 "Causes of Road Transportation Bottlenecks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Causes of Road Transportation Bottlenecks![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/critical_density_critical_speed.png?resize=900%2C451&ssl=1 "Critical Density and Critical Speed | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Critical Density and Critical Speed# 3. Economic Performance Indicators Transportation plays a considerable role in the economy, supporting mobility at all geographic scales. It is an integral constituent of the relationships between production and consumption. Economic impact indicators help understand the relationships between transport systems and the economy as well as assess the economic weight of this type of activity. Maritime transport is still the most cost-efficient way to transport bulk merchandise over long distances. On the other hand, while air transport is recognized for its unsurpassed time efficiency versus other modes over long distances, it remains an expensive option. Thus, **vertical integration**, or the involvement in transportation by firms outside the sector, illustrates the search for these two efficiency attributes by gaining direct control over inputs. The relationship between transport systems and their economic impacts becomes clear when looking at restructuring patterns that carriers and firms are undergoing. Structural mutations, best illustrated by the popularity of **just-in-time practices**, are fueled by two opposing yet effective forces: carriers seek economies of scale while conforming to an increasingly customized demand. **Factor substitution** is a commonly adopted path in order to reduce costs of production and reach greater efficiency. Containerization by substituting labor for capital and technology is a good illustration of the phenomenon. The most common measures of factor substitution are: - **Output / Capital** ratio is commonly used to measure the capital productivity of transportation. - **Output / Labor** ratio performs the same productivity measurement but for the labor input. - **Capital / Labor** ratio measures which factor predominates within the relationship between capital and labor productivity. Therefore, the above set of indicators provides insights into the relative weight of factors within the production process. More scale-specific indicators can also be used to evaluate the role of transport within the economy. Knowing freight transport both contribute to and is fueled by a larger economic context, freight output can be confronted against macro-economic indicators: - **Output / GDP** ratio measures the relationship between economic activity and traffic intensity. - **Transport sector income / Local income** ratio evaluates the share of the transport industry in the local economy (e.g. municipal or state level). - **Output / Local income** ratio is a measure of the relative production value of the transport industry output. The goals behind applying such indicators are as varied as they are numerous. Efficiency indicators constitute valuable tools to evaluate the viability of transport projects as well as to measure investment returns and cost/subsidy recovery of transport systems. Input-output analyses using some of the above indicators are instrumental in developing economic impact indexes and productivity assessment concepts such as the **Total Factor Productivity** (TFP). TFP is the ratio of inputs at the aggregate level over the aggregated outputs. It allows to identify sources of productivity gains. As an element of the aggregate inputs of an economy, transportation is a total productivity factor, and increases in its productivity result in additional economic output. --- ## Bibliography - Cambridge Systematics (2019) Quick Response Freight Methods, USDOT, Federal Highway Administration, Office of Planning and Environment Technical Support Services for Planning Research. - FHWA (2001) Transportation Performance Measures Toolbox, Operations, Federal Highway Administration. - Oum, T.H. et al. (1992), “Concepts, Methods and Purposes of Productivity Measurement in Transportation”, Transportation Research – A, 26A(6), pp. 493-505. - Thiry, B. and H. Tulkens (1989) “Productivity, Efficiency and Technical Progress. Concepts and Measurement”, Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 60(1), pp. 9-42. - TRB (1994) Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report 209, Transportation Research Board. - United Nations (2003) Cost Benefit Analysis of Transport Infrastructure Projects. New York: United Nations. - Vickerman, R. (2007) “Cost-Benefit Analysis and Large-Scale Infrastructure Projects: State of the Art and Challenges”, Environment and Planning B, Vol. 34, pp. 598-610. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.8 - Route Selection and Traffic Assignment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/) **Published:** November 28, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transportation seeks to minimize the effort of moving passengers and freight between locations. A component of this effort involves route selection. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Route Selection](#1_Route_Selection) - [2. Evaluating the Route Selection Process](#2_Evaluating_the_Route_Selection_Process) - [3. Traffic Assignment](#3_Traffic_Assignment) - [4. Traffic and its Properties](#4_Traffic_and_its_Properties) - [5. Traffic Maximization and Costs Minimization](#5_Traffic_Maximization_and_Costs_Minimization) # 1. Route Selection Human beings are natural **effort minimizers**, notably when it involves moving around. When given the opportunity, they will always try to choose the shortest path to go from one place to another. This behavior commonly characterizes pedestrians. When possible, a pedestrian will walk over a lawn, zigzag by cars in a parking lot, or cross a street sideways between intersections if the route selected enables them to reach a destination faster. Transportation, as an economic activity, replicates this process of minimization, notably by trying to minimize the friction of distance between locations. Shorter times and lower costs are looked upon by all transport users, from individuals managing their own mobility to multinational corporations managing complex supply chains. For an individual, it is often only a matter of convenience, but for a corporation, it is strategically important as a direct monetary cost is involved. Under such circumstances, numerous methods have been developed to deal with the complex issue of route selection. One such classic application is the “[traveling salesperson](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19791)” problem, where the shortest route has to be selected from a set of possible paths. Route selection has two major dimensions: - **[Construction](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/topography-route-selection/ "The Effects of Topography on Route Selection")**. Involves activities related to the setting of transport networks, such as road and rail construction where a physical path has to be traced. Among the primary considerations are factors such as distance and topography. - **[Operation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/effect-transport-costs-route-selection/ "Effect of Transport Costs on Route Selection")**. Concerns the management of flows in a network. This is the most common route selection activity since it considers routes as fixed entities and seeks an optimal path considering existing constraints. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/traveling_salesperson_problem.png?resize=900%2C446&ssl=1 "The Traveling Salesperson Problem | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Traveling Salesperson Problem![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/topography_route_selection2.png?resize=900%2C562&ssl=1 "The Effects of Topography on Route Selection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Effects of Topography on Route Selection![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/effect_transport_costs_route_selection.png?resize=900%2C461&ssl=1 "Effect of Transport Costs on Route Selection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Effect of Transport Costs on Route Selection# 2. Evaluating the Route Selection Process The choice of linking a location to another, and more importantly, the path selected, is part of a route selection process that respects a set of constraints. Although route selection varies by mode, the underlying principles remain similar; in its most simple form, a route selection process (R) tries to respect these general constraints: **R = f(min C : max E)** Route selection tries to find or use a path minimizing costs (C) and maximizing efficiency (E). There are two major dimensions of this function: - **Cost minimization**. A good route selection should minimize the overall costs of the transport system. This implies construction as well as operating costs. The most direct route is not necessarily the least expensive, notably if rugged terrain is concerned, but a direct route is usually selected. It also implies that route selection must be the least damageable to the environment if environmental consequences are considered. - **Efficiency maximization**. A route must support economic activities by providing a level of accessibility, thus fulfilling the needs of regional development. Even if a route is longer and thus more expensive to build and operate, it might provide better services for an area. Its efficiency is thus increased at the expense of higher costs. In numerous instances, roads were constructed more for political reasons than for meeting economic considerations. Route selection is consequently a [compromise](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19804) between the cost of a transport service and its efficiency. Sometimes, there are no compromises, as the most direct route is the most efficient. At other times, a compromise is very difficult to establish as cost and efficiency are inversely proportional. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cost_minimization_efficiency_maximization.png?resize=900%2C388&ssl=1 "Cost Minimization and Efficiency Maximization in Route Selection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Cost Minimization and Efficiency Maximization in Route Selection# 3. Traffic Assignment Contemporary transportation networks are intensively used and congested to various degrees, notably road transportation systems in urban areas. Less known is the spatial logic behind the generation, attraction, and distribution of traffic on a network. There are two important concepts related to understanding traffic in transport systems: - The **transport demand** between places must either be known or estimated. For instance, the gravity model offers a methodology to assess potential flows between locations if a set of attributes are known, such as respective distances and emission and attraction variables. - The **transport supply** between places must also either be known or estimated. This involves establishing a set of paths between places that are generating and attracting movements. This includes the geometric definition of transport networks with the graph theory. However, a fundamental concept is absent: how traffic is distributed in a transport network when its structure, capacity, and spatial demand are known. > A [traffic assignment problem](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traffic-assignment-problem/ "Traffic Assignment Problem") is traffic distribution in a network considering a demand between a set of locations and the transport supply of the network. Assignment methods are looking to model the distribution of traffic in a network according to a set of constraints, notably related to transport capacity, time, and cost. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/traffic_assignment_problem.png?resize=900%2C370&ssl=1 "Traffic Assignment Problem | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Traffic Assignment ProblemPurchasing an airplane ticket is a classic traffic assignment example. For instance, a potential traveler wishes to go from city A to city B at a specific date and time. A query to a reservation system will offer a set of choices (paths) along with a price quote for each path. The traveler will likely choose the least expensive path, which may not necessarily be a direct path and may involve a transfer at an intermediate airport C. When tens of thousands of travelers make these daily decisions, assigning passengers to paths (air service) becomes a very complex task for airlines and their reservation (traffic assignment) system. On the other hand, airline companies use these decisions to adjust their transport supply (mainly flights) to match the demand as closely as possible. This type of problem can be solved using optimization methods. # 4. Traffic and its Properties Traffic is the number of units passing on a link in a given period of time, and it is commonly represented by Q(a,b), that is, the amount of traffic passing on the a,b link (between a and b). Units can be vehicles, passengers, tons of freight, etc. Because of the characteristics of transportation networks, there are two major types of traffic flows: - **Uninterrupted traffic**. Traffic regulated by vehicle-vehicle interactions and interactions between vehicles and the transport infrastructure. The most common example of uninterrupted traffic is a highway. - **Interrupted traffic**. Traffic regulated by an external means, such as a traffic signal, often creates queuing. Under interrupted flow conditions, vehicle-vehicle interactions and vehicle-infrastructure interactions play a less important part. The most common example of interrupted traffic in urban circulation is regulated by traffic signals such as lights and stop signs. Traffic is not a spatial interaction as an interaction represents movements between locations (origins and destinations), while traffic represents movements on network links. Traffic could be similar to an interaction when the transport network is equal to the set of Origin / Destination (O/D) pairs, but this is very unlikely. - Traffic is represented in a graph (network) by its **value**; the number of any units flowing (cars, people, tons, etc.). The intensity of the traffic is proportional to the load of the network. - Traffic is also represented in a graph by its **assignment**; how the traffic is distributed on a graph according to supply and demand. Traffic is assigned on a network according to a sequence of links where every link has its value and direction where several conditions must be satisfied: - The graph must have nodes where traffic can be generated and attracted. These nodes are generally associated with centroids in an O-D matrix. - The minimal (l(a,b)) and maximal (k(a,b)) capacities of every link must be respected. k(a,b) is the transport supply on the link (a,b). - Transport demand must be respected. The O/D matrix has equal inputs and outputs (closed system). - There is a conservation of the traffic at every node that is not an origin or a destination. There are also two general network traffic measures: maximum load and load. > **Maximum Load** (ML): Number of traffic units a network can support at any time. The maximal load is the summation of the capacity of all links. ![\large ML = \displaystyle\sum_{a} \sum_{b} k(a,b) ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clarge+ML+%3D+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Ba%7D+%5Csum_%7Bb%7D+k%28a%2Cb%29++&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) > **Load** (L): Number of traffic units that a network supports while fulfilling a transport demand. Load is the summation of the traffic of all links. ![\large L = \displaystyle\sum_{a} \sum_{b} Q(a,b) ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clarge+L+%3D+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Ba%7D+%5Csum_%7Bb%7D+Q%28a%2Cb%29++&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) When the load of a network reaches the maximum load, congestion is reached. # 5. Traffic Maximization and Costs Minimization Traffic in a transportation network can be represented from two perspectives, [traffic maximization and costs minimization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/perspectives-considering-traffic/ "Two Perspectives for Considering Traffic"). Traffic maximization involves the determination of the maximal transport demand that a network or a section of a network can support between its nodes. ![\large \displaystyle Max: Q(a,b), \forall (a,b) \\ ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clarge+%5Cdisplaystyle+Max%3A+Q%28a%2Cb%29%2C+%5Cforall+%28a%2Cb%29+%5C%5C+&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) ![subject \; to: \\ ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=subject+%5C%3B+to%3A+%5C%5C+&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) ![Q(a,b) \leqslant k(a,b) ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=Q%28a%2Cb%29+%5Cleqslant+k%28a%2Cb%29+&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) It involves maximizing traffic for all links, where the traffic on links must be equal to or lower than the link’s capacity. For simple networks, this procedure can be [solved heuristically](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-traffic-maximization/ "Heuristic Method for Traffic Maximization"). Cost minimization involves determining the minimal transport costs considering a known demand. Transport costs on a link are expressed by g(Q(a,b)) and the minimization function by: ![\large \displaystyle Min: \sum_a \sum_b g(Q(a,b)), \\ ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clarge+%5Cdisplaystyle+Min%3A+%5Csum_a+%5Csum_b+g%28Q%28a%2Cb%29%29%2C+%5C%5C+&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) ![subject \; to: \\ ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=subject+%5C%3B+to%3A+%5C%5C+&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) ![Q(a,b) \leqslant k(a,b) \\ ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=Q%28a%2Cb%29+%5Cleqslant+k%28a%2Cb%29+%5C%5C+&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) ![Q(a,b) \geq l(a,b) \\ ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=Q%28a%2Cb%29+%5Cgeq+l%28a%2Cb%29+%5C%5C+&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) This equation aims to minimize the summation of transport costs (global cost) of each link subject to capacity constraints. Again, for simple networks, the procedure can be [solved heuristically](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-cost-minimization/ "Heuristic Method for Cost Minimization"). Several types of costs are involved in the minimization procedure: - The global cost is the sum of transport costs for every link of a network, considering the demand. - The average cost expresses the transport cost per unit in a network considering the demand (global cost/load). It often varies with the demand. - The marginal cost expresses the costs incurred to transport a supplementary unit in a network considering an existing demand. The more a network is congested, the higher the marginal cost. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/perspectives_traffic.png?resize=900%2C351&ssl=1 "Two Perspectives for Considering Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Two Perspectives for Considering Traffic![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/heuristic_traffic_maximization.png?resize=900%2C477&ssl=1 "Heuristic Method for Traffic Maximization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Heuristic Method for Traffic Maximization![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/heuristic_cost_minimization.png?resize=900%2C475&ssl=1 "Heuristic Method for Cost Minimization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Heuristic Method for Cost Minimization--- ## Bibliography - Cambridge Systematics (2019) Quick Response Freight Methods, USDOT, Federal Highway Administration, Office of Planning and Environment Technical Support Services for Planning Research. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.17 - Logistics Policies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/) **Published:** December 10, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Logistics policies cover a range of freight distribution activities related to modes, terminals and warehousing. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Context](#1_Context) - [2. The Three Pillars of Logistics Policies](#2_The_Three_Pillars_of_Logistics_Policies) - [3. Coordination and Implementation](#3_Coordination_and_Implementation) # 1. Context To better adapt to the growing complexity of the transportation system, there has been an emerging shift in transportation policy towards a set of **logistics policies**. They cover a wider range of activities, such as transportation modes and terminals, warehousing, and manufacturing. The emerging preponderance of logistics is challenging the scale (integrating global, regional, and local considerations) and scope (across modes) of transport policy, which needs to be expanded into a more comprehensive framework. However, this expansion must consider specific policy challenges: - **Cross-sectorial issues**. Logistics brings within the realm of policy several actors outside the transport sector that policymakers are not well prepared to deal with. For instance, supply chain management involves transportation, distribution, and manufacturing aspects, which are conventionally considered separate sectors. Thus, the cross-sectorial characteristics of logistics require new information and knowledge to support public policy. - **Cross-jurisdictional issues**. Logistics brings complex relationships and linkages across several functional (such as modes) and geographical jurisdictions. Standard transport policy is commonly articulated around modes that are viewed as independent and subject to well-defined jurisdictions (e.g. specific ministries). The cross-jurisdiction characteristics of logistics require new realms of engagement and intervention of public policy. - **Transnational actors**. Many actors supporting logistics have a strong transnational presence, operating in several countries and regions of the world. This is particularly the case for 3/4PLs, which are highly globalized entities. These actors often have more leverage than the public authorities they interact with, particularly when it involves setting concessions. The transnational character of logistics requires the consideration of trade and transactions as a policy issue. # 2. The Three Pillars of Logistics Policies Considering these challenges, logistics and public policy can interact over **three main pillars**, each offering a realm of potential intervention. - **Actors**. Who controls and manages logistical activities? - **Operations**. What are the logistical activities being performed? - **Outcomes**. How does the logistics performance meet the criteria of the industry? Each pillar underlines to what extent its components are effectively meeting national goals or the requirements of the industry and the [major bottlenecks in their implementation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policy-bottlenecks/ "Logistics Policy Bottlenecks"). Are customs procedures effective? Is there enough capacity at terminals and connectors to meet existing and anticipated needs? Is the workforce sufficient and adequately trained to meet the needs of the industry? Is the public sector able to manage its regulations effectively? ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_policy_bottlenecks.png?resize=300%2C241&ssl=1 "Logistics Policy Bottlenecks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistics Policy Bottlenecks Shortcomings over any of these issues should be investigated and **trigger appropriate policy responses**. A common observation is that logistics policy should avoid directly dealing with operational issues since these aspects should ideally be addressed by the private sector. Public policy should remain an enabler and support for logistics activities, not a provider of logistics services, unless these services are substantially inadequate. # 3. Coordination and Implementation Logistics policies fill an essential gap in coordinating the development of transport infrastructure and the economic activities that generate commercial and trade flows. They are mainly articulated around: - Improving **[trade facilitation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-trade-facilitation/ "Improving Trade Facilitation")** through the simplification, harmonization, and standardization of trade procedures and the setting of free zones. - Improving the **[connectivity of](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6336)[ ](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-global-interface/ "Improving the Connectivity of Logistics")[logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6336)**[ ](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6336)with gateways, corridors, and hinterland accessibility strategies. - Providing a **[footprint for logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-land-base/ "Providing a Footprint for Logistics")** with the setting of logistics zones and inland ports. - Developing **[logistics capabilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-capabilities/ "Developing Logistics Capabilities")** by expanding labor and logistical services skills. - Supporting **[digitalization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6351)** such as freight portals (single windows) and port community systems. - Developing **[sustainable logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-niche/ "Promoting Sustainable Logistics")**[ ](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6357)with infrastructures and services promoting unique comparative advantages, including green logistics strategies. - Improving **[last-mile logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-urban/ "Improving Urban Logistics")** with city logistics. Many final deliveries are taking place in a congested context with difficulties in accessing the final destination, including parking. Governments are facing the **challenge of coordinating logistics policies** since the governance structure of many organizations focuses on specific infrastructures, modes, and locations. This can require the setting of new governance structures with a focus on logistics or the development of a consortium regrouping the key stakeholders. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_trade_facilitation.png?resize=900%2C573&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Improving Trade Facilitation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/logistics-policies-trade-facilitation/logistics_policy_trade_facilitation/)Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Improving Trade Facilitation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_improving_connectivity_logistics.png?resize=900%2C573&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Improving the Connectivity of Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/logistics-policies-global-interface/logistics_policy_global_interface/)Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Improving the Connectivity of Logistics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_footprint_logistics.png?resize=900%2C573&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Providing a Footprint for Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/logistics-policies-land-base/logistics_policy_land_base/)Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Providing a Footprint for Logistics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_logistics_capabilities.png?resize=900%2C572&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Developing Logistics Capabilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/logistics-policies-capabilities/logistics_policy_logistics_capabilities/)Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Developing Logistics Capabilities[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_promoting_sustainable_logistics.png?resize=900%2C572&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Promoting Sustainable Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/logistics-policies-niche/logistics_policy_niche_logistics/)Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Promoting Sustainable Logistics[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_digitalization.png?resize=900%2C572&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Supporting Digitalization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/logistics-policies-information/national_logistics_policies_digitalization/)Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Supporting Digitalization[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_urban_logistics.png?resize=900%2C572&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Improving Urban Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/logistics-policies-urban/national_logistics_policies_urban_logistics/)Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Improving Urban Logistics--- ## Bibliography - Rodrigue, J-P (2017) “L’intégration de la logistique dans les politiques publiques : Enseignements des experiences internationales” in Promouvoir l’investissement dans la chaine logistique en Tunisie: Le role des politiques publiques, Paris: OECD. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Mini Hand Tractor Used for Providing Mobility, Phosavan, Laos](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mini-hand-tractor-mobility-phosavan-laos/) **Published:** April 15, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tractor_phosavan_laos.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Mini Hand Tractor Used for Providing Mobility, Phosavan, Laos | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mini Hand Tractor Used for Providing Mobility Phosavan Laos*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2003.* Mini hand tractors are small agricultural equipment diesel-powered devices designed to plow fields, usually of small size. Many are manufactured in China and exported to developing economies as affordable equipment for small farmers. They are simple to repair, implying that local skills can maintain the equipment in operating conditions without resorting to complex parts and repair procedures. While they were initially introduced as an affordable means to mechanize agricultural field work, mini hand tractors turned out to be highly versatile in their use, which included their adaptation to carry passengers and goods over short distances within rural communities. In the above photo, a mini hand tractor has been latched to a small trailer to carry goods (pork meat) to the local market (Phosavan, Laos). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mini-hand-tractor-mobility-phosavan-laos/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mini-hand-tractor-mobility-phosavan-laos/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mini-hand-tractor-mobility-phosavan-laos/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mini-hand-tractor-mobility-phosavan-laos/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Appendix A - Methods in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** Transportation is not a science but a field of inquiry and application. As such, it tends to rely on specific methodologies since transportation is a **performance-driven activity**, and this performance can be measured and compared. Transportation planning and analysis are **interdisciplinary by nature**, involving civil engineers, economists, urban planners, and geographers. Each discipline has developed methodologies dealing with its respective array of problems. Still, transportation is infrastructure-intensive, implying that engineering has been the dominant methodological paradigm for transportation studies. The development of information technologies has allowed transportation geography to analyze an increasingly complex and data-rich set of methodologies. --- ## Overview - [A.1 – Methods in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6562) - [A.2 – Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6741) - [A.3 – Symbolization of Transport Features in a GIS](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/ "A.3 – Symbolization of Transport Features in a GIS") - [A.4 – Transportation and Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6945) ## Transport-Related Methods - [A.5 – Graph Theory: Definitions and Properties](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5976) - [A.6 – Graph Theory: Measures and Indices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5981) - [A.7 – Network Data Models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7585) - [A.8 – Route Selection and Traffic Assignment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19787) - [A.9 – Location-Allocation Models](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/ "A.9 – Location-Allocation Models") - [A.10 – Transport Technical and Economic Performance Indicators](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=19302) - A.11 – Traffic Counts and Traffic Surveys - A.12 – Transportation / Land Use Modeling - A.13 – The Lowry Model ## Multidisciplinary Methods - [A.14 – Location Analysis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=24490 "Location Analysis") - [A.15 – Market Area Analysis](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9293) - [A.16 – The Specialization Index and the Location Coefficient](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10279) - [A.17 – The Gini Coefficient](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9229) - [A.18 – Spatial Interactions and the Gravity Model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8565) - A.19 – The Policy Process - [A.20 – Transportation Environmental Management](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) - A.21 – Delphi Forecasting - A.22 – Cost-Benefits Analysis --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.9 - Location-Allocation Models](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/) **Published:** April 29, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Location-allocation models look at assigning optimal location choices for facilities considering the distribution of the demand. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Context](#1_Context) - [2. The P-Median Problem](#2_The_P-Median_Problem) - [3. Linear Programming Method](#3_Linear_Programming_Method) - [4. Allocation Demonstration](#4_Allocation_Demonstration) # 1. Context Location-allocation models are designed to assess the most suitable location for a single or group of facilities to serve a defined demand. This demand is often expressed as a distribution of discrete points that can be of equal or different value. The model can be considered from [two different perspectives](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/location-allocation-principle/ "The Location-Allocation Principle"): - **Location**: The most suitable location(s) considering the demand distribution. Suitability is commonly the outcome of minimizing transportation costs, often using distance as a proxy. - **Allocation**: The most suitable allocation of flows from points of distribution to points of demand. As for location, suitability is commonly the outcome of minimizing transportation costs. Some demand points may turn out to be unserviceable. Location-allocation models consider factors such as the number of facilities (single or multiple), the cost of building and maintaining these facilities, their capacity or size, the variability of the demand, and the impedance between facilities and demand points. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/location_allocation_principle.png?resize=900%2C771&ssl=1 "The Location-Allocation Principle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/p_median_problem.png?resize=900%2C770&ssl=1 "The p-Median Problem | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The p Median Problem# 2. The P-Median Problem A core approach to location theory involves the [p-median problem](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/p-median-problem/ "The p-Median Problem"). It aims to locate a *p* number of facilities (at least one) to minimize the demand-weighted average cost or distance between demand nodes and the selected facilities(s). Most p-median problems can be considered from three perspectives: - **Number of facilities**. Simple problems consider locating a single facility such as a new store or distribution center. More complex problems consider a multitude of facilities and demand locations. - **Number, nature and distribution of locations to be served**. A demand point can be a single discrete location or the centroid of an area. Simpler problems consider a relatively small number of uniformly distributed demand points. [Complex problems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/weighted-median-location-amazon-distribution-facilities/ "Weighted Median Location of Amazon Distribution Facilities, 2023") consider a large number of demand points having different characteristics. - **Type of impedance**. Simple problems consider Euclidean distance, while complex problems consider impedance through navigation within an existing transportation network that can include several modes. Weber’s industrial location problem is the [earliest form of a p-median approach](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/weber-location-triangle/ "Weber’s Location Triangle") as it seeks to find an optimal location based on three considerations; two sources of supply and a market. The goal is to minimize the total transport cost, which should point to a single optimal location. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Amazon-Density-and-Median-1.png?resize=900%2C554&ssl=1 "Weighted Median Location of Amazon Distribution Facilities, 2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Weighted Median Location of Amazon Distribution Facilities 2023![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/weber_location_triangle.png?resize=900%2C668&ssl=1 "Weber's Location Triangle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Webers Location Triangle# 3. Linear Programming Method Linear programming aims to minimize an objective linear function subject to constraints, which has a wide array of applications. For transportation problems, it involves an allocation that considers several origins and destinations to optimize a solution by minimizing transport costs with fixed demand, origins, and destinations. It considers linear transport costs, known surpluses (origins), demands (destinations), and possible paths. Linear programming, consequently, is relevant to the field of logistics, as it enables assessing an optimal distribution system that can help set or improve a real-world distribution system. The linear programming formulation for a distribution problem is basically expressed as follows: ![\large Min: \displaystyle\sum_{a} \sum_{b} g(Q(a,b)) ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clarge+Min%3A+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Ba%7D+%5Csum_%7Bb%7D+g%28Q%28a%2Cb%29%29++&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) ![\large Subject \; to: ](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clarge+Subject+%5C%3B+to%3A+&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) ![\large Q(a,b) \ge 0](http://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clarge+Q%28a%2Cb%29+%5Cge+0&bg=ffffff&fg=000&s=0&c=20201002) Where *Q(a,b)* is the traffic between origin a and destination b, and g is a cost function. So *g(Q(a,b))* is the transport cost related to traffic *Q(a,b)*. This equation aims to minimize the summation of transport costs of each origin-destination pair. The traffic of each pair must be superior or equal to 0 (rule of non-negativity). # 4. Allocation Demonstration A supply chain manager is considering a distribution system between warehouses (A, B, and C) and customers (W, X, Y, and Z) and wishes to minimize global transport costs. The first issue concerns the generation of **demand and supply matrices**, where the number of units produced and consumed is the same, implying a market equilibrium. Any additional unit being produced would not be transported because there is no additional demand, and any additional demand will not be transported because there is no additional supply. The **transport cost matrix** (C) in dollars per unit transported between warehouses and customers is also available. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distribution_problem_formulation.png?resize=900%2C459&ssl=1 "Formulation of the Distribution Problem | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Formulation of the Distribution ProblemFor instance, it costs $20 to transport 1 unit from warehouse A to customer W. In the above figure, each warehouse and customer is a node, and each transport cost pair is a vector. With the data provided, linear programming can find an allocation with minimal transport cost. (Note: this problem can also be solved using the “Solver” add-in in Excel). Below is the heuristic method where relatively simple problems (matrix of about 5 by 5) can be solved. The first step is to **order the transport costs** for each cell by beginning with the lowest, which has a rank of 1, to the highest. The same rank is assigned to cells having equal costs. The outcome is a **cost ranking matrix** (R). In this matrix, take the cell with the lowest transport cost. In this case, it is the C-W cell ($10 per unit). Allocate the highest possible number of units to this cell. Subtract this number from the number of surpluses and demands for the respective row and column. Continue the same procedure by rank order until all surpluses are used, and all demands are answered (origins and destinations having 0). The result is the **allocation matrix** (A), representing the flows between the warehouses and the customers. Calculate the transport costs of this assignment by multiplying the flow of each cell in the allocation matrix by its related unit cost in the transport cost matrix (C\*A). The total transport cost of this allocation is $153,000. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/initial_allocation.png?resize=900%2C504&ssl=1 "Initial Allocation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Initial AllocationThe **estimation costs matrix** (E) must be built to find if this allocation is the least cost distribution. This process is stepwise. First, write down the transport cost per unit in each cell used in the allocation and leave the other cells blank. Second, put a value of 0 to the summation of the first row (row A) (**E1**). Third, use the value(s) of each cell in row A to find the summation of each column with a value. For this example, only cell A-W has a value (40), which means that the value 40 must be placed in the summation of column X (0 + 40 =40) (**E2**). Fourth, to summate the remaining rows and columns, enter the difference between column 1, row 1 and column 1, row *n* where *n* is the number of the current row. For the example, the next step would be to fill the summation cell of row B with the value of 20 since cell B-X has a value of 60, and the value of 40 is already in the summation cell of column X (**E3**). Fifth, continue the procedure until all the empty cells are filled, and keep in mind that cells must be the summation of the values at the summation of their respective rows and columns. The outcome is the completed estimation costs matrix (**E’**). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/estimation_cost_matrix.png?resize=900%2C429&ssl=1 "Estimation Cost Matrix | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Estimation Cost MatrixThe next step compares the estimation costs matrix (E’) and the transport cost matrix (C). There can be only two alternatives to this comparison: - First, if the **estimation costs are higher than the real costs**. In this case, the solution is not optimal, and a readjustment is necessary. - Second, if the **estimation costs are equal to or smaller than the real costs**. In this case, no readjustments are necessary since the assignment is optimal; therefore, a solution has been found. In this example, cell A-W in matrix E’ has higher estimation costs (50) than real costs (20). Cell A-Z also has higher estimation costs (60) than real costs (50). This assignment is not an optimal solution, and a readjustment is thus necessary. If a readjustment is necessary, choose the cell with the **highest difference** between its estimation and real costs. If two cells have equal differences, choose the cell with the smallest real costs. In this example, it is cell **A-W** having a difference of 30. Cell A-Z has a difference of only 10. Readjustments are done by transferring values between cells (partial or full flows). They are performed according to three rules. - First, transfers are done along a circuit from an unused cell by altering vertical and horizontal stages and using only occupied cells. - Second, each transfer is the exact opposite value of the other. - Third, the value of a transfer is determined by the maximum value that all cells could subtract while respecting the supply and demand constraints. For instance, 400 is the highest readjustment possible in cell A-W because cell A-X cannot subtract more since it would exceed the supply constraint of row A (warehouse A supplies 400 units). The outcome is a **new traffic allocation matrix** (A’) and its associated **transport cost matrix** (C\*A’). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/new_allocation.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "New Allocation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")New AllocationThe transport cost of this new allocation is $141,000, which is lower than the initial figure of $153,000. To confirm if this is the optimal cost, the estimation costs matrix is again generated (**E”**). No cell in this matrix has estimation costs higher than real costs. The solution is thus optimal ($141,000 is the minimal cost). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distribution_problem_solution.png?resize=900%2C374&ssl=1 "Solution to the Distribution Problem | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Solution to the Distribution Problem## References Daskin, M.S., Maass, K.L. (2015). The *p*-Median Problem. In: Laporte, G., Nickel, S., Saldanha da Gama, F. (eds) Location Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13111-5\_2 ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/?share=reddit) - --- ### [9.1 - The Nature of Transport Policy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dr. Theo Notteboom and Dr. Brian Slack > Transport policy tries to make decisions concerning the allocation of transport resources while transport planning is their effective implementation. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Policy and Planning](#1_Policy_and_Planning) - [2. The Relevance of Transport Policy](#2_The_Relevance_of_Transport_Policy) - [3. Policy Instruments](#3_Policy_Instruments) - [4. Policy Development](#4_Policy_Development) - [5. Changing Nature of Policy Interventions](#5_Changing_Nature_of_Policy_Interventions) # 1. Policy and Planning The terms policy and planning are used very loosely and are frequently interchangeable. However, substituting one for the other is misleading. Policy and planning represent **separate parts** of an overall process of intervention. There are circumstances where policy may be developed without any direct planning implications, and planning is frequently undertaken outside any **direct policy context**. However, precise definitions are not forthcoming, and the following are suggested: > **Transport policy** deals with developing a set of constructs and propositions that are established to achieve specific objectives relating to social, economic, and environmental conditions, and the functioning and performance of the transport system. > **Transport planning** deals with the preparation and implementation of actions designed to address specific problems. The goal of transport policy is to make effective decisions concerning the allocation of transport resources, including managing and regulating existing transportation activities. In contrast, transport planning is concerned with their effective implementation. Thus, transport policy can be concomitantly a **public and private endeavor** since undertaken within an organizational context, strategically allocating resources. Still, governments are often the most involved in the policy process since they either own, manage, or regulate many components of the transport system and have levels of jurisdiction over existing transportation modes. Governments also often perceive that it is their role to manage transport systems due to the essential public service they provide, in addition to imposing a [regulatory framework](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6304). Yet, many transport systems, such as maritime and air transportation, are **privately owned**, with firms servicing international markets that are able to set their policy. However, there are substantial geographical variations in ownership, with the United States having a history of private involvement. At the same time, Europe, China, India, and Japan have relied more on public ownership and operations. The standard rule is that the public sector usually provides transport infrastructure and the regulatory framework while the private sector assumes the provision and operations of many modes and terminals. With globalization and deregulation, the private sector has much leverage in the policy process through asset allocation decisions, reflected in new public transport policy paradigms. > **Public policy** is the means by which governments attempt to reconcile social, political, economic, and environmental goals and aspirations with reality. These goals and expectations change as the society evolves, and thus a feature of policy is its changing form and character. Policy tends to be dynamic and evolutionary. A major distinction between planning and policy is that the latter has a **stronger relationship with legislation**. Policies are frequently, though not exclusively, incorporated into laws and other legal instruments that serve as a framework for developing planning interventions. Planning does not necessarily involve legislative action and is more focused on the means of achieving a particular goal, often within the existing regulatory framework. Policy dictates while planning implements. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_regulations2.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Transport Regulations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Regulations# 2. The Relevance of Transport Policy Transport policies arise because of the importance of transport in virtually every aspect of the economic, social, and political activities of nation-states. Transport policy is undertaken by governments of all inclinations, from those that are interventionalist to the most liberal, as a vital factor in economic development. Transportation is key in promoting, developing, and shaping the national economy. Many development programs, such as the Appalachia Project in the United States in the 1960s, the Trans-European Networks (TENs) policy in the EU, and China’s Belt and Road Initiative, are transport-based. Governments and international institutions such as the World Bank also seek to promote transportation infrastructure and services where private capital investment or services may not be forthcoming. Paradoxically, the links between [transport and economic development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260) are sometimes questionable. Transport frequently is an issue in **national security**. Policies are developed to establish sovereignty or to ensure control over national space and borders. The Interstate Highway Act of 1956, which provided the United States with its [network of expressways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1864), was formulated on the grounds of national security. Security was at the heart of the more recent impositions regarding passengers or freight clearance at the port of departure in addition to conventional clearance at the port of entry. During the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, ports of entry were subject to scrutiny and restrictions as most passengers were forbidden to cross boundaries. Freight was much less restricted. Then, as vaccines became available in 2021, most countries only allowed admittance to vaccinated passengers subject to negative testing. Transport raises many questions about **public safety and the environment**. Public safety issues have, for a long time, led to the development of policies requiring driving licenses, limiting the working hours of drivers, imposing equipment standards, establishing speed limits, and mandating highway codes, seat belts, and other accident controls. More recently, environmental standards and control measures have been instituted in response to the growing awareness of the environmental impacts of transport. Examples include banning leaded gasoline in the 1990s and mandating fuel efficiency and emission standards. More recent policy endeavors concern reducing carbon emissions by the transport sector; and its decarbonization. Transport policy has been developed to prevent or control the inherent **monopolistic tendency** of many transport modes. Unrestrained competition commonly leads to market dominance by a company, thereby achieving (close to) monopoly power. Such dominance brings into question many issues affecting the public interest, such as access (smaller actors prevented access to infrastructure), availability (smaller markets being less serviced, or services being discontinued), and price (the monopolist being able to charge high prices). Other reasons for policy intervention include the desire to **limit foreign ownership** of such a vital industry for concerns that the system would be sidetracked to service more foreign than national interests. For example, the United States limits the amount of foreign ownership of its domestic airlines to a maximum of 49%, with a maximum of 25% control. Other countries have similar restrictions, at times forbidding foreign ownership of several transport assets altogether. This challenges the growth and expansion of transnational managers and operators of transportation assets and the large financial institutions supporting them, such as sovereign wealth funds. In recent years, four trends had significant consequences over the context in which the transport policy takes place: - **Globalization** increased interactions at the international level, both for freight and passengers. This led to the emergence of large actors managing a portfolio of modes and infrastructures across international jurisdictions and, therefore, dealing with a variety of transport policies and regulations. - **Deregulation and privatization** have been ongoing in many transport markets. This enabled the transfer of ownership and operation of many transport modes to the private sector and favored the entry of new actors. This was particularly the case in the airline industry. - **A broader focus of policies**, particularly considering intermodalism, multimodalism, and logistics. This has enabled better coordination of investments, improving the efficiency of interconnected transportation networks and the related supply chains. - A move toward **social and political issues** behind transport projects instead of technical and engineering issues. The policy process is becoming more responsive to public concerns over environmental externalities and social equity issues. This has led to the introduction of standards and benchmarking mechanisms such as [Environmental, Social, and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/environmental-social-governance-criteria/ "Environmental, Social and Governance Criteria") (ESG) criteria. However, this has also been linked with additional costs, delays, and controversy in developing and operating many large transportation projects. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Interstate-System-1.png?resize=768%2C523&ssl=1 "The Interstate Highway System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Interstate Highway System![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/esg_criteria.png?resize=900%2C308&ssl=1 "Environmental, Social and Governance Criteria | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Environmental Social and Governance Criteria# 3. Policy Instruments Governments have a [large number of instruments](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/transport-policy-instruments/ "Main Transport Policy Instruments") at their disposal to carry out transport policies. Some are **direct**, such as public ownership, but the majority are **indirect**, such as safety standards. The most common are: - A vital instrument concerns **public ownership**. The direct control by the state of transportation infrastructure, modes, or terminals is widespread. The most common is the provision by public agencies of transport infrastructure such as roads, ports, airports, and canals. Public ownership, in the form of a state enterprise or agency, also includes the operation of transport modes such as airlines, railways, ferries, and urban transit by public agencies. - **Subsidies** represent an important instrument used to pursue policy goals. Many transport modes and services are capital intensive, and thus policies seeking to promote services or infrastructure that the private sector is unwilling or unable to provide may be made commercially viable with subsidies. Private railroad companies in the Nineteenth Century received large land grants and cash payments from governments anxious to promote rail services. In the United States, the Jones Act, which seeks to protect and sustain a US-flagged merchant fleet, subsidizes ship construction in US shipyards. Indirect subsidies were offered to the air carriers of many countries in the early years of commercial aviation by awarding mail contracts. Dredging of ship channels and providing other marine services such as pilotage and navigation aids are subsidies to facilitate shipping. Most public transit systems are subsidized to provide mobility since full-cost recovery would make fares unaffordable to the poorer segments of the population. Both public ownership and subsidies represent instruments that require the financial involvement of governments. Revenue generation is becoming an increasingly important instrument in transport policy. - **Regulatory control** represents a means of influencing the shape of transportation that is widely employed. By setting up public agencies to oversee particular sections of the transport industry, governments can influence the entire character and performance of the industry. Agencies may exert control on entry and exit, controlling which firms can offer transportation services, at what prices, and to which markets. Environmental regulations are also important factors shaping the provision, construction, maintenance, and operation of transportation infrastructures. Thus, while private firms may offer the services, the regulator plays a determining role. Regulatory agencies in the United States, such as the Civil Aeronautics Board, played a critical role in shaping the US airline industry for decades. - Many governments are major promoters of **research and development** in transportation. Government research laboratories are direct products of state investments in R&D, and much of university and industry R&D is sustained by government contracts and programs. The outcomes of this research are significant to the industry. It is a vital source for innovation and the development of new technologies, including a testbed for technical and commercial feasibility. Besides, educational institutions commonly funded by public resources provide operators, managers, and analysts for the private transport sector. With the growing role of information technologies, influencing research and education programs became even more salient. - **Labor regulations** pertaining to employment, training, and certification conditions may not be directed purposefully at influencing transport. Still, as a policy, they may exert a significant effect on the industry since it impacts its operating costs. - **Safety and operating standards**, such as speed limits, may have a similar effect. The restrictions on limiting the number of hours a truck driver may work may be instituted for safety reasons and to enhance the working conditions of drivers. Still, they shape the economics of truck transport. Similarly, speed limits help fix the distance of daily trips that one driver may undertake, thereby shaping the rate structure of the trucking industry. A common issue concerning policy instruments is that they may have **unintended consequences**, particularly if they are indirect effects. For instance, taxation and subsidies could influence one mode to the advantage of others, even if they are more efficient. There is a risk that selecting a proper alternative is the outcome of a policy decision instead of market forces. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/main_transport_policy_instruments.png?resize=900%2C374&ssl=1 "Main Transport Policy Instruments | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Transport Policy Instruments# 4. Policy Development Public policies reflect the **interests of decision-makers** and their approaches to solving transport problems. These interests and approaches are **place-specific** (they apply to a particular area of jurisdiction) and **time-specific** (they are established to reflect the conditions of transport and the intended solutions at a point in time). Policies are **dynamic**. They change and evolve as circumstances change and as new problems are recognized. The dynamic nature of policymaking is reflected in how the policy instruments have been employed over the years. In the 19th Century, when many of the modern transport systems were being developed, the prevailing political economy was one of laissez-faire, in which it was believed that the private sector should be the provider of transport services and infrastructure. Historical examples of private transport provision include: - **Turnpikes**. The [first British modern roads](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1118) in the 18th century were the outcome of private trusts aiming at deriving income from tolls on roads they built and maintained. It was likely the first massive private involvement in transport infrastructure provision. - **Canals**. Many of the [earliest canals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1128) were built with private capital. The [Bridgewater Canal](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/bridgewater-canal-manchester-1767/ "Bridgewater Canal, Manchester, 1767") was one of the first canals that helped spark the Industrial Revolution in Britain. - **Urban transit**. In most European and North American cities, private firms operated public transit systems. The earliest examples were horsecars that followed rail lines laid out on city streets. With electrification at the end of the 19th century, the horsecars were converted to streetcars, and the network was greatly expanded. In the 20th century, buses were introduced by private companies operating on very extensive route systems. - **Ships**. Most maritime shipping companies were private family-owned enterprises, some of which became large companies, such as the Cunard Line in the UK, MSC in Switzerland, or Maersk in Denmark. The primary government involvement concerns military navies and ferries. - **Railways**. Railways were developed by private companies during the 19th century. In [North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1999), this has continued to the present day. In Europe, deregulation mainly resulted in the emergence of private carriers, but the infrastructure remained publicly owned. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/turnpikes_uk_travel-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Turnpikes in Great Britain and Travel Hours from London, Late 18th and Early 19th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-turnpike-19th-century/turnpikes_uk/)Turnpikes in Great Britain Late 18th and Early 19th Century[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Barton-Aqueduct-1795-edited-for-web.jpg?resize=676%2C506&ssl=1 "Bridgewater Canal, Manchester, 1767 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/bridgewater-canal-manchester-1767/barton-aqueduct-1795-edited-for-web/)Bridgewater Canal Manchester 1767[![Map Canals 19th Century United States](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Northeast-Canal-System-19th-Century-1.png?resize=900%2C663&ssl=1 "Major Canals Built in the 19th Century, American Northeast | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/american-canals-19th-century/map-northeast-canal-system-19th-century-1/)Major Canals Built in the 19th Century American Northeast[![Map Rail North America](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Network_Ownership_2021.png?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Ownership of Major North American Rail Lines, 2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-ownership-north-america/map_na_network_ownership_2021/)Ownership of Major North American Rail Lines 2017However, this situation was not entirely without public policy involvement. The massive subsidies granted to European and North American railroads exemplify state intervention. In the early 20th century, the overprovision of rail lines (rail manias), competition between carriers, and market failures led to a crisis in many parts of the transport industry, particularly after 1918. This led to a growing degree of government involvement in the transport industry, both to offset market failures, jurisdictional conflicts and to ensure that services could be maintained for the sake of the “public good”: - In many cities, private bus companies were taken over by **municipally controlled transit commissions** in the 1930s and 1940s. - The airline industries in many countries were placed under the control of a **national public carrier**, for example, Air France, Trans Canada Airlines, and British Overseas Airways Corporation. In the United States, airlines remained private but subject to a high level of regulation in terms of the condition of their service. - The **nationalization of railways** in the first half of the 20th century occurred in most of Europe as well as in countries where rail transportation played an important role, such as Canada, Russia, China, Japan, and India. This allowed the consolidation of existing lines into national systems. In the United States, the system remained private but highly regulated. After the collapse of the Penn Central Railroad and several other lines in the 1970s, a publicly funded passenger system (Amtrak) was set up, and a publicly owned freight railroad was established (Conrail, which was sold to private rail companies in 1999). Governments eventually captured many segments of the private transport sector. In addition to the public ownership of transport modes, a growing amount of **regulatory control** emerged. The belief in liberal markets with limited public interference was seriously reconsidered after the crash of 1929 and the economic downturn of the early 1930s. From that moment on, governments were incited to extend the scope of their responsibilities. The public sector was an important trigger for the reconstruction of Europe in the aftermath of World War II (e.g. the Marshall Plan) for the modernization of the industrial structure and economic growth. Economic and social measures were directed toward the creation of the welfare state. The period from the 1940s to the 1970s was characterized by **nationalization** when socialist ideology was put into practice worldwide. For example, the European transport industry saw the emergence of large national companies in public transport, freight rail, ferry services, deepsea shipping, and the airline industry. These large nationalized companies could mobilize new resources and technologies, contributing to national economic growth and full employment goals. Nationalization was also common practice in newly independent nations that emerged with decolonization in the 1950s. Controlling key transportation infrastructure and economic sectors was perceived as central to sovereignty. For instance, Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956, and its management was put under the responsibility of a state agency. While centrally planned economic systems (such as the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China) involved **complete control by the public sector**, governments in Western Europe and North America were also major players in the market through market control systems up to the full nationalization of industries considered to be of strategic importance to economic development and external trade. The airline and the trucking industries saw entry limited by permits, and routes and rates were fixed by regulatory boards set up to control the industries. At the same time, greater safety regulations were being imposed, and working conditions were increasingly being shaped by labor legislation. By the 1960s, transportation had become under the sway of public policy initiatives that exerted an enormous influence on industries and their spatial structures. At the same time, a growing body of evidence indicated that public ownership and regulation were not always in the public interest. Transportation costs that were fixed by the regulatory authorities were maintained at higher levels than necessary. Many regulatory boards had been captured by those they were supposedly regulating, so they frequently acted to protect industries rather than the public. At the same time, there was a public finance crisis in many countries, where the costs of operating the state-owned transportation industry were seen to be unsustainable. The **theory of contestability** repudiated traditional economic theory concerning monopoly power by arguing that the threat of entry of a new actor was sufficient to thwart a monopolist’s ability to impose monopoly pricing. The key, therefore, was to relax entry thresholds by allowing new firms to start up, a process that regulatory boards were impeding. This evidence was brought into the public policy arena by politicians who espoused market-oriented views, notably President Reagan in the US and Prime Minister Thatcher in the UK. Although President Carter had initiated the first steps towards deregulation in the US in the mid-1970s, it was in the 1980s, during the Reagan presidency, that trucking, the airline industry, and the railways were largely deregulated. In the UK, there has also been a massive move to privatize most sectors of the transport industry, including state and most municipally-owned bus companies, the national airline, trucking, the railway, airports, and most seaports. [Deregulation and privatization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6316) policies have spread unequally to many other parts of the world. New Zealand has perhaps the most open transport policy, but many others, such as Canada and Australia, have made significant steps in this direction. In the EU, the pace of deregulation and privatization is proceeding unevenly. Subsidies to state-owned transport companies have been terminated, and many airlines have been privatized. Government-owned railroads still exist in France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, but the tracks have been separated from the traction and rail service operations. They have been opened to new service providers. In Latin America, most of the state-owned transport sector has been deregulated. While the former centrally planned states have had to make the furthest adjustments to a more open market economy, several, such as China, have opened large sections of the transport industry to joint ventures with foreign private enterprises. In China, many new highways and most major ports have been developed with semi-private capital under the umbrella and quasi-independent state enterprises. Thus, at the beginning of the 21st Century, transportation is under less direct government economic control worldwide than at any period over the last 100 years. Yet, privatization remains a [complex and contested](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/rationale-transport-privatization/ "Rationale of Transport Privatization") policy. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rationale_transport_privatization.png?resize=900%2C274&ssl=1 "Rationale of Transport Privatization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Rationale of Transport Privatization# 5. Changing Nature of Policy Interventions The [trends in transport policy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6319) in recent decades have been toward **liberalization and privatization**. This has not necessarily weakened the role of governments and their interventions in transportation. Quite the opposite, government regulatory oversight is well established and enforced. Controls over monopoly power are still in place, and even in the most liberal of economies, there is still strong evidence of public policy intervention: - **Ownership of ports and airports**. Terminals remain largely under State or municipal ownership, but concession agreements to private operators are common. - **Highway provision, upgrade, and maintenance** remain one of the most significant and enduring commitments of public funds. - **Urban transit systems** remain dominantly publicly owned and operated. Intercity transport is mostly private, which brings the question of whether urban transportation would gain to be privatized. - **Mergers, acquisitions, and alliances** between large private or public entities in the transport sector are commonly subject to regulatory approval to prevent monopolistic behavior. Alliances between major carriers, such as the maritime and air industry, are also sources of contention and regulatory oversight. Government policy orientations have changed, however. Governments are exerting greater control over **environmental and security concerns**, issues that are replacing former preoccupations with economic matters. For instance, because biofuel policies aimed at ethanol production using corn, the **unintended consequence** was a surge in global food prices as more agricultural land was devoted to energy production instead of food production. Sustainability and the environment are becoming significant issues for government intervention. Coastal zone legislation has made it increasingly difficult for ports to develop new sites. Air quality is a significant factor influencing the allocation of US federal funds for urban transport infrastructure. More recently, concepts such as equity and social justice have further blurred the allocation of transport investments into an ideological framework where policies aim at rectifying perceived inequities. In Europe, environmental issues have an even greater influence on transport policy. The EU Commission is promoting rail and short-sea shipping as alternatives to road freight transport. Despite economic justification, most transportation projects are subject to extensive environmental assessments, which may lead to delays and even a rejection of proposals. As a major source of environmental externalities, the transportation industry can anticipate further government environmental policy interventions. **Decarbonization** has become an important component of transport policy, with projects and investments assessed based on CO2 reduction and carbon neutrality. **Safety** has always been a policy issue. Legislation imposing speed limits, mandating seat belts, and other measures have sought to make travel safer. Screening of people and freight became a major concern after 9/11. The US government and international organizations, such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the International Civil Aviation Authority (ICAO), have instituted measures impacting operations and representing additional costs to the transport industry. During the COVID-19 pandemic, transport policies were subject to reassessment as the focus switched to supporting essential workers and ensuring that supply chains could function. Then, as demand surged, concerns shifted to port and hinterland congestion. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/public_transport_policy_perspective.png?resize=900%2C586&ssl=1 "Shift in Public Transport Policy Perspective | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Shift in Public Transport Policy Perspective![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/problems_government_intervention.png?resize=900%2C638&ssl=1 "Common Problems Linked with Government Intervention | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Common Problems Linked with Government InterventionWhile there may have been some reduction of policy involvement involving economic regulations, the influence of public policy on transport overall is still powerful but [contentious](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6322) at times. It must be acknowledged that capital investment by governments in transport infrastructure commonly follows **multiple and sometimes conflicting policy goals**. For instance, short term policy goals of job creation are usually incompatible with long-term goals such as economic growth and energy efficiency. The usual outcome is that projects with multiple policy goals reduce their economic benefit because of conflicting goals. Like policy in general, transport policy is driven by a **value system** that reflects aspirations. When the value system changes and evolves, it can generate discrepancies between concrete conventional policy goals of value creation and subjective social values. --- ## Related Topics - [9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6284) - [9.3 – Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6289) - [B.16 – The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8689) - [B.17 – Logistics Policies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/ "B.17 – Logistics Policies") - [B.22 – Rail Deregulation in the United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/rail-deregulation-united-states/ "B.22 – Rail Deregulation in the United States") ## Bibliography - Bailey, E.E. and W.J. Baumol (1984) “Deregulation and the Theory of Contestable Markets”, Yale Journal on Regulation, Vol. 1, pp. 111-137. - Banister, D. (2002) Transport Planning, Second Edition, Abingdon/Oxford: Routledge. - Goetz, A.R. (2002) “Deregulation, competition, and antitrust implications in the US airline industry”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 10, pp. 1-19. - Hogwood B and Gunn L.A (1984) Policy Analysis for the Real World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. - Notteboom, T. (2013) “Transport Policy Instruments”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds), The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage, pp. 281-292. - Stopher, P. and J. Stanley (2014) Introduction to Transport Policy, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. - Tolley, R. and B. Turton (1995) Transport Systems, Policy, and Planning. London: Longman. - van Wee, B., J.A. Annema and D. Banister (eds) (2013) The Transport System and Transport Policy: An Introduction, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation-Land Use Interactions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-land-use-interactions/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_land_use_interactions2.png?resize=900%2C445&ssl=1 "Transportation-Land Use Interactions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Land Use Interactions*Source: adapted from. Giuliano, G. (1995) “Land Use Impacts of Transportation Investments: Highway and Transit”, in S. Hanson (ed) The Geography of Urban Transportation, New York: The Guilford Press, p. 307.* Transportation and land use are part of a retroactive feedback system. Accessibility is shaped by the structure, capacity, and connectivity of transportation infrastructure, which is not uniform. Since accessibility differs, this attribute has an impact on land use, such as the location of new activities, their expansion, or densification. These changes will influence activity patterns in terms of their distribution and level of transport demand. Then, this change in demand will shape the planning, maintenance, and upgrade of transportation infrastructure and services such as roads and public transit. Again, these changes will further impact accessibility into a new interactive cycle. The interactions between transportation and land use are also part of a complex framework that includes economic, political, demographic, and technological changes. Changes in transportation technology, infrastructure investment, and service characteristics can alter overall accessibility levels as well as the relative accessibility of different locations. The recent trend towards [digitalization is providing a new impetus to urban mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/digitalization-of-mobility/) such as on-demand services and the availability of large amounts of information about the characteristics of urban travel, particularly traffic conditions. E-commerce by itself is generating an entirely new set of patterns in urban freight distribution, including home deliveries. Land use characteristics also affect activity patterns, such as zoning patterns and regulations, the availability of land, public utilities, and telecommunication infrastructure. Of special importance are the changes in trip generation, both for passenger and freight, which are influenced by economic and demographic changes. Obviously, population growth is a vector for additional transportation demand, but rising incomes are as well. Trip patterns may change in a number of ways, such as in terms of the number of trips, the timing of trips, their origin or destination, the mode, and trip chaining. These changes in travel demand exert considerable influence on the development of new transportation infrastructure or services. As such, the interactions between transportation and land use are often referred to as a “chicken-and-egg” conundrum since it is empirically difficult to demonstrate if transportation changes precede land use changes, or vice-versa. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-land-use-interactions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-land-use-interactions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-land-use-interactions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-land-use-interactions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Stakeholders in Urban Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/stakeholders-urban-freight-distribution/) **Published:** December 27, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/stakeholders_urban_freight_distribution.png?resize=900%2C533&ssl=1 "Main Stakeholders in Urban Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Stakeholders in Urban Freight Distribution*Source: adapted from Taylor, M.A.P. (2005) The City Logistics paradigm for urban freight transport. Proceedings of the 2nd State of Australian Cities Conference. Urban Research Program, Griffith University: Brisbane.* Four major stakeholders are shaping urban freight distribution: shippers, residents, freight forwarders, planners, and regulators. The strongest relation is between the shippers who provide goods and the residents who consume them, with freight forwarders acting on the shippers’ (beneficiary cargo owners) behalf. This is particularly important as shippers, and freight forwarders strive to fulfill consumers’ needs. Planners and regulators are trying to set rules under which urban freight distribution takes place with the multiple and, at times contradictory, aim of satisfying their constituents as well as commercial, transport, and distribution interests. Each stakeholder has its objectives, which can be difficult to assess for urban residents as they can form advocacy groups over an array of issues (congestion, quality of life, urban development projects, etc.). Under normal circumstances, the relations between the stakeholders tend to be neutral. However, when a challenge in city logistics emerges, the relationships between stakeholders are likely to change, which can lead to four possible outcomes: - **Conflicts**. Due to the scarcity of space, the density, and the complexity of the urban landscape, conflicts between stakeholders are common. They arise when the externalities imposed by urban freight distribution on local communities for existing or proposed projects are judged to be no longer acceptable by residents, planners, and regulators. Sometimes conflicts arise between the residents and planners over specific issues triggering classic NIMBY (Not in my backyard) responses. Legal recourses are attempted to stop a development project (e.g. a new distribution center) or to more strictly regulate an activity (e.g. access to a commercial district or parking). - **Cooperation**. Usually achieved when additional mitigation strategies are added to a project (change in design) or modes of operation. It is agreed through a consensus that the existing capacity will be used and shared more rationally. Public-private partnerships are examples where private goals and public interests can be mitigated. - **Competition**. Shippers and freight forwarders bid to access urban real estate and facilities for their operations. Freight forwarders also compete to attract and retain customers for freight distribution services. Commercial and residential developers compete within the land use zoning framework for real estate projects. - **Coopetition**. A specific form of collaboration between private stakeholders, particularly when a stakeholder cannot address an issue individually or is incited to do so by regulation. While they may compete over attracting and retaining customers, freight forwarders could be involved in shared operations. The consolidation of urban freight distribution activities is particularly prone to coopetition with shared facilities (e.g. urban distribution centers) or deliveries (shippers pooling their demand to negotiate better terms with a freight forwarder). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/stakeholders-urban-freight-distribution/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/stakeholders-urban-freight-distribution/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/stakeholders-urban-freight-distribution/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/stakeholders-urban-freight-distribution/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Typological Criteria for City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/typological-criteria-city-logistics/) **Published:** December 27, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/typology_criteria_city_logistics.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "Typological Criteria for City Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Typological Criteria for City LogisticsA number of criteria can be used to classify the urban context as well as city logistics: - **Urban criteria**. Cities can be represented according to their density level, spatial structure, how they are governed, level of economic development, and economic orientation (from cities with a strong manufacturing base to cities focusing on services). All of these criteria confer a wide range of circumstances in which city logistics can take place. - **City logistics criteria**. The main dimension over which city logistics takes place, such as operations (delivery schedules, routing), the involved modes and vehicles, the infrastructure and land use, as well as compliance with regulations (speed limits, parking restrictions). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/typological-criteria-city-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/typological-criteria-city-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/typological-criteria-city-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/typological-criteria-city-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Driving Factors for City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/driving-factors-city-logistics/) **Published:** December 27, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/driving_factors_city_logistics.png?resize=900%2C498&ssl=1 "Main Driving Factors for City Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Driving Factors for City Logistics### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/driving-factors-city-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/driving-factors-city-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/driving-factors-city-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/driving-factors-city-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Spatial and Functional Structure of Urban Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/spatial-functional-structure-urban-logistics/) **Published:** December 26, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/spatial_functional_urban_logistics.png?resize=900%2C387&ssl=1 "The Spatial and Functional Structure of Urban Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Spatial and Functional Structure of Urban LogisticsA city has a spatial and functional structure impacting the organization of activities, transport infrastructures, and freight distribution. The spatial structure is reflective of the distribution and the density of urban activities and it is usually divided into areas such as the central business district, the urban core, suburbia, and exurbia. The functional structure is composed of the infrastructures, modes, regulations, and operations supporting urban freight distribution. Suburbanization has impacted a large share of the global urban landscape and characterizes a specific context in which freight distribution occurs. Although suburbia is functionally integrated into the central city (CBD and urban core), it is also a distinct space with its consumption patterns. Suburban logistics differs from city logistics over two fundamental issues: - **Spatial structure**. The urban spatial structure is commonly [multipolar](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4760), of lower density, and involves higher consumption patterns (higher income levels). It is also in suburbia where large freight terminals such as ports, airports, and intermodal yards tend to be located. This implies that suburbia handles the majority of the interface between the metropolitan area and national as well as global freight distribution systems. At accessible locations (such as a highway interchange) suburban centers with commercial and office activities have emerged. They have become new nexuses of freight distribution, particularly if large-scale commercial activities such as shopping malls are concerned. Yet, the spatial structure is prone to diseconomies as lower population densities and a more disorganized land use pattern are associated with longer trips. - **Functional structure**. Suburbia faces less congestion than the central city, implying that last-mile constraints are less acute; parking difficulties are rarer, and full truck lengths/loads (e.g. 53-foot trailers in North America) are able to circulate on most of the major roads. Suburbia is thus an environment highly conducive to logistics as it offers accessibility to markets (the urban core as well as neighboring suburban areas), the availability of land as well as lower congestion levels. Through [logistics sprawl](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=181), terminal and warehousing activities that conventionally were located close to the city center have been replaced by terminal and modal specific clustering of logistics activities. - [Port-centric](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8490) and [airport centric](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3813) activities tend to support interactions between global and city logistics. Urban areas highly connected to the global maritime and air transport systems are commonly labeled as [gateways](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1416). - Road centric and [highway centric](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8255) activities involve a variety of supply chains and seek accessible locations with affordable land. - The growth of intermodal rail transportation, particularly in relation to port container traffic, has been prone to the setting of [rail centric](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8219) logistical activities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/spatial-functional-structure-urban-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/spatial-functional-structure-urban-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/spatial-functional-structure-urban-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/spatial-functional-structure-urban-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [City Functions and Urban Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/city-functions-urban-distribution/) **Published:** December 26, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/city_functions_urban_distributions.png?resize=900%2C608&ssl=1 "City Functions and Urban Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")City Functions and Urban DistributionThe city is jointly a place of production, distribution, and consumption of material goods and will thus generate material flows. The role and extent of these functions vary according to the historical and socioeconomic context of each city, commonly involving a specialization (e.g. financial cities, manufacturing cities). Globalization has changed the functions of production, consumption, and particularly distribution by expanding its role with terminals and logistics zones. Some cities, namely global cities, have become prime financial, cultural, transportation, and political centers, with production taking a more marginal role. With the growth of long-distance trade, many cities also play an intermediary role with the port and airport facilities articulating the commercial flows of vast markets. For instance, gateway cities interface global and regional freight distribution. The functions of consumption, production, and distribution are associated with various material flows, each representing a form of city logistics. For instance, retailing relies on urban deliveries originating from distribution centers, which themselves are likely to have been supplied through terminal haulage. The intensity level of urban freight distribution is usually clustered around large specialized generators, which come in four major types: - **Terminals**, such as ports, airports, and railyards, are highly localized entities with access points often supporting high traffic levels. Since terminals handle a wide variety of freight, it can be expected that they will enter urban areas as bulk, containers, full truckloads (TLs), and less than truckloads (LTLs). The market area of transport terminals is defined as the hinterland, which can involve destinations (logistics zones and manufacturing districts) within the city itself or flows having to transit through urban areas on their way to other destinations. The impact of a transport terminal on city logistics is obviously related to the intensity of the terminal activity, the supply chain it services, and the extent of its hinterland. - **Logistics zones** include warehouses, sometimes associated with clustered distribution and light manufacturing activities. Higher consumption levels and global supply chains have been a driving force in the setting and expansion of logistics zones. Co-location with a terminal facility has been a driving force, implying more efficient interactions because of proximity; freight has less propensity to enter urban areas. High land prices near terminals and central areas have also incited the development of greenfield logistics zones in peripheral areas, sometimes far away. - **Manufacturing districts**. In the contemporary setting, many production activities are related to global processes and elements of global value chains since they may produce finished goods. Still, they are more likely intermediate goods (e.g., parts). They are generators of producer-related urban freight movement involving all possible forms of road transport. Manufacturing districts are commonly associated with transport terminals, particularly for heavy industry. Still, manufacturing and logistics activities are often mixed as pure manufacturing or logistics areas are rare; standard manufacturing activities are common in logistics areas. The distinction between a logistics and a manufacturing zone can thus, on occasion, be blurred. For instance, many logistics zones were developed as industrial zones that attracted distribution centers instead. - **Commercial districts**. A core component of the urban centrality and the destination of the bulk of urban passenger flows. They concern consumer-related freight movements, mostly through retail activities usually supplied through LTLs (e.g. delivery vans and trucks). The clustering of office towers and large institutions (seats of government, universities, museums, etc.) is also a large generator of freight demand, such as parcels. Some central business districts also involve adjacent freight intensive activities such as rail yards and even port terminals, particularly in older cities or in cities having an important gateway function. As cities are increasingly polycentric, several commercial districts, such as urban subcenters, have emerged. Therefore, urban freight generators are commonly interrelated. For instance, a port district will involve maritime terminals but also nearby distribution centers and industrial activities. The same applies to airport districts that can experience a concentration of distribution centers and commercial activities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/city-functions-urban-distribution/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/city-functions-urban-distribution/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/city-functions-urban-distribution/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/city-functions-urban-distribution/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Conceptual Differences between Supply Chain Management and City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/conceptual-differences-supply-chain-city-logistics/) **Published:** December 26, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/conceptual_differences_scm_city_logistics.png?resize=900%2C474&ssl=1 "Conceptual Differences between Supply Chain Management and City Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Conceptual Differences between Supply Chain Management and City LogisticsAlthough supply chain management and city logistics can be confused, they relate to different issues and approaches. Supply chain management (SCM) is concerned with the organization of supply chains to reach goals. At the same time, city logistics seeks to regulate freight distribution activities (which are the outcome of SCM) to minimize potential disruptions in the urban landscape. Supply chains are usually managed by private corporations with economies of scale supporting a concentration within a few actors competing and transacting. City logistics takes place in a setting where a multitude of public actors are involved, including branches of government, advocacy groups, residents, and retail activities. The relations between these groups are often conflicting. SCM operates in a networking fashion, connecting suppliers, customers, and all the intermediary stages (such as distribution centers). City logistics mostly operates over a specific space characterized by different jurisdictions, uses, and densities. Last, SCM focuses on efficiency through an approach that seeks to maximize profits and minimize costs. City logistics seeks to achieve the goal of minimizing disruptions and, therefore, maintaining or improving the effectiveness of urban circulation; workers able to commute within an acceptable amount of time, residents able to undertake commercial and social activities without significant hindrance, and stores able to be supplied without disruptions in their inventories. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/conceptual-differences-supply-chain-city-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/conceptual-differences-supply-chain-city-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/conceptual-differences-supply-chain-city-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/conceptual-differences-supply-chain-city-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Core Relations Between Freight and Urban Areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/core-relations-freight-urban-areas/) **Published:** December 26, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relations_freight_urban_area.png?resize=900%2C438&ssl=1 "Core Relations Between Freight and Urban Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Core Relations Between Freight and Urban AreasTwo relations are at the core of freight distribution and urban areas; the land and distribution dynamics: - **Freight land dynamics**. Freight is an activity that consumes substantial land as an input, particularly at the aggregate level (routes, modes, and terminals). Since a city is simultaneously a unit of production, consumption, and distribution, terminal facilities, such as ports, airports, railyard, and distribution centers, are particularly large consumers of urban land. Rights of way, such as roads, many of which are shared with passenger transportation, also consume a significant amount of land. The amount of land use devoted to freight varies in terms of the socio-economic function of a city (e.g. a service or a manufacturing center) and its role in the global freight distribution system. - **Freight distribution dynamics**. The support of freight as an urban activity relies on distribution strategies, including modal choice, that ensure an adequate level of service so that providers of city logistics are able to meet the needs of their customers. City logistics is commonly known as a “last mile” distribution strategy to ensure that the needs of the urban producer and consumer of freight (e.g. retail) are met. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/core-relations-freight-urban-areas/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/core-relations-freight-urban-areas/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/core-relations-freight-urban-areas/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/geography-city-logistics/what-is-city-logistics/core-relations-freight-urban-areas/?share=reddit) - --- ### [International Seaborne Trade and Exports of Goods, 1955-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/international-seaborne-trade/) **Published:** November 8, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/international_seaborne_trade_exports2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "International Seaborne Trade and Exports of Goods, 1955-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")International Seaborne Trade and Exports of Goods 1955 2021*Source: World Bank. United Nations, Review of Maritime Transport.* The growth of maritime transportation is strongly correlated with the development of international trade since maritime shipping and ports are the primary physical support for international trade flows. From about 800 million tons of loaded cargo in 1955, maritime traffic exceeded 8 billion tons for the first time in 2007, representing 32,500 ton-miles. Yet, maritime shipping is subject to fluctuations as commercial opportunities change. Major fluctuations in the value of exports in the 1970s and 1980s were mainly linked with economic recessions associated with the first and second oil shocks (1973 and 1979). More recently, the development and rapid diffusion of containerized maritime transportation were linked to a growing trade of value-added commodities. For every $1,000 of exports, there is the equivalent of one ton of freight being shipped by maritime transportation. From the late 1990s, a growing disconnect took place between the volume and value of maritime trade, mainly due to the increasing added value of goods manufactured in Pacific Asia, rising energy (oil) prices, and the fragmentation of production since parts could be traded several times. The ratio between the value of exports and the volume of seaborne trade remained constant until the first oil shock in 1973, underlining little changes in the composition of maritime shipping. The first two significant changes in this ratio corresponded to the first and second oil shocks, implying that higher oil prices directly impacted the global value of exports. Afterward, the steady growth of the ratio was mainly attributed to the growth in the containerized trade of high-value merchandise, particularly at the beginning of the 21st century. By 2007, containerized cargo accounted for about 52% of the value of seaborne trade. The financial crisis of 2008-2009 represented the most significant setback in global trade since the Great Depression in the 1930s, but global trade and maritime shipping recovered afterward. The COVID-19 pandemic initially resulted in a decline in global maritime trade in 2020, but trade substantially bounced back in 2021 in part due to deferred demand and large stimulus packages. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/international-seaborne-trade/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/international-seaborne-trade/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/international-seaborne-trade/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/international-seaborne-trade/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Appendix B - Applications and Case Studies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** The concepts and methods of transport geography can be used in a wide range of applications and case studies that can be articulated around their social and economic impacts, the role that freight transportation plays, and the complex environmental and planning issues. --- ## Socioeconomic Issues - [B.1 – Teaching Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=748) - [B.2 – Transportation and Mega Urban Regions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7705) - [B.3 – Gateways and Transport Corridors in North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7652) - [B.4 – High-Speed Rail Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7457) - [B.5 – Transportation and its Bottlenecks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/ "B.5 – Transportation and its Bottlenecks") - [B.6 – Mega Airport Projects](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7535) - [B.7 – International Tourism and Transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9622) - [B.8 – Petroleum: A Transportation Resource](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6757) - [B.23 – The Digitalization of Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/digitalization-of-mobility/ "B.23 – The Digitalization of Mobility") ## Freight Issues - [B.9 – The Cold Chain and its Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6585) - [B.10 – Transportation and Blockchains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11189) - [B.11 – Freight Distribution Clusters (Logistics Zones)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8133) - B.12 – Third-Party Logistics Service Providers - B.13 – The Containerization of Commodities (Moved to [Port Economics, Management & Policy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/containerization-of-commodities/)) - [B.14 – The Logistics of Global Food Systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12791) ## Planning and Environmental Issues - [B.15 – Green Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6497) - [B.16 – The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8689) - [B.17 – Logistics Policies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/ "B.17 – Logistics Policies") - [B.18 – Climate Change and the Adaptation of Transport Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9422) - [B.19 – Transportation and Pandemics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8869) - [B.20 – The St. Lawrence Seaway and Regional Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9071) - [B.21 – The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9527) - [B.22 – Rail Deregulation in the United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/rail-deregulation-united-states/ "Rail Deregulation in the United States") --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Conditions Affecting Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-conditions/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/conditions_transport_costs2.png?resize=900%2C460&ssl=1 "Conditions Affecting Transport Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Conditions Affecting Transport CostsTransport costs are subject to a variety of factors: - **Geography**. Attributes related to distance are fundamental as distance is a function of energy and effort. This is impacted by the physiography, such as the landscape and the hydrography requiring detours and mitigation (e.g. bridges and tunnels). This conveys a level of accessibility to the transport market (supply and demand), implying differences in transport costs according to the location and position within the transport system. - **Type of product**. The characteristics of what is being transported impact costs. For passengers, amenities have to be provided, such as waiting areas and levels of comfort at terminals and inside conveyances. Product differentiation takes the form of classes, such as economy and business, related to pricing levels as a function of comfort and amenities. For freight, product differentiation is substantial as different goods require different forms of storage and stowage during transport. This is particularly the case with fragile and perishable goods, which result in higher transportation costs. - **Economies of scale**. Shipment size can result in different costs as the larger the shipment, the less cost per unit transported. Regional services by narrow-body planes have a higher cost structure per passenger-km than long-distance services by wide-body planes. Economies of scale are particularly prevalent in maritime shipping, resulting in substantial cost reductions when deploying larger ships. For movements such as commuting, this cost commonly takes the form of longer travel times in one direction. - **Imbalances**. Traffic flows are commonly imbalanced, implying that costs in one direction are higher than in the other. In a commercial system, full transportation costs must be assumed for return (backhaul) trips, so higher flows in one direction subsidize the lower flows in the other. - **Infrastructure**. Each transport infrastructure conveys capacity and operational conditions, which are related to its cost structure. More extensive infrastructure (e.g. wider roads, pavement) can be more expensive to build but result in lower transportation costs when prone to less congestion and higher operating speeds. A similar trend applies to terminals. - **Mode**. Each transportation mode has a distinct capacity and operating conditions, which involve a specific cost structure. While trucking offers flexibility and accessibility, it comes with a higher cost structure than rail. The same applies to traveling individually (e.g. by car) compared to traveling collectively (e.g. by public transit). Wages, fuel, and insurance, which are the main cost components, vary by type of vehicle. - **Regulations**. Specific operational conditions (e.g. speed limits, workforce certification, permits) and safety considerations (construction, operations) are associated with a transportation cost structure. Regulations may also relate to barriers to entry and competitive behavior (e.g. anti-trust regulations not allowing a merger or an acquisition to proceed). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-conditions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-conditions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-conditions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-conditions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Container Barge, Seine River](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/container-barge-seine-river/) **Published:** November 8, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/barge_fluvial_europe.jpg?resize=800%2C601&ssl=1 "Container Barge, Seine River | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Container Barge Seine River*Photo: Charlotte Paul.* Along with the main fluvial systems of Europe, such as the Seine River, several container barge services have been established between ports and their hinterlands. The above self-propelled barge is the largest being used on the Seine basin with 2,300 deadweight tons, a length of 105 meters, and a width of 9.5 meters. The bridge can be raised or lowered depending on the container stack height, which is 3 for this ship class that can carry about 50 TEU. It is also common for barge operators to carry a vehicle since the barge acts as their residence, and the car can be used for shopping and recreation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/container-barge-seine-river/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/container-barge-seine-river/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/container-barge-seine-river/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/container-barge-seine-river/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Global Trade Routes, 1400-1800](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-trade-routes-1400-1800/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Trade-Routes-1400-1800-1.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Major Global Trade Routes, 1400-1800 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Global Trade Routes 1400 1800From the 15th to the 19th century, a pattern of global trade flows emerged, mainly based on mercantilism. For centuries, China, India, and Southeast Asia have been the origin of trade flows dominated by luxury goods (spices, silk, tea, porcelain, etc.). This involved a positive capital flow as their trading partners did not have much to offer in exchange except cash (gold or silver). This pattern was strongly influenced by the fact that China and India accounted for about [half of the world’s GDP](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=492) during that period. The colonial involvement of Western European countries, starting in the 16th century, created new trade flows and resulted in European control of existing trade routes (especially the Asia trade). For instance, Spain and Portugal, the first European maritime powers, controlled much of the global flows in the 16th century through a colonial system. The first transoceanic long-distance trade networks in history were established. Global trade significantly changed in the 19th century when India was incorporated into the British Empire and when the Mexican War of Independence (1815) ended the Manila trade through Mexico. The lucrative Chinese trade fell into the hands of emerging Western colonial powers (England, France, United States) through the setting of treaty ports (e.g. Shanghai), and Southeast Asia was more intensively colonized (Dutch, English, French, and Spain). In the late 19th century, the scramble for Africa would result in the geopolitical fragmentation of the continent. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-trade-routes-1400-1800/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-trade-routes-1400-1800/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-trade-routes-1400-1800/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/global-trade-routes-1400-1800/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Potential Benefits of On Demand Services Compared with Conventional Taxi Services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/on-demand-services-taxi/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/benefits_on_demand_taxi.png?resize=900%2C853&ssl=1 "Potential Benefits of On Demand Services Compared with Conventional Taxi Services | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Potential Benefits of On Demand Services Compared with Conventional Taxi ServicesPotential Benefits of On Demand Services Compared with Conventional Taxi Services*Source: Adapted from: Cramer, J. and A.B. Krueger (2016) “Disruptive Change in the Taxi Business: The Case of Uber”, NBER Working Paper No. 22083.* On-demand taxi services, referred to as ride-sharing services (e.g. Uber, Lyft, and the Chinese Didi equivalent), have [significantly impacted the taxi industry](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=18702) since their introduction in the early 2010s. The evolution and growth of these services have reached a point where conventional taxi services cannot compete effectively and are losing market share. Empirical evidence underlines that on-demand services can increase the productivity of vehicles by between 30 and 50% compared with conventional taxi services. The main factors underlining the advantages of on-demand services include: - **Optimal matching**. On-demand services rely on advanced matching systems that try to optimally assign a driver (vehicle) to a passenger. This dominantly relies on mobile technologies to match geo-located demand and supply in real-time. This matching considers several factors and tries to optimize the system as a whole. For instance, a vehicle close to a customer may be assigned to a customer further away if assigning another vehicle would reduce the total travel distance. Additional options, including the willingness to share a ride with other passengers, are also offered. Comparatively, conventional taxi services usually assign drivers on an ad hoc basis (such as on-street hailing), which is often efficient (because of long-term knowledge of the demand) but does not work well with complex demand patterns with customers expecting a ride available within a few minutes. - **Scale effect**. On-demand services usually benefit from a scale effect by being able to offer services over a larger area and by being able to field more vehicles. They thus have a greater ability to match supply and demand across a metropolitan area and have drivers competing for customers. For instance, demand varies daily in different parts of a city, with vehicles being repositioned accordingly. Conventional taxi services are often limited to a specific area and are much less likely to be able to reach scale effects. - **Regulatory setting**. The conventional taxi industry is usually regulated, implying that service areas are defined, the number of vehicles controlled (often through quotas), and fares set. This framework of fixed supply, market areas, and fares was conventionally prone to rent-seeking behavior since users had limited choices. However, this system is also unable to respond effectively to competitive forces. - **Supply and fare flexibility**. An important advantage of on-demand taxi services is their ability to quickly adapt to changes in demand by increasing the number of vehicles and fares in acute mismatch situations. They adopt yield management strategies, known as surge pricing, where users are notified of the increase in the fare structure and, therefore, given the option to travel at a higher cost or delay their travel until fares decline. From a supply perspective, higher fares incite additional drivers to make their vehicles available, conferring a flexible mechanism to adapt supply with demand. Because of regulatory constraints, conventional taxi services usually offer a stable number of vehicles, often working in shifts, and are less able to adjust to demand changes. While fares usually remain the same, a surge in demand commonly involves users waiting longer to take a ride, particularly during peak hours. Due to their nature, ride-sharing services enable a more flexible workforce allocation since providers may decide the time they make their services available and can combine this type of work with other working opportunities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/on-demand-services-taxi/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/on-demand-services-taxi/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/on-demand-services-taxi/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/on-demand-services-taxi/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Forces Shaping the Diffusion of Information and Communication Technologies in Freight Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/information-communication-technology-diffusion/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/forces_shaping_ict_transportation.png?resize=900%2C306&ssl=1 "Forces Shaping the Diffusion of Information and Communication Technologies in Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Forces Shaping the Diffusion of Information and Communication Technologies in Transportation Three forces among others shape the diffusion and application of ICT over freight transport systems: - **Path dependency**. Transport systems are the outcome of substantial capital accumulation in assets that takes place over decades, which shapes operations and additional investments. There are sunk costs within transport systems that future innovation cannot effectively bypass. Infrastructures have been built, modes selected and specific locations have been reinforced. Thus, as the level of asset accumulation increases, sunk costs incite a path dependency where innovation, or at least available options, are increasingly limited. More than any other transport technology in history, containerization has geared global freight distribution in a path dependency that undermines future paradigm shifts toward new forms of distribution, but which is still significantly prone to incremental improvements. - **Asymmetry**. Different actors have a different level of access to information, which results in unequal power relations. A common pattern is that large transport firms have more information and the capacity to use it than small firms, for the simple reason that they operate a larger network and are thus able to better understand and shape the systems they are operating in. Asymmetry is also a competitive advantage as firms will not reveal comprehensive information about their general costs and operational characteristics (e.g. capacity, scheduling) to their customers and competitors. Competitiveness tends to alleviate asymmetry since competing firms will reveal more information about their services to capture and retain customers. Still, firms are reluctant to reveal their market intelligence and operational knowledge, which are essentially their business model. This is particularly the case for their deficiencies (such as spare capacity), which would enable customers and competitors to gain a temporary advantage. While there is always a price discovery mechanism at play influenced by market forces, several transportation systems operate in an oligopolistic environment, particularly the international segment, so a level of obfuscation is implicitly part of business strategies. Even with ICT, asymmetry is likely to endure in global freight transport systems as it enables a better level of information control within firms. - **Internalization**. Concerns an ICT strategy established by a firm to help take control of its management and decision-making processes. Information within the firm can thus be more efficiently collected, organized, and used. Thus, internalization appears to be a prevalent strategy of ICT development, which operates within the boundaries of the firm, but several channels/conduits can be established with partners and customers to ensure proper interactions. This can reinforce asymmetry as the more internalized an ICT system is, the less likely the involved firm will share the information and the associated business practices. An example of internalization would be between a maritime shipping company and a terminal operator that would share information, particularly if they are parent companies. However, the terminal operator may reveal little information to the port authority. There is a particular belief that ICT can help break these forces, particularly asymmetry, but it is more likely that ICT will reinforce them. Thus, the outcome will not necessarily be harmonizing ICT systems since asymmetry and internalization of powerful forces are embedded into business models, but a convergence towards better interoperability. The latter opens opportunities to establish specific information exchange schemes where the concerned players see mutual benefits; where cooperation provides more returns than competition. [Port community systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3549) are such an endeavor where cooperation leads to efficiency improvements since the maritime / land interface and its intermodalism are complementary. The setting of automated ledgers ([Blockchains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11189)) is also a tool allowing interoperability while keeping selected information internal to the firm. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/information-communication-technology-diffusion/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/information-communication-technology-diffusion/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/information-communication-technology-diffusion/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/information-communication-technology-diffusion/?share=reddit) - --- ### [ULTra (Urban Light Transport) System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ultra-urban-light-system/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ultra.jpg?resize=850%2C567&ssl=1 "ULTra (Urban Light Transport) System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")ULTra Urban Light Transport System![](img/ultra.jpg)*Source: Ultra Global Prt.* ULTra is an automated light transit system, a form of rapid transit, composed of small vehicles with a maximum of 4 passengers. It operates on its own guideway, which can be elevated or at ground level. The system is accessible through a set of stations, which are off-line, involving that loading and unloading have no impact on the flow of other vehicles (unlike a subway or LTR). The major difference with regular transit systems is that the vehicle is on-demand, semi-private, and will service only the requested destination, bypassing all the stations in between. It thus offers the potential of flexibility and privacy which is lacking in standard mass transit systems. In 2011, the first commercial application of the technology was inaugurated at Heathrow International Airport. The system, through a 4 km guideway, links a car park to Terminal 5 and has proved to be highly reliable. Technological advances in self-driving vehicles are likely to make guideway-based systems obsolete since it would no longer be required for the vehicles to operate on a separate system of circulation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ultra-urban-light-system/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ultra-urban-light-system/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ultra-urban-light-system/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ultra-urban-light-system/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Glossary](https://transportgeography.org/glossary/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ## A - **Absolute advantage**. A trade theory underlining the ability of an actor (an individual, firm, or country) to produce a greater quantity of a good, product, or service than competitors, using the same amount of resources. - **Access**. The capacity to enter and exit a transport system. It is an absolute term implying that a location has access or does not. - **Accessibility**. The measure of the capacity of a location to be reached by or to reach different locations. The capacity and the structure of transport infrastructure are key elements in determining accessibility. - **Aerodrome**. A defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations, and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and movement of aircraft. Aerodromes may include airports, heliports, and other landing areas. - **Aframax**. A tanker of standard size between 75,000 and 115,000 dwt usually carrying half a million barrels of oil. The largest tanker size in the AFRA (Average Freight Rate Assessment) tanker rate system. - **Agglomeration economies.** (see economies of agglomeration). - **Air cargo**. Total volume of freight, mail, and express traffic transported by air. Includes freight and express cargo such as small-package services, express services, and priority reserved freight. - **Air carrier**. Commercial system of air transportation, consisting of domestic and international scheduled and charter service. - **Air space**. The segment of the atmosphere is under a nation’s jurisdiction or under an international agreement for its use. They include two major components, one being land-based (takeoffs and landings) and the other air-based, mainly composed of air corridors. These corridors can cover altitudes up to 22,500 meters. Most commercial air transport services are limited to the use of predetermined corridors. - **Air transportation**. Includes companies that provide domestic and international passenger and freight services, and companies that operate airports and provide terminal facilities. - **Airport**. 1) An area of land or water that is used or intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of aircraft, and includes its buildings and facilities, if any; 2) Facility used primarily by conventional, fixed-wing aircraft; 3) A facility, either on land or water, where aircraft can take off and land. Usually consists of hard-surfaced landing strips, a control tower, hangars, and accommodations for passengers and cargo; 4) A landing area regularly used by aircraft for receiving and discharging passengers or cargo. - **Alternative fuels**. Low-polluting fuels which are used to propel a vehicle instead of high-sulfur diesel or gasoline. Include methanol, ethanol, propane or compressed natural gas, liquid natural gas, low-sulfur or “clean” diesel, ammonia, and electricity. - **Amtrak**. Operated by the National Railroad Passenger Corporation of Washington, DC. This rail system was created in 1970 and was given the responsibility for the operation of intercity, as distinct from suburban, passenger trains between points designated by the Secretary of Transportation. - **Arterial street**. A major thoroughfare used primarily for through traffic rather than for access to adjacent land, that is characterized by high vehicular capacity and continuity of movement. - **Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)**. Free trade area established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand, with the signing of the Bangkok Declaration. The members of ASEAN are Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. The Secretariat of the Association is located in Jakarta, Indonesia. - **Automatic Identification System (AIS)**. Transponders on shipping vessels that rely on radio signals to broadcast attributes such as position, ship number, heading, and speed. - **Average Vehicle Occupancy (AVO)**. The number of people traveling by private passenger vehicles divided by the number of vehicles used. - **Average Vehicle Ridership (AVR)**. The ratio of all people traveling by any mode, including cars, buses, trains and bicycles (or telecommuting), in a given area during a given time period to the number of cars on the road. A key measure of the efficiency and effectiveness of a transportation network – the higher the AVR, the lower the level of energy consumption and air pollution. ## B - **Backhaul**. Traffic for the return movement of a car or container towards the point where the initial load originated or to handle a shipment in the direction of the light flow of traffic. - **Balance of payments**. A record of receipts from and payments to the rest of the world by a country’s government and its residents. The balance of payments includes the international financial transactions of a country for commodities, services, and capital transactions. - **Balance of trade**. The difference between a country’s total imports and exports. If exports exceed imports, a positive balance of trade exists. - **Baltic Dry Index (BDI)**. Assessment of the average price to ship raw materials (such as coal, iron ore, cement, and grains) on a number of shipping routes and by ship size. It indicates the cost paid to ship raw materials on global markets and is an important component of input costs. The index is considered a leading indicator (forward-looking) of economic activity since it involves events taking place at the earlier stages of global commodity chains. - **Barge**. A non-motorized water vessel, usually flat-bottomed and towed or pushed by other craft, used for transporting freight. Dominantly used on river systems. - **Barrel**. A unit of volume equal to 42 U.S. gallons (or 159 liters) at 60 Degrees Fahrenheit often used to measure volume in oil production, price, transportation, and trade. - **Base period**. The period between the morning and evening peak periods when transit service is generally scheduled at a constant interval. Also known as “off-peak period”. The time of day during which vehicle requirements and schedules are not influenced by peak-period passenger volume demands (e.g., between morning and afternoon peak periods). At this time, transit riding is fairly constant and usually low to moderate in volume compared to peak-period travel. - **Base fare**. The price charged to one adult for one transit ride; excludes transfer charges, zone charges, express service charges, peak period surcharges, and reduced fares. - **Berth**. A specific segment of wharfage where a ship ties up alongside a pier, quay, wharf, or other structure that provides a breasting surface for the vessel. Typically, this structure is a stationary extension of an improved shore and intended to facilitate the transfer of cargo or passengers. - **Big data**. Automatically generated data sets that are so large or complex that traditional data processing applications are inadequate. They offer new opportunities for the analysis, capture, search, sharing, storage, transfer, visualization, and querying of information related to transportation, such as tracking individuals, vehicles, items, or loads. - **Bicycle**. A single-track vehicle this is human or motor-powered. Most are designed to carry one passenger, but some are designed to carry freight. - **Bike lane**. A right of way reserved for bicycle use. They can be purposely built or converted from existing rights of way, such as sidewalks, roads, or rail lines. - **Bill of lading**. A document that establishes the terms of a contract between a shipper and a transportation company. It serves as a document of title, a contract of carriage, and a receipt for goods. They take their origin during the Mercantilist era (17th century) as long-distance trade grew and merchants needed official evidence for a consignee to claim goods at a destination. - **Block**. A group of railcars destined for the same location or customer. - **Block hour**. The standard measure of aircraft utilization used by the airline industry. It is the time from the minute the aircraft door closes at the departure of a revenue flight until the moment the aircraft door opens at the arrival gate. - **Blockchain**. A distributed electronic ledger that records transactions in units called blocks stored on multiple servers (nodes) in a peer-to-peer network. Each time a new transaction occurs, a new block is created and appended to the existing blocks. They are often referred to as digital ledger technologies (DLT). - **Break-bulk cargo**. Refers to general cargo that has been packaged in some way with the use of bags, boxes, or drums. This cargo tends to have numerous origins, destinations, and clients. Before containerization, economies of scale were difficult to achieve with break-bulk cargo as the loading and unloading process was very labor and time-consuming. - **Break-even**. The volume of goods or services that must be sold for the business to make neither a loss nor a profit. Above this figure, the activity is making a profit, and below this figure, the activity is generating a loss. - **Bridge.** A structure including supports erected over a depression or an obstruction, such as water, highway, or railway, and having a track or passageway for carrying traffic or other moving loads. - **British Thermal Unit (BTU)**. The energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit (F) at or near 39.2 degrees F and 1 atmosphere of pressure. - **Bulk cargo**. Refers to dry or liquid freight that is not packaged, such as minerals (oil, coal, iron ore) and grains. It often requires the use of specialized ships such as oil tankers as well as specialized transshipment and storage facilities. Conventionally, this cargo has a single origin, destination, and client. It is also prone to economies of scale. - **Bulk carriers**. All vessels designed to carry bulk cargo such as grain, fertilizers, ore, and oil. - **Bulk terminal**. A purpose-designed berth or mooring for handling liquid or dry commodities in unpackaged bulk forms, such as oil, grain, ore, and coal. Bulk terminals typically are installed with specialized cargo handling equipment such as pipelines, conveyors, pneumatic evacuators, cranes with clamshell grabs, and rail lines to accommodate cargo handling operations with ships or barges. Commodity-specific storage facilities such as grain silos, petroleum storage tanks, and coal stockyards are also located at these terminals. - **Bus (Motorbus)**. Any self-propelled vehicles, generally rubber-tired, intended for use on city streets, highways, and busways, including but not limited to minibusses, forty and thirty-foot buses, articulated buses, double-deck buses, and electrically powered trolleybuses, used by public entities to provide designated public transportation service and by private entities to provide transportation service. - **Bus, Trolley**. A manually steered electric, rubber-tired transit vehicle propelled by a motor drawing current through overhead wires from a central power source not on board the vehicle. Also known as “trolley coach” or “trackless trolley”. - **Bus lane**. A street or highway lane intended primarily for buses, either all day or during specified periods, but sometimes also used by carpools meeting requirements. - **Bus stop**. A place where passengers can board or disembark from a bus, usually identified by a sign. ## C - **Cable car**. An electric railway operating in mixed street traffic with unpowered, individually controlled transit vehicles propelled by moving cables located below the street surface and powered by engines or motors at a central location not on board the vehicle. - **Cabotage**. Transport between two terminals (a terminal of loading and a terminal of unloading) located in the same country irrespective of the country in which the mode providing the service is registered. Cabotage is often subject to restrictions and regulations where each nation reserves for its national carriers the right to move domestic freight or passenger traffic. - **Canal**. An artificial open waterway constructed to transport water, irrigate or drain the land, connect two or more bodies of water, or serve as a waterway for watercraft. - **Capacity (static / dynamic)**. The capability of a transport infrastructure or mode to handle a level of throughput under specific conditions. The static dimension of capacity involves fixed assets, such as the area available for operations, while the dynamic capacity is the more intensive use of the available area. For instance, the static capacity of a road would be the number of standard lanes, while the type of vehicles and speed limit would influence the dynamic capacity. - **Capesize**. An ill-defined standard that has the common characteristic of being incapable of using the Panama or Suez canals, not necessarily because of their tonnage, but because of their size. These ships serve deepwater terminals handling raw materials, such as iron ore and coal. As a result, “Capesize” vessels transit via Cape Horn (South America) or the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa). Their size ranges between 80,000 and 175,000 dwt. - **Carbon dioxide (CO2)**. A colorless, odorless, non-poisonous gas that is a normal part of the ambient air. Carbon dioxide is mainly a product of fossil fuel combustion. - **Carbon monoxide (CO)**. A colorless, odorless, highly toxic gas that is a normal by-product of incomplete fossil fuel combustion. Carbon monoxide can be harmful in small amounts if breathed over a certain period of time. - **Carpool (car sharing)**. An arrangement where two or more people share the use and cost of privately-owned automobiles in traveling to and from pre-arranged destinations together. - **Carrier**. The agent (company) moving passengers or freight. - **Carrier haulage** (Line Haulage). Inland movement of a container provided by a shipping line using a haulage contractor acting as a third party. The shipping line selects the carrier, which can be an independent carrier or a subsidiary of the shipping line. The shipping line is liable for any issues taking place during carrier haulage. - **Catchment area**. Area or region whose economic, political, cultural, and social influence is felt over a larger area. In transportation, it consists of the area under the influence of a focal point towards which centripetal fluxes converge; an interception zone of several carriers. Also labeled as Area of Influence or Hinterland. - **Centrality**. Focus on the terminal as a point of origin and destination of the traffic. Centrality is linked with the generation and attraction of movements, which are related to the nature and the level of economic activities within the vicinity of the concerned terminal. The function of centrality also involves a significant amount of intermodal activities. - **Charter**. Originally meant a flight where a shipper contracted hire of an aircraft from an air carrier but has usually come to mean any non-scheduled commercial service. - **City logistics**. The means over which freight distribution can take place in urban areas as well as the strategies that can improve its overall efficiencies, such as mitigating congestion and environmental externalities. - **Class I railroad**. An American railroad with an annual gross operating revenue in excess of $250 million based on 1991 dollars. - **Clean Air Act (CAA)**. Federal legislation that sets national air quality standards. - **Coach service**. Transport services established for the carriage of passengers at special reduced passenger fares predicated on the operation of specifically designed aircraft space and a reduction in the quality of service regularly and ordinarily provided. - **Coal.** A black or brownish-black solid, combustible substance formed by the partial decomposition of vegetable matter without access to air. The rank of coal, which includes anthracite, bituminous coal, sub-bituminous coal, and lignite, is based on fixed carbon, volatile matter, and heating value. Coal rank indicates the progressive alteration, or coalification, from lignite to anthracite. Lignite contains approximately 9 to 17 million British Thermal Unit (BTU) per ton. The heat contents of sub-bituminous and bituminous coal range from 16 to 24 million BTU per ton, and from 19 to 30 million BTU per ton, respectively. Anthracite contains approximately 22 to 28 million BTU per ton. - **Code-sharing**. An arrangement where an airline places its own code on another carrier’s flight. The airline operating the flight is the operating carrier, and the airline marketing the flight is the marketing carrier. Both carriers may sell tickets for the flight under their own brand. - **Cold chain**. A temperature-controlled supply chain linked to the material, equipment, and procedures used to maintain specific shipments within the appropriate temperature range. Often relates to the distribution of food and pharmaceutical products. - **Combi**. A type of aircraft whose main deck is divided into two sections, one fitted with seats and one used for cargo. - **Commercial geography**. Investigates the spatial characteristics of trade and transactions regarding their cause, nature, origin, and destination. It leans on the analysis of contracts and transactions. - **Commodity**. Resources that can be consumed and has no qualitative differentiation. They can be accumulated for a period of time (some are perishable while others can be virtually stored for centuries), exchanged as part of transactions, or purchased on specific markets (such as futures market). Some commodities, except for the title, are fixed, implying that they cannot be transferred. This includes land, mining, logging, and fishing rights. In this context, the value of a fixed commodity is derived from the utility and the potential extraction rate. Bulk commodities can be transferred, including grains, metals, livestock, oil, cotton, coffee, sugar, and cocoa. Their value is derived from utility, supply, and demand (market price). - **Common carrier**. A transportation company engaged in the business of handling persons or freight for compensation and all customers impartially. - **Comparative advantages**. The relative efficiencies with which countries (or any economic unit) can produce a product or service. - **Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)**. Natural gas, which is comprised primarily of methane, compressed to a pressure at or above 2,400 pounds per square inch and stored in special high-pressure containers. It is used as a fuel for natural gas-powered vehicles, mainly by buses. - **Commuter**. A person who travels regularly between home and work or school. - **Commuter bus service**. Fixed route bus service, characterized by service predominantly in one direction during peak periods, limited stops, use of multi-ride tickets, and routes of extended length, usually between the central business district and outlying suburbs. Commuter bus service may also include other services characterized by a limited route structure, limited stops, and a coordinated relationship to another mode of transportation. - **Commuter rail**. Railroad local and regional passenger train operations between a central city, its suburbs, and/or another central city. It may be either locomotive-hauled or self-propelled and is characterized by multi-trip tickets, specific station-to-station fares, railroad employment practices, and usually only one or two stations in the central business district. Also known as “suburban rail.”. - **Conference (liner)**. An association of ship owners operating in the same trade route who operate under collective conditions such as tariff rates and shared capacity. They provide international liner cargo services on particular routes within specified geographical areas. Shipping lines have an agreement within the framework of which they operate under uniform or common freight rates and any other agreed conditions with respect to the provision of liner services. - **Congestion**. When the transport demand exceeds the transport supply in a specific section of the transport system. Under such circumstances, each vehicle impairs the mobility of others. Urban congestion mainly concerns two domains of circulation, private and public, often sharing the same infrastructures. - **Connectivity**. The capacity of a location to be linked to other locations directly or indirectly (through other locations). - **Consignee**. A person or company to whom commodities are shipped. Officially, the legal owner of the cargo. - **Consolidated shipment**. A method of shipping whereby an agent (freight forwarder or consolidator) combines individual consignments from various shippers into one shipment made to a destination agent, for the benefit of preferential rates. (Also called “groupage”) The consolidation is then de-consolidated by the destination agent into its original component consignments and made available to consignees. Consolidation provides shippers access to better rates than would be otherwise attainable. - **Constant dollars**. Figures where the effect of inflation has been removed. Usually, the data are expressed in dollars of a selected year or the average of a set of years. - **Container**. A large standard size metal box into which cargo is packed for shipment aboard specially configured oceangoing containerships and designed to be moved with common handling equipment enabling high-speed intermodal transfers in economically large units between ships, railcars, truck chassis, and barges using a minimum of labor. The container, therefore, serves as the transfer unit rather than the cargo contained therein. - **Container On Flatcar (COFC)**. The movement of a container on a railroad flatcar. This movement is made without the container being mounted on a chassis. - **Container terminal**. A set of facilities supporting the handling (loading and unloading) of containers. The intermodal relation defines the nature of the container terminal, such as a container port, an intermodal terminal (rail), or a barge terminal. - **Containerization**. The increasing and generalized use of the container as support for freight transportation. It involves a process where the intermodal container is increasingly used because it substitutes cargo from other conveyances. It is adopted as a mode supporting freight distribution and its spatial diffusion in terms of the transport systems able to handle containers. - **Containership**. A cargo vessel designed and constructed to transport, within specifically designed cells, portable tanks and freight containers that are lifted on and off with their contents intact. There are two types of containership full and partial. Full containerships are equipped with permanent container cells with little or no space for other types of cargo. Partial containerships are considered multi-purpose container vessels, where one or more but not all compartments are fitted with permanent container cells, and the remaining compartments are used for other types of cargo. This category also includes container/car carriers, container/rail car carriers, and container/roll-on/roll-off vessels. - **Conventional car**. A single platform flat car designed to carry a trailer or container. Containers can only be single-stacked on a conventional car. Conventional cars are equipped with one or two stanchions, depending on length, for shipment of one or two trailers. - **Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards**. CAFE standards were originally established by Congress for new automobiles and later for light trucks. Under CAFE, automobile manufacturers are required by law to produce vehicle fleets with a composite sales-weighted fuel economy that cannot be lower than the CAFE standards in a given year. - **Corridor**. A linear orientation of transport routes and flows connecting important locations that act as origins, destinations, or points of transshipment. Corridors are multi-scalar entities depending on what types of flows are being investigated. Thus, they can be composed of streets, highways, transit routes, rail lines, maritime lines, or air paths. - **Costs (Transport)**. A monetary measure of what the transport provider must pay to produce transportation services comes as fixed (infrastructure) and variable (operating). They depend on various conditions related to geography, infrastructure, administrative barriers, energy, and how passengers and freight are carried. Three major components related to transactions, shipments, and the friction of distance, impact transport costs. - **Cost-benefit analysis**. A tool employed to evaluate projects by providing a set of values that are useful to determine their feasibility from an economic standpoint. - **Costs-Insurance-Freight (CIF)**. The price of a good is a uniform delivered price for all customers everywhere, with no spatially variable shipping price, which implies that the average shipping price is built into the price of a good. The CIF cost structure can be expanded to include several rate zones. - **Cross-border transportation**. The activities, infrastructures, and flows that ensure the passage of passengers and freight across an international border. Cross-border transportation can be facilitated, monitored, controlled, and even prevented. - **Cross-docking**. A form of inventory management where goods are received at one door of the distribution center/sorting facility and shipped out through another door in a very short amount of time without storage. It contributes to the reduction of operating costs with an increase in the throughput and a reduction of inventory levels. - **Crude oil petroleum**. A naturally occurring, oily, flammable liquid composed principally of hydrocarbons. Crude oil is occasionally found in springs or pools but usually is drilled from wells beneath the earth’s surface. - **Current dollars**. The dollar value of a good or service in terms of prices current at the time the good or service is sold. This contrasts with the value of the good or service measured in constant dollars. - **Cycle time**. The amount of time required from the receipt of an order to when this order is completed (assembled) and ready for delivery. Often labeled as the completion rate and is mostly linked with the function of production in the manufacturing sector; the level of responsiveness. ## D - **Deadhead**. Distance and hours that a vehicle travels when out of revenue service. This includes leaving and returning to the garage, changing routes, etc., and when there is no reasonable expectation of carrying revenue passengers. However, it does not include charter service, school bus service, operator training, maintenance training, etc. For non-scheduled, non-fixed-route service (demand responsive), deadhead mileage also includes the travel between the dispatching point and passenger pick-up or drop-off. - **Deadweight tons (dwt)**. The lifting capacity of a ship, including cargo, fuel, ballast, and crew. Reflects the weight difference between a fully loaded and an unloaded ship. - **Demand responsive**. Non-fixed-route service utilizing vans or buses with passengers boarding and alighting at pre-arranged times at any location within the system’s service area. - **Demand (Transport)**. The expression of the transport needs, even if those needs are satisfied, fully, partially, or not at all. Like the transport supply, it is expressed in terms of the number of people, volume, or tons per unit of time and space. - **Depth (controlling or limiting)**. The maximum sailing draft of a channel determined by the point of least depth along that channel. - **Depth** (maximum lower low water; MLLW). An average lower tide depth took over a period of time, at least five years. - **Deregulation**. Consists of a shift to a competitive economic climate by reorienting or suppressing regulatory mechanisms. Deregulation, however, does not necessarily refer to the complete absence of free-market regulation measures but rather to the promotion of competition-inducing ones (which can seek the elimination of monopolies, for example). Particularly observed in the transport and telecommunications sectors. - **Derived demand**. The demand generated due to the demand for other goods or services. Transportation activities mainly take place because of derived demand. - **Design capacity**. The theoretical capacity of transport infrastructure such as a road or terminal based on specific operating conditions. - **Diluted bitumen (dilbit)**. Bitumen11 has been diluted with lighter types of petroleum so that it can be transported by pipelines. - **Distribution center (Freight)**. Facility or a group of facilities that perform consolidation, warehousing, packaging, decomposition, and other functions linked with handling freight. Their main purpose is to provide value-added services to freight and is a fundamental component of freight distribution. DCs are often in proximity to major transport routes or terminals. They can also perform light manufacturing activities such as assembly and labeling. - **Dock**. A feature built to handle ships. It can also refer to an enclosed port area used for maritime operations. - **Double Stack**. The movement of containers on articulated rail cars enabling one container to be stacked on another for better ride quality and railcar utilization. - **Downtime**. A period during which a vehicle or a whole system is inoperative because of repairs or maintenance. - **Drayage**. The movement of a container or trailer to or from the railroad intermodal terminal to or from the customer’s facility for loading or unloading. - **Dry bulk cargo**. Cargo that may be loose, granular, free-flowing, or solid, such as grain, coal, and ore, and is shipped in bulk rather than in package form. Dry bulk cargo is usually handled by specialized mechanical handling equipment at specially designed dry bulk terminals. - **Duopoly**. A market that is dominated by two firms providing goods or services. - **Duopsony**. Two major buyers of a good or service in a market. - **Dunnage**. Packaging materials used to keep cargo in place inside a container or transportation vehicle. - **Dwell time**. The time a vehicle (bus, truck, train, or ship) is allowed to load or unload passengers or freight at a terminal. For freight operations, it refers to the amount of time cargo stays in a terminal yard or storage area while waiting to be loaded. Dwell time can be operational, which reflects the performance of terminal infrastructures and management, including the scheduling and availability of transport services. It can also be transactional, which is usually linked to the performance of clearance procedures (such as customs). Finally, dwell time can be storage related, implying that the cargo owner or the carrier deliberately leaves the cargo at the terminal as part of a transport or supply chain management strategy. - **Dynamic routing**. In demand-response transportation systems, vehicle routes are constantly modified to accommodate service requests received after the vehicle begins operations. ## E - **Economic evaluation** (also called Appraisal or Analysis). Methods for determining the value of a policy, project, or program to help individuals, businesses, and communities make decisions that involve tradeoffs. Economic evaluation is an important part of transportation decision-making. - **Economies of agglomeration**. The benefits of having activities locate (cluster) next to one another, such as using common infrastructures and services. - **Economies of density**. The benefits derived from the increasing density of features on the costs of accessing them. This could involve markets (e.g. consumption, labor) or resources (e.g. mining, agriculture). - **Economies of scale**. Cost reductions or productivity efficiencies achieved through size increase. The outcome is a decrease in the unit cost of production associated with increasing output. - **Economies of scope**. Cost savings resulting from increasing the number of different goods or services produced. - **Electronic data interchange (EDI)**: Communication mode for inter- and intra-firm data exchange in the freight forwarding and logistics business. - **Energy**. The capacity for doing work measured by the capability of doing work (potential energy) or the conversion of this capability to motion (kinetic energy). Energy has several forms, some of which are easily convertible and can be changed to another form useful for work. Electrical energy is usually measured in kilowatt-hours, while heat energy is usually measured in British thermal units. - **Energy Intensity**. In reference to transportation, the ratio of energy inputs to a process to the useful outputs from that process; for example, gallons of fuel per passenger-mile or Btu per ton-mile. - **Enplanement**. The boarding of aircraft by passengers for commerce, which includes in-transit passengers. - **Environmental impact assessment**. A process for carrying out an appraisal of the full potential effects of a development project on the physical environment. - **Environmental management system**. A set of procedures and techniques enabling an organization to reduce environmental impacts and increase its operating efficiency. - **Ethanol**. An alternative fuel; a liquid alcohol fuel with vapor heavier than air; produced from agricultural products such as corn, grain, and sugar cane. - **European Union (EU)**. Formerly the European Community (EC), the European Union since the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in November 1993. A regional trade block composed of 28 European states (as of 2016). Its core institutions are known as the «institutional triangle» composed of the European Parliament (Strasbourg), the Commission (Brussels), and the EU Council (Brussels). The European Bank manages the common currency (euro) that several EU countries are using. - **Exclusive right-of-way**. A highway or other facility that can only be used by buses or other transit vehicles. - **Externality (external cost)**. Economic cost not normally considered in markets or in decisions by market players. ## F - **Fare**. The price paid by the user of a transport service at the moment of use. - **Fare elasticity**. The extent to which ridership responds to fare increases or decreases. - **Fare structure**. The system set up to determine how much is to be paid by various passengers using a transit system at any given time. - **Feeder**. Short sea shipping service that connects at least two ports in order for the freight (generally containers) to be consolidated or redistributed to or from a deep-sea service in one of these ports. By extension, this concept may be used for inland transport services and air transportation. - **Ferryboat**. A boat providing fixed-route service across a body of water, which can be short or long distance. - **Fixed cost**. Costs that do not vary with the quantity shipped in the short-run, i.e. costs that must be paid up-front to begin producing transportation services. - **Fixed route**. Service provided on a repetitive, fixed-schedule basis along a specific route with vehicles stopping to pick up and deliver passengers or freight to specific locations; each fixed-route trip serves the same origins and destinations, unlike demand responsive. The terms apply to many modes of transportation, including public transit, air services, and maritime services. - **Flag of convenience**. A mean by which ship owners can obtain lower registration fees, lower operating costs, and fewer restrictions by registering their ships to a third country. - **Flag state**. The country of registry of a seagoing vessel subject to the maritime regulations regarding manning scales, safety standards, and consular representation abroad of its country of registration. - **Flat car**. A freight car having a floor without any housing or body above. Frequently used to carry containers and/or trailers or oversized/odd-shaped commodities. The three types of flat cars used in intermodal are conventional, spine, and stack cars. - **Fleet**. The vehicles in a transport system. Usually, fleet refers to highway vehicles, rail vehicles as well as ships. - **Footprint (transportation)**. The amount of space required to support transport infrastructures, terminals and operations. - **Foreland**. A maritime space with which a port performs commercial relationships. It includes overseas customers with which the port undertakes commercial exchanges. - **Forwarding agent / Freight forwarder**. An intermediary who arranges for the carriage of goods and/or associated services on behalf of a shipper. - **Fourth-Party Logistics Provider (4PL)**. Integrates the resources of producers, retailers, and third-party logistics providers in view to build a system-wide improvement in supply chain management. They are non-asset based, meaning that they mainly provide organizational expertise. - **Freight On Board (FOB; or Free On Board)**. The price of a good is the combination of the factory costs and the shipping costs from the factory to the consumer. The consumer pays for the freight transport costs. Consequently, the price of a commodity will vary according to transportation costs. - **Free trade zone**. A port or an area designated for duty-free entry of any non-prohibited goods. Merchandise may be stored, displayed, transformed, used for manufacturing, discarded, etc., within the zone and re-exported without duties. An area is thus a form of extraterritoriality since it is outside the customs regime of a country. - **Freight consignee and handlers**. Freight consignees are independent of shippers or producers. They are commissioned by the latter to accomplish all transport operations, including storage, transport, management, sometimes re-expedition, etc. from origin to final destination. The notion of freight handler is broader. It comprises any actor involved in the transport of freight from origin to destination, including transport terminals and sub-contractual services, for instance. - **Freight forwarder**. An individual or company that accepts less-than-truckload (TLT) or less-than-carload (LCL) shipments from shippers and combines them into carload or truckload lots. Carriers collecting small shipments to be cumulatively consolidated and transported relying upon a single or several modes of transportation to a given destination. Functions performed by a freight forwarder may include receiving small shipments (e.g., less than container load) from consignors, consolidating them into larger lots, contracts with carriers for transport between ports of embarkation and debarkation, conducting documentation transactions, and arranging delivery of shipments to the consignees. - **Freight village**. A concentration (or a cluster) of freight-related activities within a specific area, commonly built for such a purpose, master-planned, and managed. These activities include distribution centers, warehouses and storage areas, transport terminals, offices, and other facilities supporting those activities, such as public utilities, parking space, and even hotels and restaurants. Although a single mode can service a freight village, intermodal facilities can offer direct access to global and regional markets. - **Fringe parking**. An area for parking located outside the Central Business District (CBD) and most often used by suburban residents who work or shop downtown. It commonly corresponds to an access point of a transit system, such as a rail or subway station. - **Fuel Cell**. A device that produces electrical energy directly from the controlled electrochemical oxidation of the fuel, commonly hydrogen. It does not contain an intermediate heat cycle like most other electrical generation techniques. ## G - **Gasohol**. A blend of motor gasoline and alcohol (generally ethanol but sometimes methanol) limited to 10 percent by volume of alcohol. Gasohol is included in finished motor gasoline. - **Gasoline**. A complex mixture of relatively volatile hydrocarbons, with or without small quantities of additives, is obtained by blending appropriate refinery streams to form a fuel suitable for spark-ignition engines. Motor gasoline includes finished motor gasoline, blending components, and gasohol. - **Gateway**. A location offering accessibility to a large system of circulation of freight, passengers, or information. Gateways reap the advantage of a favorable physical location, such as highway junctions, the confluence of rivers, and seaboards. They have been the object of a significant accumulation of transport infrastructures, such as terminals and their links. A gateway generally commands the entrance and exit from its catchment area. In other words, it is a pivotal point for the entrance and exit of merchandise in a region, a country, or a continent. Gateways tend to be locations where intermodal transfers are performed. - **General cargo**. General cargo consists of those products or commodities such as timber, structural steel, rolled newsprint, concrete forms, and agricultural equipment that are not conducive to packaging or unitization. Break-bulk cargo (e.g., packaged products such as lubricants and cereal) are often regarded as a subdivision of general cargo. - **Geographic Information System (GIS)**. A special-purpose system composed of hardware and software in which a common spatial coordinate system is the primary means of reference. GIS contains subsystems for data input, data storage, retrieval, and representation; data management, transformation, and analysis; and data reporting and product generation. - **GIS-T**. Acronym for Transportation-oriented Geographic Information Systems. - **Global Trade Item Number (GTIN)**. A unique identification number assigned to any product or service that may be priced, ordered, or invoiced at any point along a supply chain. Trade items can include individual items as well as the same items in packaging configurations offered for sale (a case, a pallet). A unique GTIN identifies each packaging level. - **Graph theory**. A branch of mathematics concerned with how networks can be encoded and their properties measured. - **Great circle distance**. The shortest path between two points on a sphere. The circumference inferred out of these two points divides the earth into two equal parts, thus the great circle. The great circle distance is useful to establish the shortest path to use when traveling at the intercontinental air and maritime level. The great circle route follows the sphericity of the globe. Any shortest route is the one following the curve of the planet, along the parallels. - **Green logistics**. Supply chain management practices and strategies that reduce the environmental and energy footprint of freight distribution. They focus on material handling, waste management, packaging, and transport. - **Gross Domestic Product (GDP)**. A measure of the total value of goods and services produced by a domestic economy during a given period, usually one year. Obtained by adding the value contributed by each sector of the economy in the form of profits, compensation to employees, and depreciation (consumption of capital). Only domestic production is included, not income arising from investments and possessions owned abroad, hence the use of the word domestic. - **Gross National Product (GNP)**. The total market value of goods and services produced during a given period by labor and capital supplied by residents of a country, regardless of where the labor and capital are located. GNP differs from GDP primarily by including the capital income that residents earn from investments abroad and excluding the capital income that nonresidents earn from domestic investment. - **Gross register tonnage**. The total cargo space available for a ship to carry commercial cargo. It excludes non-cargo revenue space, such as the engine room and stores. ## H - **Handy and Handymax**: Traditionally the workhorses of the dry bulk market, the Handy and more recent Handymax types remain popular ships with less than 50,000 dwt. This category is also used to define small-sized oil tankers. - **Haulage, Carrier / Merchant**. Carrier haulage is an inland container movement (to or from a port terminal) done by the ocean shipping company, often through a parent company. The carrier is liable if the merchandise is lost or damaged during transport or if there is a delay. Merchant haulage is when the importer or the exporter assumes the transport of the container to or from a port terminal. The merchant is liable if the cargo is lost or damaged and must pick up and return the container at a predesigned location and time. - **Headway**. The time interval between vehicles moving in the same direction on a particular route. - **Heavy rail**. An electric railway of high capacity and characterized by exclusive rights-of-way, multi-car trains, high speed and rapid acceleration, sophisticated signaling, and high platform loading. - **High-Occupancy-Vehicle Lane (HOV)**. A highway or road lane reserved for vehicles that have a specific level of occupancy, with at least one passenger. Often used to alleviate congestion and favor carpooling. - **Highway (Motorway)**. Road, specially designed and built for motor traffic, which does not serve properties bordering on it, and which: (a) is provided, except at special points or temporarily, with separate carriageways for the two directions of traffic, separated from each other, either by a dividing strip not intended for traffic, or exceptionally by other means; (b) does not cross at level with any road, railway or tramway track, or footpath; (c) is specially sign-posted as a motorway and is reserved for specific categories of road motor vehicles. Entry and exit lanes of motorways are included irrespective of the location of the signposts. - **Hinterland**. Land space over which a transport terminal, such as a port, sells its services and interacts with its clients. It accounts for the regional market share that a terminal has relative to a set of other terminals servicing this region. It regroups all the customers directly bound to the terminal. The terminal, depending on its nature, serves as a place of convergence for the traffic coming by roads, railways, or by sea/fluvial feeders. - **Hub (Hub and spoke)**. A central point for the collection, sorting, transshipment, and distribution of goods and passengers for a particular area. This concept comes from a term used in air transport for passengers and freight. It describes collection and distribution through a single point, such as the “Hub and Spoke” concept. Hubs tend to be transmodal (transfers within the same mode) locations. ## I - **Information and Communications Technologies (ICT)**. Goods and services related to the production, storage, analysis, and transmission of information in a digital format using a wide range of devices such as computers and smartphones. - **Inflation**. Increase in the amount of currency in relation to the availability of assets, commodities, goods, and services. Commonly the outcome of an indirect confiscation of wealth through an over-issuance of currency by central banks and governments. - **Infrastructure**. Capital goods not directly consumed and serve as support to the functions of society. (1) In transport systems, all the fixed components, such as rights-of-way, tracks, signal equipment, terminals, parking lots, but stops, maintenance facilities, etc. (2) In transportation planning, all the relevant elements of the environment in which a transportation system operates. - **Inland port**. A rail or a barge terminal linked to a maritime terminal with regular inland transport services. An inland port has a level of integration with the maritime terminal and supports more efficient access to the inland market both for inbound and outbound traffic. It implies related logistical activities linked with the terminal, such as distribution centers, depots for containers and chassis, warehouses, and logistical service providers. - **Integrated carriers**. Carriers that have both air and ground fleets or other combinations, such as sea, rail, and truck. Since they usually handle large volumes, they are less expensive and offer more diverse services than regular carriers. - **Intermediacy**. Focus on the terminal as an intermediate point in the flows of passengers or freight. This term is applied to the frequent occurrence of places gaining an advantage because they are between other places. The ability to exploit transshipment has been an important feature of many terminals. - **Intermodal terminal**. A terminal that can accommodate several modes of transportation. They increasingly tend to be specializing in handling specific types of passengers or freight traffic, while they may share the same infrastructures. - **Intermodal transport**. The movement of passengers or freight from an origin to a destination relying on several modes of transportation. Each carrier is issuing its own ticket (passengers) or contract (freight). The movements from one mode of transport to another are commonly taking place at a terminal specifically designed for such a purpose. Intermodal transportation refers to an exchange of passengers or freight between two transportation modes. Still, the term has become more commonly used for freight and container transportation across a sequence of modes. In North America, the term intermodal is also used to refer to containerized rail transportation. - **Intermodalism**. A system of transport whereby two or more modes of transport are used to transport the same loading unit or truck in an integrated manner, without loading or unloading, in a transport chain. Typically used in three contexts: (1) Most narrowly, it refers to containerization, piggyback service, or other technologies that provide the seamless movement of goods and people by more than one mode of transport. (2) More broadly, intermodalism refers to the provision of connections between different modes, such as adequate highways to ports or bus feeder services to rail transit. 3) In its broadest interpretation, intermodalism refers to a holistic view of transportation in which individual modes work together or within their niches to provide the user with the best choices of service, and in which the consequences on all modes of policies for a single mode are considered. - **International Air Transportation Association (IATA)**. Established in 1945, a trade association serving airlines, passengers, shippers, travel agents, and governments. The association promotes safety, standardization in forms (baggage checks, tickets, weigh bills), and aids in establishing international airfares. International Air Transportation Association (IATA) headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland. - **International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)**. A specialized agency of the United Nations whose objective is to develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster planning and development of international civil air transport. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Regions include (AFI) African Indian Ocean Region, (CAR) Caribbean Region, (EUR) European Region, (MID/ASIA) Middle East/Asia Region, (NAM) North American Region, (NAT) North Atlantic Region, (PAC) Pacific Region, (SAM) South American Region. - **International Commercial Terms (INCOTERMS)**. Pre-defined commercial contract terms stipulating exactly which party owns cargo over the course of a shipment, as well as who bears responsibility for transporting the cargo. - **International Maritime Organization (IMO)**. Established as a specialized agency of the United Nations in 1948. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) facilitates cooperation on technical matters affecting merchant shipping and traffic, including improved maritime safety and prevention of marine pollution. Headquarters are in London, England. - **International Organization for Standardization (ISO)**. A non-governmental organization established in 1947 to promote the development of standardization and related activities with a view to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services, and to developing cooperation in the spheres of intellectual, scientific, technological, and economic activity. ISO’s work results in international agreements that are published as International Standards. - **International trade**. An exchange of goods or services across national jurisdictions. Inbound trade is defined as imports and outbound trade is defined as exports. Subject to the regulatory oversight and taxation of the involved nations, namely through customs. ## JK - **Jet stream**. A migrating stream of high-speed winds present at high altitudes. - **Jitney**. Privately-owned, small, or medium-sized vehicles usually operated on a fixed route but not on a fixed schedule. - **Just-in-Time**. The principle of production and inventory management in which goods arrive when needed for production or consumption. Warehousing tends to be minimal or non-existent, but in all cases much more efficient and more limited in duration. - **Knot, Nautical**. The unit of speed equivalent to one nautical mile: 6,080.20 feet per hour or 1.85 kilometers per hour. ## L - **Lading**. Refers to the freight shipped; the contents of a shipment. - **Landbridge**. An intermodal connection between two ocean carriers separated by a landmass linked together in a seamless transaction by a land carrier. - **Landed cost**. The dollar per barrel price of crude oil at the port of discharge. Included are the charges associated with the purchase, transporting, and insuring of cargo from the purchase point to the port of discharge. Not included are charges incurred at the discharge port (e.g., import tariffs or fees, wharfage charges, and demurrage charges). - **Layover time**. Time built into a schedule between arrival at the end of a route and the departure for the return trip, used for the recovery of delays and preparation for the return trip (e.g. fueling, crew rotation). - **Lead time**. The time it takes for an order to be fulfilled, including preparation, packing, and delivery to a designed location. Often labeled as the arrival rate and is mostly linked with the function of distribution, mainly its efficiency and reliability; its level of responsiveness. - **Less than Truckload** (LTL). A shipment that would not fill the truck to capacity by weight or volume. - **Letter of credit**. A document issued by a financial institution that provides a promise of payment for a trade transaction, implying that it can be redeemed if certain conditions are satisfied. They are mainly used in international trade for transactions between actors, such as a buyer and a seller, in different countries. - **Level of service**. (1) A set of characteristics that indicate the quality and quantity of transportation service provided, including quantifiable characteristics and those that are difficult to quantify. (2) For highway systems, a qualitative rating of the effectiveness of a highway or highway facility in serving traffic, in terms of operating conditions. A rating of traffic flow ranging from A (excellent) through F (heavily congested) and compares actual or projected traffic volume with the maximum capacity of the intersection or road in question. (3) For paratransit, a variety of measures are meant to denote the quality of service provided, generally in terms of total travel time or a specific component of total travel time. (4) For pedestrians, sets of area occupancy classifications to connect the design of pedestrian facilities with levels of service. - **Light-Rail Transit (LRT)**. Fixed guideway transportation mode that typically operates on city streets and draws its electric power from overhead wires; includes streetcars, trolley cars, and tramways. Differs from heavy rail, which has a separate right of way and includes commuter and intercity rail in that it has lighter passenger capacity per hour and more closely spaced stops. - **Linehaul costs**. Costs that vary with distance shipped, i.e., costs of moving goods and people once they are loaded on the vehicles. - **Liner**. Derived from the term “line traffic,” which denotes operation along definite routes based on definite, fixed schedules. A liner is a vessel that engages in this kind of transportation, which usually involves the haulage of general cargo as distinct from bulk cargo. - **Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)**. Natural gas cooled to below its boiling point of -260 degrees Fahrenheit so that it becomes a liquid. It is stored in a vacuum-type container at very low temperatures and under moderate pressure. LNG vapor is lighter than air. - **Load factor**. The ratio of passengers or freight carried versus the total passenger or freight capacity of a vehicle or a route. - **Location-allocation models**. A family of models used to optimize the location of a series of facilities such as manufacturing facilities, distribution centers, or any other market servicing activities. The goal is to optimally service a set of locations expressing demand, often with the purpose of minimizing transport costs. - **Logistics**. A wide set of activities dedicated to the transformation and distribution of goods, from raw material sourcing to final market distribution as well as the related information flows. Derived from the Greek logistikos (responsible for counting), the word is polysemic. In the nineteenth century, the military referred to it as the art of combining all means of transport, revictualling, and sheltering troops. In a contemporary setting, it refers to the set of operations required for goods to be made available on markets or to specific locations. - **Logistic zone**. Grouping of activities dealing with freight distribution, such as distribution centers (warehousing, storage, light transformations), transportation (freight forwarders, shippers, transport operators, customs brokers), and supporting services (human resources, maintenance, and repair) within a defined and often planned area. - **Logit model**. A probabilistic model for representing a discrete choice behavior of individuals. On any choice occasion, the individual is assumed to choose the mode of the highest preference. Over repeated choice occasions, preferences are assumed to have a probabilistic component. For the logit model, this random component of preference is taken to have a double exponential distribution. - **Long ton**. 2,240 pounds. - **Lowry model**. One of the first transportation/land use models to be designed in 1964. The core assumption is that regional and urban growth (or decline) is a function of the expansion (or contraction) of the basic sector. This employment is, in turn, having impacts on the employment of the retail and residential sectors. ## M - **Maglev – Magnetic levitation**. Technology enabling trains to move at high speed above a guideway on a cushion generated by magnetic force. - **Manifest**. A list of the goods being transported by a carrier. - **Marginal utility (cost)**. The utility derived from the production or consumption of one additional unit. Declining marginal utility implies that each additional unit produced or consumed involves less derived utility than the previous one. This is common in retailing, where a consumer derives lower benefits from owning more of the same good. Increasing marginal utility implies that each additional unit produced or consumed involves more derived utility than the previous one. This is common in manufacturing, where the principle of economies of scale underlines that each additional produced unit comes with a higher utility (profit) for the producer. - **Maritime route**. Corridor of a few kilometers in width trying to avoid the discontinuities of land transport by linking ports, the main elements of the maritime / land interface. Maritime routes are a function of obligatory points of passage, which are strategic places involving physical constraints (coasts, winds, marine currents, depth, reefs, ice) and political borders. As a result, maritime routes draw arcs on the earth’s water surface as intercontinental maritime transportation tries to follow the great circle distance. - **Maritime terminal**. A designated area of a port, which includes but not limited to wharves, warehouses, covered and open storage spaces, cold storage plants, grain elevators, and bulk cargo loading and unloading structures, landings, and receiving stations used for the transmission, care, and convenience of cargo and/or passengers in the interchange of same between land and water carriers or between two water carriers. - **Market area**. The surface over which a demand offered at a specific location is expressed. Commonly, a customer is assumed to go to a location where a product or service can be acquired, or a part of a finished good has to be shipped from the place of production to the place of consumption. - **Materials management**. All the activities related to the manufacturing of commodities in all their stages of production along a supply chain. It includes production and marketing activities such as production planning, demand forecasting, purchasing, and inventory management. It must ensure that the requirements of supply chains are met by dealing with a wide array of parts for assembly and raw materials, including packaging (for transport and retailing) and, ultimately, recycling discarded commodities. - **MERCOSUR**. A trade alliance between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, with Chile and Bolivia as associate members. - **Merchant haulage**. The movement of a container assumed by the merchant (the cargo owner or an agent acting on its behalf) using a contracted carrier. The merchant selects the carrier. The carrier is liable for any damage taking place during transport. - **Methanol**. An alternative fuel; a liquid alcohol fuel with vapor heavier than air; primarily produced from natural gas. - **Microbridge**. A cargo movement in which the water carrier provides a through service between an inland point and the port of load/discharge. - **Minibridge**. Joint water, rail, or truck container moves on a single Bill of Lading for a through route from a foreign port to a U.S. port destination through an intermediate U.S. port or the reverse. - **Micromobility**. Small lightweight, low-speed, human, or electric-powered transportation devices. They include bicycles, scooters, electric-assisted bicycles, electric scooters (e-scooters), and other small-wheeled conveyances. - **Mobility**. The ease of movement of a passenger or a unit of freight. It is related to transport costs as well as to the attributes of what is being transported (fragility, perishable, price). Political factors such as laws, regulations, borders, and tariffs can also influence mobility. When mobility is high, activities are less constrained by distance. - **Mobility as a Service**. Bundling of transportation services to users through an information technology platform. - **Mobility on Demand**. A transport system where the mobility of passengers and freight can be arranged through an information technology platform rather than through privately owned vehicles. - **Modal share**. The percentage of total passengers or freight moved by a particular mode of transportation. - **Modal split (share)**. (1) The proportion of total person trips that use each of various specified modes of transportation. (2) The process of separating total person trips into the modes of travel used. (3) A term that describes how many people use alternative forms of transportation. It is frequently used to describe the percentage of people who use private automobiles, as opposed to the percentage who use public transportation. - **Mode, Transport**. The physical way a movement is performed. - **Model**. An analytical tool (often mathematical) used by transportation planners to assist in making forecasts of land use, economic activity, travel activity, and their effects on the quality of resources such as land, air, and water. - **Monorail**. An electric railway in which a rail car or train of cars is suspended from or straddles a guideway formed by a single beam or rail. Most monorails are either heavy rail or automated guideway systems. - **Multi-modal platform**. A physical converging point where freight and/or passenger transshipment occurs between different modes of transportation, usually a transport terminal. - **Multi-modal transportation**. The movements of passengers or freight from an origin to a destination relying on several modes of transportation using one ticket (passengers) or contract (freight). Technically the same as intermodal transportation, but it represents an evolution requiring a higher level of integration between the actors involved, such as carriers and terminal operators. ## N - **National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)**. Legislation requiring federal agencies to prepare environmental impact assessments for all the actions they perform. Enacted in 1970, it is considered one of the most significant environmental regulations, which became the standard for many others. - **Narrow-body aircraft**. An aircraft with a single aisle for the movement of passengers within the place. - **North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) / USMCA**. A trade treaty implemented in 1994 that binds Canada, the United-States and Mexico over a series of common economics rules. Besides the liberalization of the exchange of goods and services, NAFTA regulates investments, intellectual property, public markets, and the non-tariff barrier. NAFTA is a result of a tradition of trade negotiations between Canada and the U.S. that became explicit with the 1989 Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and the 1991 Canada-U.S. Trade Agreement (CUSTA). In 2020, NAFTA was renegotiated with clauses including a higher North American content for goods to be duty-free and the minimum wage in key manufacturing sectors such as automotive. - **Net tonnage**. The net or register tonnage of a vessel is the remainder after deducting from the gross tonnage of the vessel the tonnage of crew spaces, master’s accommodations, navigation spaces, allowance for propelling power, etc. It is expressed in tons of 100 cubic feet. - **Network**. Framework of routes within a system of locations, identified as nodes. A route is a single link between two nodes that are part of a larger network that can refer to tangible routes, such as roads and rails, or less tangible routes, such as air and sea corridors. - **Network analysis**. The pattern of transportation systems, the location of routes or rails, and the location of intersections, nodes, and terminals can be considered as a network. Networks analysis aims at identifying flows, shortest distances between two given points, or the less expensive road to take for transporting goods between those points. To facilitate the task, networks have been approximated using graph theory relying on topology. - **New Panamax**. Ship class able to fit into the locks of the expanded Panama Canal. It is defined by the new lock dimensions of 427 meters in length, 55 meters in beam (width), and 18.3 meters in depth. This represents a capacity of about 12,500 TEU or 120,000 dwt. - **Nitrogen Oxides**. A product of the combustion of fossil fuels whose production increases with the temperature of the process. It can become an air pollutant if concentrations are excessive. ## O - **Ocean bill of lading.** A cargo receipt and a transportation contract between a shipper and the ocean carrier. It may also be used as an instrument of ownership that can be bought, sold, or traded while the goods are in transit. - **Oceanic airspace.** Airspace over the oceans of the world considered international airspace, where oceanic separation and procedures per the International Civil Aviation Organization are applied. Responsibility for providing air traffic control service in this airspace is delegated to various countries, generally based on geographic proximity and the availability of the required resources. - **Off-peak period**. Non-rush periods of the day when travel activity is generally lower and less transit service is scheduled. Also called the “base period”. - **Offshoring**. The transfer of an organization of production function to another country, whether the work is outsourced or stays within the same corporation. - **Offshore hub**. A port terminal that dominantly serves transmodal (ship-to-ship) operations, implying limited connections in relation to its total traffic with its hinterland. They are mainly used for feedering, relay, and interlining between maritime shipping routes. The term offshore can be misleading as many ports performing this function are located at standard port locations. - **Operating cost**. Costs that vary with the quantity shipped in the short run. 1) Fixed operating cost refers to expenditures that are independent of the amount of use. For a car, it would involve costs such as insurance costs, fees for license and registration, depreciation, and finance charges; 2) Variable operating cost: expenditures that are dependent on the amount of use. For a car, it would involve costs such as the cost of gasoline, oil, tires, and other maintenance. - **Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)**. In 1961 it replaced the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) created in 1948 to facilitate post-war reconstruction of Europe via American aid. It acts as a policy leveling forum where government representatives of member states seek to harmonize economic policies touching such sectors as commerce, industry, cooperation, foreign aid, and agriculture. - **Outsourcing**. The practice of having some activities that used to be performed within a corporation by another corporation. It often enables to reduce costs and focus on core competencies by outsourcing low productivity tasks to a sub-contractor. ## P - **Pallet**. A raised platform, normally made of wood, facilitating the handling of goods. Pallets are of standard dimensions. - **Pandemic**. An epidemic of infectious disease that spreads through human populations across a large area, even worldwide. - **Panamax**. A maritime standard corresponding to about 65,000 deadweight tons or 4,200 TEU. Refer to a ship with dimensions that allow it to pass through the initial locks of the Panama Canal: maximum length 295 meters, maximum beam overall 32.25 meters, maximum draught 13.50 meters. - **Park and Ride**. An access mode to transit in which patrons drive private automobiles or ride bicycles to a transit station, stop, or carpool/vanpool waiting area and park the vehicle in the area provided for the purpose. They then ride the transit system or take a car-or vanpool to their destinations. - **Particulates**. Carbon particles formed by partial oxidation and reduction of hydrocarbon fuel. Also included are trace quantities of metal oxides and nitrides, originating from engine wear, component degradation, and inorganic fuel additives. In the transportation sector, particulates are emitted mainly from diesel engines. - **Passenger-km (or Passenger-mile)**. The total number of miles (km) traveled by passengers on vehicles; determined by multiplying the number of unlinked passenger trips times the average length of their trips. - **Payload**. Weight of commodity being hauled. Includes packaging, pallets, banding, etc., but does not include the truck, truck body, etc. - **Peak oil**. A theory concerning oil production initially brought by the geophysicist King Hubbert published in 1956, which assumes that due to the finite nature of oil reserves that production will eventually reach maximum output. Once peak production has been reached, production declines, and prices go up until oil resources are depleted or too costly to have widespread use. - **Peak period (hour)**. Represent a time period of high usage of a transport system. For transit, it refers to morning and afternoon time periods when ridership is at its highest. - **Peak/Base ratio**. The number of vehicles operated in passenger or freight service during the peak period divided by the number operated during the base period. - **Pendulum service**. Involves a set of sequential port calls along with a maritime range, commonly including a transoceanic service from ports in another range and structured as a continuous loop. They are almost exclusively used for container transportation with the purpose of servicing a market by balancing the number of port calls and the frequency of services. - **Physical distribution**. The collective term for the range of activities involved in the movement of goods from points of production to final points of sale and consumption. It must ensure that the mobility requirements of supply chains are entirely met. Physical distribution comprises all the functions of movement and handling of goods, particularly transportation services (trucking, freight rail, air freight, inland waterways, marine shipping, and pipelines), transshipment and warehousing services (e.g. consignment, storage, inventory management), trade, wholesale and, in principle, retail. - **Physical Internet** (PI). A metaphor inspired by the digital internet that aims at improving the connectivity and efficiency of logistics. - **Piggyback trailers**. Trailers designed for quick loading on railcars. - **Pipeline**. A continuous pipe conduit, complete with such equipment as valves, compressor stations, communications systems, and meters for transporting natural and/or supplemental gas from one point to another, usually from a point in or beyond the producing field or processing plant to another pipeline or to points of utilization. It also refers to a company operating such facilities. - **Planning**. A process that allows people’s needs, preferences, and values to be reflected in decisions. Planning occurs at many different levels, from day-to-day decisions made by individuals and families, to major decisions made by governments and businesses that have comprehensive, long-term impacts on society. Management can be considered a short-term form of planning, while planning can be considered a longer-term form of management. - **Platform / modular manufacturing**. Strategy in which a multinational corporation retains its core competencies, namely its research and development, retailing, marketing, and distribution, while subcontracting (outsourcing) much of the manufacturing to the lowest bidders. - **Policy (Transport)**. The development of a set of constructs and propositions that are established to achieve particular objectives relating to social, economic, and environmental development, and the functioning and performance of the transport system. - **Port**. A harbor area in which are located marine terminal facilities for transferring cargo between ships and land transportation. - **Port Authority**. An entity of state or local government that owns, operates, or otherwise provides wharf, dock, and other marine terminal investments at ports. - **Port holding**. An entity, commonly private, that owns or leases port terminals in a variety of locations. It is also known as a port terminal operator. - **Port of entry**. A port at which foreign goods are admitted into the receiving country. It also refers to an air terminal or land access point (customs) where foreign passengers and freight can enter a country. - **Port regionalization**. A strategy aiming at improving the regional accessibility and connectivity of a port by better linking it to its hinterland. This includes developing intermodal services, particularly by rail and barges, and setting intermodal facilities such as inland terminals. - **Post-Panamax**. Ship classes that are higher than the standard size of the Panama Canal locks (Panamax) before its expansion in 2016. - **Primary transportation**. Conveyance of large shipments of petroleum raw materials and refined products, usually by pipeline, barge, or ocean-going vessel. All crude oil transportation is primary, including the small amounts moved by truck. All refined product transportation by pipeline, barge, or ocean-going vessel is primary transportation. - **Product life cycle**. Defined as the period that starts with the initial product design (research and development) and ends with the withdrawal of the product from the marketplace. A product life cycle is characterized by specific stages, including research, development, introduction, maturity, decline, and obsolescence. - **Project cargo**. The transportation of large and complex pieces of equipment and the associated materials to complete a construction project. - **Propane**. An alternative fuel; a liquid petroleum gas (LPG), which is stored under moderate pressure and with vapor heavier than air; produced as a by-product of natural gas and oil production. - **Public transportation**. Passenger transportation services, usually local in scope, that are available to any person who pays a prescribed fare. It operates on established schedules along designated routes or lines with specific stops and is designed to move relatively large numbers of people at one time. ## QR - **Radio Frequency Identification Device (RFID)**. Technology that uses small devices attached to objects that transmit data to a receiver. An alternative to barcoding is used for identification and tracking purposes, notably for items shipped in units (boxes, containers, etc.), but can also be attached to an individual item. The main technical advantages include data storage capacity, read/write capability, and no line-of-sight requirements during scanning. - **Railroad**. All forms of non-highway ground transportation that run on rails or electromagnetic guideways, including; (1) Commuter or other short-haul rail passenger service in a metropolitan or suburban area, and (2) High-speed ground transportation systems that connect metropolitan areas, without regard to whether they use new technologies not associated with traditional railroads. Such a term does not include rapid transit operations within an urban area not connected to the general railroad transportation system. - **Rail, Commuter**. Railroad local and regional passenger train operations between a central city, its suburbs, or another central city. It may be either locomotive-hauled or self-propelled and is characterized by multi-trip tickets, specific station-to-station fares, railroad employment practices, and usually only one or two stations in the central business district. Also known as suburban rail. - **Rail, Heavy**. A high-capacity electric railway characterized by exclusive rights-of-way, multi-car trains, high speed and rapid acceleration, sophisticated signaling, and high platform loading. Also known as rapid rail, subway, elevated railway, or metropolitan railway (metro). - **Rail, High speed**. A rail transportation system with exclusive right-of-way that serves densely traveled corridors at speeds of 124 miles per hour (200 km/h) and greater. - **Rail, Light**. An electric railway with a light volume traffic capacity compared to heavy rail. Light rail may use shared or exclusive rights-of-way, high or low platform loading, and multi-car trains or single cars. Also known as a streetcar, trolley car, and tramway. - **Rapid transit**. Rail or motorbus transit service operating completely separate from all modes of transportation on an exclusive right-of-way. - **Rate**. The price of transportation services paid by the consumer. They are the negotiated monetary cost of moving a passenger or freight unit between a specific origin and destination. Rates are often visible to the consumers since transport providers must provide this information to secure transactions. - **Reefer**. The generic name for a temperature-controlled transport unit, which can be a van, a small truck, a semi-trailer, or a standard ISO container. These units, which are insulated, are specially designed to allow temperature-controlled air circulation maintained by an attached and independent refrigeration plant. - **Reefer ship**. General cargo ship with 80 percent or more insulated cargo space. - **Resilience**. The capability of a transport system to resume operations at a level similar to that before a disruption occurred. The less disruption in terms of capacity and fluidity and the faster a system resumes its operations to a normal level, the higher its resilience. - **Return on investment (ROI)**. The amount that is earned on a firm’s total capital, calculated by dividing the total capital into earnings before interest, taxes, or dividends. - **Ridesharing**. A form of transportation, other than public transit, in which more than one person shares the use of the vehicle, such as a van or car, to make a trip. Also known as carpooling or vanpooling. - **Ridership**. The number of rides taken by people using a public transportation system in a given time period. - **Right of way**. Land reserved for transportation purposes, usually as a buffer along a path followed by a road or rail line. This buffer allows for safety, maintenance, and potential expansion of the infrastructure. - **Road train**. A tractor unit pulling two or more trailers linked together. - **Roll On/Roll Off (RO/RO) Vessel**. Ships that are specially designed to carry wheeled container trailers, or other wheeled cargo, and use the roll-on/roll-off method for loading and unloading. The main method to transport automobiles in international markets. - **Rolling stock**. The vehicles used in a transit system, including buses and rail cars. - **Rubber wheel/tire interchange**. Containers or trailers that are interchanged between two railroads using drayage. ## S - **Semi-trailer**. A non-powered vehicle for the carriage of goods, intended to be coupled to a motor vehicle so that a substantial part of its weight and load is borne by the motor vehicle. - **Shelf life**. A term used to describe the length of time a commodity (e.g. food, drugs, chemicals) is suitable to be used or consumed. It mostly applies to temperature-sensitive goods. - **Shimbel index**. Measures the minimum number of links necessary to connect one node with all other nodes in a defined graph. - **Shipper**. The company sending goods. - **Short sea shipping**. Commercial waterborne transportation that does not transit an ocean. It is an alternative form of commercial transportation that utilizes inland and coastal waterways to move commercial freight from major domestic ports to its destination. - **Shunting**. Operation related to moving a rail vehicle or set of rail vehicles within a railway installation (station, depot, workshop, marshaling yard, etc.). It mainly concerns the assembly and disassembly of unit trains. - **Shuttle**. A public or private vehicle that travels back and forth over a particular route, especially a short route or one that provides connections between transportation systems, employment centers, etc. - **Silk Road**. Historical trade route linking the Eastern Mediterranean basin to Central and East Asia. Named as such because of many prized commodities, namely silk, tea, and jade, that were carried from China. Was operational between the 1st century BC and the 16th century. - **Single-Occupant Vehicle (SOV)**. A vehicle with one occupant, the driver, is sometimes referred to as a “drive alone”. - **Site**. The geographical characteristics of a specific location. - **Situation**. The relationships a location has in regard to other locations. - **Source loading**. Refer to the loading of a shipment, commonly in a container, at the location where the goods it carries are produced. The shipment remains untouched until it reaches its destination, thus conferring a level of integrity in the supply chain. - **Spatial interaction**. A realized movement of passengers or freight between an origin and a destination. It is a transport demand/supply relationship expressed over geographical space. Spatial interactions cover a wide variety of movements such as journeys to work, migrations, tourism, the usage of public facilities, the transmission of information or capital, the market areas of retailing activities, international trade, and freight distribution. - **Spatial structure**. The manner in which space is organized by the cumulative locations of infrastructure, economic activities, and their relations. - **Steel wheel interchange**. Containers or trailers that are interchanged between two railroads while on the railroad flatcar. - **Stock Keeping Unit (SKU)**. A distinct item and all the associated attributes (manufacturer, description, material, size, color, packaging, and warranty terms). Inventory is usually taken in terms of the quantity of each SKU. A corporation is free to set its own SKU numbers, implying that SKUs are not an international standard. - **Suezmax**. A standard that represents the limitations of the Suez Canal. Before 1967, the Suez Canal could only accommodate tanker ships with a maximum of 80,000 dwt. The canal was closed between 1967 and 1975 because of the Israel – Arab conflict. Once it reopened in 1975, the Suezmax capacity went to 150,000 dwt. An enlargement to enable the canal to accommodate 250,000 dwt tankers was completed in 2015. - **Supply chain**. A functionally integrated network of production, trade, and service activities that covers all the stages in a supply chain, from the transformation of raw materials, through intermediate manufacturing stages, to the delivery of finished goods to a market. The chain is conceptualized as a series of nodes linked by various types of transactions, such as sales and transfers within a firm. Each successive node within a commodity chain involves the acquisition or organization of inputs for the purpose of added value. - **Supply Chain Management (SCM)**. The management of the whole commodity/supply chain, from suppliers, manufacturers, retailers, and the final customers. To achieve higher productivity and better returns, SCM mainly tries to reduce inventory, increase transaction speeds, and satisfy the needs of the customers in terms of cost, quantity, quality, and delivery as much as possible. - **Supply (Transport)**. The capacity of transportation infrastructures and modes, generally over a geographically defined transport system and for a specific period of time. Therefore, supply is expressed in terms of infrastructures (capacity), services (frequency), and networks. The number of passengers, volume (for liquids or containerized traffic), or mass (for freight) that can be transported per unit of time and space is commonly used to quantify transport supply. - **Sustainable development**. Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. ## T - **Tanker**. An oceangoing ship specially designed to haul liquid bulk cargo, particularly oil. - **Tare weight**. a) The weight of a container and the material used for packing. b) As applied to a car/trailer, the weight of the car/trailer exclusive of its contents. - **Tariff**. A general term for any listing of rates or charges. The tariffs most frequently encountered in foreign trade are tariffs for international transportation companies operating on sea, land, and in the air; tariffs for international cable, radio, and telephone companies; and the customs tariffs of the various countries that list goods that are duty-free and those subject to import duty, giving the rate of duty in each case. - **Telecommuting**. Using information and telecommunication technologies to work away from the traditional office location and environment. - **Teleconsuming**. Using information and telecommunication technologies to purchase goods and services that are consumed remotely or delivered. Also known as e-commerce. - **Terminal**. Any location where freight and passengers originate, terminate, or are handled in the transportation process. Terminals are central and intermediate locations in the movements of passengers and freight. They often require specific facilities to accommodate the traffic they handle. - **Terminal costs**. Costs of loading and unloading. They do not vary with the distance shipped. - **Thalweg**. The deepest water at any point in a river. The longitudinal line of greatest continuous depth in the river channel. - **Third-Party logistics provider (3PL)**. An asset-based company that offers logistics and supply chain management services to its customers (manufacturers and retailers). It commonly owns distribution centers and transport modes. - **Threshold**. The minimum and vital market size required to support a given economic activity. A mean number of passengers per trip can be identified to sustain the profitability of a coach line, for example. A threshold thus rests on a level of demand and can play a determining role in organizing freight and passenger transport structures on the basis of demographic dynamics, geographic relations to markets, and intensity of economic activities. - **Ton**. A unit of measurement of weight, frequently used in freight transport statistics. A metric ton is equivalent to 1,000 kilograms or 2,205 pounds. A short ton is equivalent to 2,000 pounds or 0.908 metric tons (in the United States, the term ton is commonly used but implies a short ton). A long ton, a term not as frequently used, is equivalent to 2,240 pounds or 1.06 metric tons. - **Ton-km (or ton-mile)**. Measure expressing the realized freight transport demand. Although both the passenger-km and ton-km are most commonly used to measure realized demand, the measure can equally apply to transport supply. - **Track gauge**. The distance between the internal sides of rails on a railway line. The standard gauge is generally 1.435 m. Other gauges are used, for instance, in Spain and Portugal (1.676 m) or in the Russian Federation (1.524 m). - **Trailer on Flat Car (TOFC)**. A rail trailer or container mounted on a chassis that is transported on a rail car. Also known as piggyback. - **Tramp**. An oceangoing vessel that does not operate along a definite route or on a fixed schedule but rather calls at any port where cargo is available. - **Transactions**. In business, a transaction is synonymous with exchange and refers to a commercial operation. Generally, before a transaction, there are some negotiations. Transactions generate varying costs depending on the stakes, the competition, the context of the economic market, etc. - **Transaction costs**. Costs required for gathering information, negotiating, and enforcing contracts, letters of credit, and transactions. Often referred to as the cost of doing business. - **Transit system**. An organization (public or private) providing local or regional multi-occupancy-vehicle passenger service. Organizations that provide service under contract to another agency are generally not counted as separate systems. - **Transloading**. The transshipment of loads from truck to rail and vice-versa. It is done to exploit the respective advantages of trucking and rail, namely, to avoid long-distance trucking. Also refer to moving the contents of a container, such as a 40-foot maritime container, into another container, such as a 53-foot domestic container, or a regular truckload. - **Transmodal transportation**. The movements of passengers or freight within the same mode of transport. Although “pure” transmodal transportation rarely exists and an intermodal operation is often required (e.g. ship to dockside to ship), the purpose is to ensure continuity within the network. - **Transport geography**. A sub-discipline of geography concerned with the mobility of passengers and freight. It seeks to link spatial constraints and attributes with the origin, destination, extent, nature, and purpose of mobility. - ****Transportability** (Mobility)**. The ease of movement of passengers, freight, or information. It is related to transport costs as well as to the attributes of what is being transported (fragility, perishable, price). Political factors such as laws, regulations, borders, and tariffs can also influence transportability. When transportability is high, activities are less constrained by distance. - **Transshipment**. The transfer of goods from one carrier to another or from one mode to another. - **Trip assignment**. In planning, a process by which trips, described by mode, purpose, origin, destination, and time of day, are allocated among the paths or routes in a network by one of several models. - **Trip generation**. In planning, the determination or prediction of the number of trips produced by and attracted to each zone. - **Twenty-Foot Equivalent Unit (TEU)**. A standard unit based on an ISO container of 20 feet length (6.10 m), used as a statistical measure of traffic flows or capacities. One standard 40 feet ISO Series 1 container equals 2 TEUs. ## U - **Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC).** Tanker ships from 300,000 to 550,000 dwt in size. Used for carrying crude oil on long-haul routes from the Persian Gulf to Europe, America, and East Asia, via the Cape of Good Hope or the Strait of Malacca. The enormous size of these vessels requires custom-built terminals. - **Unit load**. Packages loaded on a pallet, in a crate, or any other way that enables them to be handled as a unit. - **Unit load device**. A container that has been specifically designed to fit the cargo storage area of an airplane. - **Unlinked passenger trips**. The number of passengers who board public transportation vehicles. A passenger is counted each time a vehicle is boarded, even though the passenger may be on the same journey from origin to destination. - **Upstream / Downstream**. The relative location of a given activity along a supply chain. Upstream generally refers to the suppliers, while downstream refers to the customers. - **Urban form**. The spatial imprint of an urban transport system, the adjacent physical infrastructures, and socioeconomic activities. Jointly, they confer a level of spatial arrangement to cities. ## V - **Variable cost**. A cost that varies in relation to the level of operational activity. - **Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC)**. A crude oil carrying ship of between 150,000 and 320,000 deadweight tons. They offer good flexibility for using terminals since many can accommodate their draft. They are used in ports that have depth limitations, mainly around the Mediterranean, West Africa, and the North Sea. They can be ballasted through the Suez Canal. - **Vessel**. Every description of watercraft used or capable of being used as a means of transportation on the water. - **Vessel sharing agreement**. Agreement between two or more ocean carriers in which a number of container slots are reserved on particular vessels for each participant (right to book slots and obligation of the other carrier to carry the containers). Used to create operational efficiencies across carriers, namely a higher level of slot usage, with more port calls and higher frequency of service. ## W - **Warehouse**. A place for the reception, delivery, consolidation, distribution, and storage of freight. Designed to store goods for longer periods of time. - **Waterway**. River, canal, lake or other stretches of water that by natural or artificial features are suitable for navigation. - **Waybill**. A document covering a shipment and showing the forwarding and receiving station, the names of consignor and consignee, the car initials and number, the routing, the description and weight of the commodity, instructions for special services, the rate, total charges, advances and waybill reference for previous services and the amount prepaid. - **Weight, Gross**. The weight of the goods, including packing, wrappers, or containers, both internal and external. The total weight as shipped. - **Weight, Net**. The weight of the goods themselves without the inclusion of any wrapper. - **Weight, Tare**. The weight of the packaging or container. - **Weight, Ton**. Metric measure equals 1000 Kilograms. A short ton is 2000 pounds and a long ton is 2240 pounds. - **Wharf**. A landing place where vessels may tie up for loading and unloading of cargo. - **Wide-body aircraft**. A commercial aircraft with two aisles for the movement of passengers. - **World Bank**. A financial body part of the United Nations system. The World Bank was created in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Financial and Monetary Conference. First loans helped finance the reconstruction of Western Europe and Japan following World War II, but today the World Bank has considerably broadened its presence throughout the globe, lending to countries of Africa, Asia, Central Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, and the former Soviet Union. Its priority is to lend capital to governments of developing countries to promote economic growth through financing large infrastructure projects, economic reform packages, and technical assistance. It thus has vested interests in a number of developing countries worldwide. Loans are also aimed at encouraging private sector development. Presently, the World Bank is composed of four main branches: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), the International Development Agency (IDA), and the International Financial Society (IFS). Its headquarters are in Washington, D.C. - **World Trade Organization**. The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on January 1, 1995, as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (1986-94). The seat of the WTO is located in Geneva, Switzerland. It performs various functions, including administering WTO trade agreements, organizing forums for trade negotiations, handling trade disputes, monitoring national trade policies, providing technical assistance and training for developing countries, and cooperating with other international organizations. ## XYZ - **Yard**. A system of auxiliary tracks used exclusively for the classification of passenger or freight cars according to commodity or destination; assembling of cars for train movement; storage of cars; or repair of equipment. - **Yield management (Transportation)**. The process of managing the usage price of a transport asset, such as the fare paid by users, in view of changes in the demand. The goal of such an approach is to maximize profit in the context where the transport supply is fixed. Commonly used in air transportation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/glossary/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/glossary/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/glossary/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/glossary/?share=reddit) - --- ### [On-Time Flight Arrivals in the United States, 1995-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/on-time-arrivals-united-states/) **Published:** November 23, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/on_time_arrivals_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "On-Time Flight Arrivals in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")On Time Flight Arrivals in the United States 1995 2020*Source: Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA), U.S. Department of Transportation (US DOT).* On-time arrivals are a commonly used performance measure in air transportation since passengers plan their trips according to the arrival schedule, including connecting flights. The main sources of delays, as reported by airlines, are: - **Air carrier delay** (5.15%). The cause of the cancellation or delay was due to circumstances within the airline’s control (e.g. maintenance or crew problems, aircraft cleaning, baggage loading, fueling, etc.). - **Extreme weather** (0.51%). Significant meteorological conditions (actual or forecasted) that, in the carrier’s judgment, delay or prevent the operation of a flight, such as a tornado, thunderstorm, blizzard, or hurricane. - **National Aviation System** (5.80%). Delays and cancellations attributable to the national aviation system refer to a broad set of conditions, such as non-extreme weather conditions, airport operations, heavy traffic volume, and air traffic control. - **Late-arriving aircraft** (6.75%). A previous flight with the same aircraft arrived late, causing the present flight to depart late. This is the outcome of propagation effects on schedule integrity since a plane is usually scheduled for several flights during the day. - **Security** (0.04%). Delays or cancellations caused by evacuation of a terminal or concourse, re-boarding of aircraft because of a security breach, inoperative screening equipment, and long lines in excess of 29 minutes at screening areas. Fluctuations in the flight delay pattern are mainly attributed to air traffic growth and decline rates. If air transport grows rapidly, the outcome tends to be a decreasing performance of on-time arrivals as the system is trying to cope with additional demands with a similar level of capacity (e.g. 1995-2000, 2003-2007, 2012-2014, or 2020-22). On the other hand, if air traffic stops growing or even declines, the performance improves since some flights are removed (e.g. 2000-2002 or 2007-2010). The substantial drop in air traffic during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 was associated with an increase in performance because of limited airport congestion. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/on-time-arrivals-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/on-time-arrivals-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/on-time-arrivals-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/on-time-arrivals-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Geographic Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/geoaccessibility/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/geographic_accessibility2.png?resize=900%2C664&ssl=1 "Geographic Accessibility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Geographic AccessibilityThe construction of a geographic accessibility matrix, A(G), is a rather simple undertaking: - **[Build the valued graph matrix](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/valuedgraph/ "Valued Graph Matrix (L-Matrix)")** (L). The above L-matrix shows the shortest distance in kilometers between five nodes (Node A to Node E). - **Build the geographic accessibility matrix** A(G). The A(G) matrix is similar to the L-matrix, except that the summation of rows and columns is divided by the number of locations in the network. The summation values are the same for columns and rows since this is a transposable matrix. The most accessible place is Node C, since it has the **lowest summation of distances**. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/geoaccessibility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/geoaccessibility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/geoaccessibility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/geoaccessibility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.2 - Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Shih-Lung Shaw and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T) refer to the principles and applications of geographic information technologies to transportation problems. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. GIS in Transportation](#1_GIS_in_Transportation) - [2. GIS-T Data Representations](#2_GIS-T_Data_Representations) - [3. GIS-T Analysis and Modeling](#3_GIS-T_Analysis_and_Modeling) - [4. GIS-T applications](#4_GIS-T_applications) # 1. GIS in Transportation In a broad sense, a geographic information system (GIS) is an information system specializing in the input, management, analysis, and reporting of geographical (spatially related) information. They have transformed and expanded geography through their ability to store large amounts of data, analyze it, and particularly by depicting customized cartographic outputs. Among the wide range of potential applications GIS can be used for, transportation issues have received much attention since they are simultaneously highly dependent on visualization and analytical methods. A specific branch of [GIS applied to transportation issues](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6578), commonly labeled as GIS-T, is one of the pioneer GIS application areas. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gis_and_transportation.png?resize=900%2C517&ssl=1 "Geographic Information Systems and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/transportation-gis/gis_and_transportation/)Geographic Information Systems and Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gis_data_models2.png?resize=900%2C606&ssl=1 "GIS Data Models | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/gis-data-models/gis_data_models2/)GIS Data ModelsGIS-T research can be approached from two different, but complementary, directions. While some GIS-T research focuses on issues of how GIS can be further developed and enhanced in order to meet the needs of transportation applications, other GIS-T research investigates the questions of how GIS can be used to facilitate and improve transportation studies. In general, topics related to GIS-T studies can be grouped into three categories: - **Data representations**. How various components of transport systems are represented as a database, which involves the network as well as technical and operational characteristics (capacity, speed). - **Analysis and modeling**. How transport methodologies can be used to represent real-world transportation activities. - **Applications**. What types of applications are particularly suitable for the data and analytical capabilities of GIS-T. # 2. GIS-T Data Representations Data representation is a core research topic of GIS. Before a GIS can be used to tackle real-world problems, data must be **properly represented in a digital computing environment**. One unique characteristic of GIS is the capability of integrating spatial and non-spatial data in order to support both display and analysis needs. There have been various data models developed for GIS. The [two basic approaches](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6748) are **object-based data models** and **field-based data models**: - An object-based data model treats geographic space as populated by **discrete and identifiable objects**. Features are often represented as points, lines, and/or polygons. - On the other hand, a field-based data model treats geographic space as populated by **real-world features** that vary continuously over space. Features can be represented as regular tessellations (e.g., a raster grid) or irregular tessellations (e.g., triangulated irregular network – TIN). GIS-T studies have employed both object-based and field-based data models to represent relevant geographic data. Some transportation problems tend to fit better with one type of GIS data model than the other. For example, **network analysis** based on the graph theory typically represents a network as a set of nodes interconnected with a set of links. Therefore, the object-based GIS data model is a better candidate for such transportation applications. Other transportation data types require extensions to the general GIS data models. One well-known example is **linear referencing data** (e.g. highway mileposts). Transportation agencies often measure locations of features or events along with transportation network links (e.g. a traffic accident occurred at the 52.3 milepost on a specific highway). Such a one-dimensional linear referencing system (i.e. linear measurements along a highway segment concerning a pre-specified starting point of the highway segment) cannot be properly handled by the two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system used in most GIS data models. Consequently, the dynamic segmentation data model was developed to address the specific need of the GIS-T community. **Origin-destination** (O-D) flow data is another type of data that is frequently used in transportation studies. Such data have been traditionally represented in matrix forms, a two-dimensional array, for analysis. Unfortunately, the relational data model widely adopted in most commercial GIS software does not provide adequate support for handling matrix data. Some GIS-T software has developed additional file formats and functions for users to work with matrix data in a GIS environment. Conventional GIS approaches can thus be further extended and enhanced to meet the needs of transportation applications. The creation and expansion of add-ons for GIS software represent how specific methods and models can be implemented in existing packages. Developments of **enterprise and multidimensional GIS-T data models** also have received significant attention. Successful GIS deployments at the enterprise level (e.g., within a state department of transportation or a large consulting firm) demand additional considerations to embrace the diversity of application and data requirements. An enterprise GIS-T data model is designed to allow each application group to meet the established needs while enabling the enterprise to integrate and share data. The need to integrate 1-D, 2-D, 3-D, and temporal data in support of various transportation applications also called for implementing multidimensional (including spatiotemporal) data representations. The development of these systems has also been facilitated by **cloud computing applications** allowing for the storage and sharing of large databases among a large number of users at different locations. Modern **information and communication technologies** (ICT) have changed how people and businesses conduct their activities. These changing activity and interaction patterns, in turn, lead to changing traffic patterns. The world has become more mobile and dynamic due to modern ICT. With the advancements in location-aware technologies (e.g., Global Positioning System, mobile phone tracking system, RFID, and Wi-Fi positioning system), collecting large volumes of tracking data at the individual level is feasible and affordable. Consequently, how to best represent and manage dynamic data of moving objects (passengers, vehicles, or shipments) in a GIS environment presents new research challenges to GIS-T. **Big Data** allows new opportunities for automatically collecting large amounts of data by various sensors. In short, one critical component of GIS-T is how transportation-related data in a GIS environment can be best represented to **facilitate and integrate the needs of various transportation applications**. Existing GIS data models provide a good foundation for supporting many GIS-T applications. However, due to some unique characteristics of transportation data and application needs, many challenges still exist to develop better GIS data models that will improve rather than limit what can be done with different types of transportation studies. # 3. GIS-T Analysis and Modeling GIS-T applications have benefited from many standard GIS functions (query, geocoding, buffer, overlay, etc.) to support data management, analysis, and visualization needs. Like many other fields, transportation has developed its own **unique analysis methods and models**. Examples include: - Shortest path and routing algorithms (e.g. traveling salesperson problems, vehicle routing problems). - Spatial interaction models (e.g. gravity model). - Network flow problems (e.g. minimum cost flow problem, maximum flow problem, network flow equilibrium models). - Facility location problems (e.g. p-median problem, set covering problem, maximal covering problem, p-centers problem). - Travel demand models (e.g. the four-step trip generation, trip distribution, modal split, traffic assignment models, and activity-based travel demand models). - Land use-transportation interaction models. While the basic transportation analysis procedures (e.g. shortest path finding) can be found in most commercial GIS software, other transportation analysis procedures and models (e.g. travel demand models) are available only selectively in some commercial software packages. Fortunately, the component GIS design approach adopted by GIS software companies provides a better environment for experienced GIS-T users to develop their own custom analysis procedures and models. It is essential for both GIS-T practitioners and researchers to have a thorough understanding of transportation analysis methods and models. For GIS-T practitioners, such knowledge can help them evaluate different GIS software products and choose the one that best meets their needs. It also can help them select appropriate analysis functions available in a GIS package and properly interpret the analysis results. GIS-T researchers, on the other hand, can apply their knowledge to help improve the design and analysis capabilities of GIS-T. Due to the increasing availability of tracking data that includes both spatial and temporal elements, the development of **spatiotemporal GIS** analysis functions to help better understand the dynamic movement and routing patterns has attracted significant research attention. # 4. GIS-T applications GIS-T is one of the leading GIS application fields. Many GIS-T applications have been implemented at various transportation agencies and private firms. They cover much of the **broad scope of transportation and logistics**: - Infrastructure planning and management - Transportation safety analysis. - Travel demand analysis. - Traffic monitoring and control. - Public transit planning and operations. - Economic and environmental impacts assessment. - Routing and scheduling. - Vehicle tracking and dispatching. - Fleet management. - Site selection and service area analysis. - Supply chain management. Each of these applications tends to have specific data and analysis requirements. For example, representing a street network as **centerlines** may be sufficient for transportation planning and vehicle routing applications. On the other hand, a traffic engineering application may require a detailed representation of **individual traffic lanes**, sidewalks, and even the curvature of routes. Turn movements at intersections also could be critical to a traffic engineering study, but not to a regional travel demand study. These different application needs are directly relevant to the GIS-T data representation, analysis, and modeling issues. When a need arises to represent transportation networks of a study area at different scales, what would be an appropriate GIS-T design that could support the analysis and modeling needs of various applications? In this case, having a GIS-T data model that allows multiple geometric representations of the same transportation network is desirable. Research on enterprise and multidimensional GIS-T data models aims to address these important issues of better **data representations** supporting various transportation applications. With the rapid growth of the Internet and wireless communications, a number of Internet-based and wireless GIS-T applications can be found, particularly for driving directions, which is the **most common commercial use**. Global positioning system (GPS) navigation systems are available as built-in devices in vehicles, like portable devices, and dominantly as built-in smartphone applications. Coupled with wireless communications, these devices can offer real-time traffic information and provide helpful **location-based services** (LBS). Another trend observed in recent years is the growing number of GIS-T applications in the private sector, particularly for [logistics applications](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6753). Since many businesses involve operations at geographically dispersed locations (e.g., supplier sites, distribution centers, retail stores, and customer locations), GIS-T can be a useful tool for a variety of logistics applications. Many of these logistics applications are based on the GIS-T analysis and modeling procedures, such as the routing and facility location problems that are widely used in e-commerce. GIS-T is interdisciplinary in nature and has many possible applications addressing real-world problems. --- ## Related Topics - [Network Data Models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7585) - [Symbolization of Transport Features in a GIS](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7019) ## Bibliography - Jetlund, K., B. Neuhäuser (2022) Geographic Information Systems for Transportation. In: Kresse, W., Danko, D. (eds) Springer Handbook of Geographic Information. Springer Handbooks. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53125-6\_26 - Lo, C.P. and A.K.W. Yeung (2002) Concepts and Techniques of Geographic Information Systems. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. - Miller, H.J. and S.L. Shaw (2001) Geographic Information Systems for Transportation: Principles and Applications. New York: Oxford University Press. - Miller, H.J. and S.L. Shaw (2015) “Geographic Information Systems for Transportation in the 21st Century”. Geography Compass, Vol. 9, pp. 180-189. - Shaw, S-L. (2010) “Geographic information systems for transportation: from a static past to a dynamic future”, Annals of GIS, 16(3), pp. 129-140. - Thill, J.C. (ed.) (2000) Geographic Information Systems in Transportation Research, Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science Ltd. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Geographic Information Systems and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/transportation-gis/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gis_and_transportation.png?resize=900%2C517&ssl=1 "Geographic Information Systems and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Geographic Information Systems and TransportationThe four major components of a GIS, encoding, management, analysis, and reporting, have specific considerations for transportation: - **Encoding**. Deals with issues concerning the representation of a transport system and its spatial components. To be used in a GIS, a transport network must be correctly encoded, implying a functional topology composed of nodes and links. Other elements relevant to transportation, namely qualitative and quantitative data, must also be encoded and associated with their respective spatial elements. For instance, an encoded road segment can have data related to its width, number of lanes, direction, peak-hour traffic, etc. - **Management**. The encoded information is often stored in a database and can be organized along spatial (by region, country, census units, etc.), thematic (for highway, transit, railway, terminals, etc.), or temporal (by year, month, week, etc.) considerations. It is important to design a GIS database that organizes a large amount of heterogeneous data that can be easily accessed to support various transportation application needs. - **Analysis**. Considers the wide array of methodologies and tools available for transport issues. They can range from a simple query over an element of a transport system (e.g., what is the peak hour traffic of a road segment?) to a complex model investigating the relationships between its elements (e.g., if a new road segment was added, what would be the impacts on traffic and future land use developments?). - **Reporting**. A GIS would not be complete without its visualization and data reporting capabilities for spatial and non-spatial data. This component is particularly important as it offers interactive tools to convey complex information in a visual format. A GIS-T thus becomes a useful tool to inform people who otherwise may not be able to visualize the hidden patterns and relationships embedded in the datasets (e.g. potential relationships among traffic accidents, highway geometry, pavement condition, and terrain). Information in a GIS is often stored and represented as feature classes (or layers), which are a set of geographical features linked with their attributes. In the above figure, a transport system is represented as three layers related to land use, flows (spatial interactions), and the network. Each has its own features, and related data and can be used independently or in combination with other layers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/transportation-gis/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/transportation-gis/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/transportation-gis/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/transportation-gis/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Models in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/models-transport-geography/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/models_transport_geography2.png?resize=900%2C581&ssl=1 "Models in Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Models in Transport GeographyThere are four basic categories of models in transport geography, each with growing complexity and data requirements. Each is building upon the other, implying, for instance, that estimating accessibility cannot be assessed without information about distance. Further, spatial interactions are derived from accessibility assessments: - **Distance**. The most fundamental element of geography in general and transport geography in particular. It can be represented in [different manners](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=194), from a simple Euclidean distance calculation to a complex estimation of a logistical distance that considers all the tasks necessary to realize mobility. Estimating distance requires the consideration of the involved transportation networks. - **Accessibility and connectivity**. Defined as the capability of a location to be reached by or to reach different locations. Therefore, measuring the capacity and the arrangement of transport infrastructure are key elements in determining [accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6945). It requires more extensive information about the transport capabilities between locations. Connectivity focuses on the network configuration of locations, particularly in terms of transportation services. Two identical ports or airports could have different accessibility and connectivity depending on the service configuration of the transport operators servicing them. - **Spatial interaction and routing**. Involve a [realized passenger or freight movement](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8565) between an origin and a destination. A demand/supply relationship is fulfilled and represented as a spatial flow. Routing is a specific category of spatial interaction that considers a given set of origins and destinations for which specific (often optimal) routes are found. - **Transportation / land use models**. A complex framework trying to assess the numerous relations and feedback effects between transportation and the spatial structure. The main goal is to represent the complex spatial framework that explains the supply and demand for mobility and how this framework can be impacted by economic, social, technological, and political changes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/models-transport-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/models-transport-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/models-transport-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/methods-transport-geography/models-transport-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Drivers of Change for Future Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/driver-change-future-transportation/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/drivers_change_future_transportation.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Drivers of Change for Future Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Drivers of Change for Future Transportation*Source: adapted from ICF International (2008) Long Range Strategic Issues Facing the Transportation Industry, Final Future-focused Research Framework, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Project 20-80, Task 2.* Each driver of change for the transportation system plays a role **individually and in conjunction**. Therefore, it is virtually impossible to establish outcomes accurately as there are too many interrelationships and uncertainties, particularly if a longer time frame is considered. However, it is possible to identify trends that may impact each driver individually and try to assess how these trends will shape different components of the transport system: - **Policy**. The inherent scale and complexity of transportation systems, particularly when they span multiple jurisdictions, will require novel approaches to governance. The role and impact of government policy are commonly subject to cycles of increasing commitments followed by different forms of retrenchment (e.g. privatization) as regulations lead to unproductive practices and unintended consequences. Despite deregulation, transportation is subject to many regulations pertaining to safety, security, and the environment. These regulations as well as the taxation of transport activities, add to the management complexity and the cost burden. - **Demography and society**. Population growth is expected to endure in parts of the world until the mid-21st century, a process linked with mobility demands and increased consumption. Yet, in other parts of the world, such as in Western Europe, North America, and East Asia (Japan, South Korea, and China), the rapid aging of the population and more people in retirement age will be associated with changes in mobility and lower levels of consumption per capita. Urbanization is expected to continue in many developing economies, underlining issues linked with the urban mobility of passengers and freight. As a greater share of the global population lives in urban areas, additional pressures are felt on terminal facilities, such as airports, rail yards, and ports, with limited room for expansion. Therefore, new sites are located further away from existing activity centers. It also remains to be seen how changes in work patterns, such as a greater share of the population in the service sector, will be reflected in mobility. - **Energy and environment**. Issues related to the availability of energy and raw materials, particularly fossil fuels, are likely to endure. Since each mode has a different elasticity, the comparative advantages of modal options will change toward the most energy-efficient transport chains. A range of alternative fuels will be brought forward, and transportation activities will increasingly be considered within a sustainability framework. Climate change is also an issue that may add to the sustainability of transport systems, particularly in terms of a more stringent regulatory framework and changes in consumer preferences. There is a convergence toward removing the carbon footprint of transportation modes and terminals. - **Technology**. Technological innovation is very difficult to anticipate, and its impacts are even more complex to assess. For transportation, technological innovations either concern the management, the mode (or infrastructure), or the motion (engine). It is expected that information technologies (IT) are likely to transform mobility with an improved command of flows and supply chain management practices. This is commonly linked with better asset utilization and derived productivity gains. Information technologies also have a high potential to contribute to trade facilitation through more efficient customs procedures as cargo information is standardized and exchangeable. Improvements in materials and engines are also highly possible with the expected benefits on modes and terminals, namely in terms of performance. Still, automation remains one of the most transformative drivers as it can be applied to almost every aspect of the transportation process. - **Economics**. Economic development and global trade have been significant vectors for the growth of mobility. Yet this process is subject to cycles of growth and recession and limits in credit-based consumption. The level of activity, the structure of national economies, and their trade patterns are important influences on national and global transport systems. Economic integration will likely endure, favoring more comprehensive and seamless regional transport systems. The relative price of transportation is also linked with the viability of several supply chains and the comparative advantages they extract value from. As transportation costs are expected to rise in the medium term, transport demand, from commuting to global supply chains, will be readjusted accordingly in volume but also in the locations they concern. - **Finance**. Transportation projects, due to their size and technological complexity, are getting increasingly capital-intensive. In several cases, only the largest financial institutions, often in partnership with the public sector, can provide adequate capitalization. The value of transportation assets and their revenue are likely to be important factors behind their financing. Thus, a transport innovation cannot be adopted effectively if financing cannot be secured. Financial considerations are also linked with demographic issues, namely aging. An aging population tends to be more wealth-consuming as opposed to wealth-producing, which may undermine the availability of capital. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/driver-change-future-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/driver-change-future-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/driver-change-future-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/driver-change-future-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Circular Economy and Supply Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/circular-economy-supply-chains/) **Published:** January 28, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/circular_economy2.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "The Circular Economy and Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Circular Economy and Supply Chains*Source: Adapted from the Ellen MacArthur Foundation.* The conventional organization of supply chains is **linear**, involving a sequence from suppliers, manufacturers, and distributors to the user. Despite the perceived efficiency of manufacturing and freight distribution, the consumption and use of material goods are associated with high waste levels. More than half of the materials used will be burned or discarded depending on the supply chain, while a smaller fraction (about 15%) will be reused or recycled. The reasons behind this reality are numerous but often linked with the comparative costs of sourcing new materials instead of recycled materials. Therefore, supply chain strategies can enhance sustainability by making new sourcing strategies available. The circular economy is a feedback system that tries to **minimize the inputs of resources** (biological and technical) as well as the **generation of wastes** leaking into the environment. It is expanding reverse logistics principles into a more comprehensive framework, including two subsystems; one related to biological goods (e.g. food) and the other to technical goods (products). Although supply chains in a circular economy appear similar to conventional supply chains, there are two fundamental differences: - The first concerns **product design** and the **socioeconomic context of consumption**. In a circular economy, products are designed to last longer and be reprocessed in some manner once their life cycle is complete. It is also assumed that most goods are shared (particularly capital goods), which increases their utilization level; fewer goods are required to provide the same service level. - The second concerns **collecting used/consumed biological and technical goods** for various reprocessing forms, where the conventional linear structure of supply chains becomes a feedback loop. For technical goods, it becomes important to have **digital manifests** that inform about the exact resource composition of a product in terms of type, quality, and quantity, which allows for determining its recycling value. The circular perspective about supply chains underlines four layers to the reverse logistics of technical goods: - **Maintenance**. Ensuring the ongoing serviceability of a product, including its upgrade, at or near its place of use. Depending on the product, this can involve on-site maintenance. - **Reuse**. The transfer of a product from one user (or user group) to another through its collection, maintenance, storage at the distributor, and delivery. - **Remanufacture**. The manufacturing of a new product from similar products once it has ceased to function because of damage or wear and tear. The manufacturer refurbishes major parts and adds new components for the parts that cannot be repaired if necessary. Then, the product is reintroduced into the supply chain. - **Recycle**. Collecting various materials to be used in the (re)manufacturing of new products. A controversial issue is that the circular economy is at odds with several manufacturing and marketing principles based on planned obsolescence and individual ownership. Still, circular economy principles are increasingly integrated into manufacturing and distribution strategies. Therefore, firms that have reached a market saturation of their products are more likely to implement circular supply chains as a strategy to gain or retain market share. Benefits are mainly derived from resource and energy efficiency gains, which indirectly result from reverse supply chain improvements. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/circular-economy-supply-chains/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/circular-economy-supply-chains/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/circular-economy-supply-chains/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/circular-economy-supply-chains/?share=reddit) - --- ### [10.2 - Governance, Management and Digitalization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/governance-and-management/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transportation systems are complex assets that are under a governance structure and managed accordingly. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transportation Governance](#1_Transportation_Governance) - [2. Management of Transport Systems](#2_Management_of_Transport_Systems) - [3. The Digitalization of Mobility](#3_The_Digitalization_of_Mobility) # 1. Transportation Governance Transportation systems and their supporting infrastructures have become so complex in terms of management and scale of operation that governance models need to be revised. The main circumstances under which governance can be revised include: - When a transport infrastructure is experiencing a **decline** in traffic or is losing its market share, often because of higher operating costs. - When the behavior of competing organizations or facilities may be perceived as **unfair**, such as being subsidized. - When there is the potential **duplication** of infrastructure as each competing facility is vying for the same traffic. This particularly occurs when different jurisdictions compete to attract economic development opportunities. - When the **effectiveness** of the existing governance structure is being questioned, often triggered by allegations of corruption and waste of resources. - When the **scale** of an existing or projected transportation infrastructure project, such as an airport, is so complex that an existing entity cannot effectively manage it. From a tradition of public provision and management, there has been a **tendency towards privatization** in transport, particularly with deregulation. Inefficiencies of national and international regulations, notably over environmental issues, have created opportunities for non-governmental actors such as private companies and trade groups to be more actively involved in regulatory and governance matters. Thus, [public/private partnerships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6479) are seen as a dominant trend in transportation governance. Transport terminals increasingly became an attractive form of investment for private equity firms seeking valuable assets and a return on their investments. This is manifested in the sale of ports and airports in some countries and the break-up of state rail monopolies. However, privatization is most evident in awarding operational concessions to private companies. The trend toward concessions is partly warranted by the belief that the private sector is more efficient than the public in operating terminals. This form of governance keeps the ownership still under public control. It is also seen as a means of reducing public expenditures at a time when states are becoming less willing (or able) to make substantial investments. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pubic_private_partnership_options.png?resize=900%2C397&ssl=1 "Public / Private Partnership Options for Building Transportation Facilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-options/ppp-3/)Public Private Partnership Options[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/public_private_roles_transport.png?resize=900%2C416&ssl=1 "Public and Private Roles for Transport Infrastructure and Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/public-private-roles-transport-infrastructure-terminals/public_private_roles_transport/)Public and Private Roles for Transport Infrastructure and Terminals# 2. Management of Transport Systems The transportation industry is changing significantly in form, and function, and how it is **organized and managed** tends to be overlooked. Yet, it is through different management practices that the spatial manifestations of the industry are expressed. It is perhaps easiest to see the changes in management through the lens of governance, where an industry that used to be primarily managed and controlled by the public sector has become increasingly controlled by the private sector. Privatizing transport companies and infrastructures has been an important feature of the last decades and is likely to continue. However, there are still many issues about the role of the public sector in transportation, and deregulation, which has prevailed, could be reversed. The growing role of the private sector in an industry that has become global and multi-functional has necessitated a shift in management and ownership relationships that are still evolving. They include: - The emergence of **horizontally linked global corporations** that, through acquisitions and mergers, have bought up similar operating companies in different markets. A good example is [global port terminal operators](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3363). - The development of **vertically integrated corporations** that have grown by merger and acquisition to control several segments of the transport chain, namely modes and terminals. - **Intermediaries** that provide transport services on a global scale, without direct ownership of infrastructure. 3PL companies operate in many markets and are major actors in the transport chain. - **Alliances** are informal groupings of transport providers that pool resources and offer joint services between major global markets as the partners combine their regional networks. The main goal of alliances is to manage capacity to avoid undue market disruptions while maintaining competitive mechanisms. At the same time, transport is being increasingly **integrated into global production systems**. It is becoming an integral part of production and distribution chains, which give rise to distinct patterns of spatial organization with different operating practices. The operational interests of a vertically integrated enterprise differ from one that is horizontally linked. This highlights the need to understand the nature of business organizations involved in transport to explain existing patterns and predict their future forms. The organization of transport firms explains the concentration of traffic and its associated congestion since they focus on the existing and potential demand and the supporting capacity. In turn, the organization of global firms is shaped by the conditions of local markets. A distinct geography of transport firms has emerged, focusing on gateways, corridors, and logistics clusters. Another change in the management of transport systems concerns **information technologies** and the **automation of vehicles and terminals**, which open new venues in operations and the management of transportation assets. [Self-driving vehicles](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/forms-of-transport-automation/ "Forms of Transport Automation") are being gradually deployed, which may lead to higher use of existing vehicle assets. The same number of vehicles could carry more people or freight while putting less pressure on existing roads, highways, terminals, or rail lines. The automation of logistics nodes is more advanced, particularly at port terminals and distribution centers. For instance, e-commerce has driven the [automation of distribution centers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4591), particularly e-fulfillment centers. Congestion and demand peaks, a recurring challenge for transportation, could be more effectively mitigated. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Terminal-Surface-1.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Container Terminals of the World's Major Port Holdings, 2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/container-terminals-port-holdings/map-terminal-surface-1/)Container Terminals of the Worlds Major Port Holdings 2019[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_automation.png?resize=900%2C455&ssl=1 "Forms of Transport Automation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/forms-of-transport-automation/transport_automation/)Forms of Transport Automation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/skechers_dc_moreno.jpg?resize=850%2C637&ssl=1 "High Rack Storage at Skechers Automated Distribution Center, Moreno, California | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/high-rack-storage-skechers-distribution-center/skechers_dc_moreno/)High Rack Storage at Skechers Automated Distribution Center Moreno California# 3. The Digitalization of Mobility The digitalization of transportation and mobility is ongoing and far-reaching in consequences. Many transport actors (planners, operators) see technology, including information technologies, as **solutions** to a wide range of transport problems. **Integrating** infrastructures, processes, and services provides better information and control over traffic flows and transportation assets. This approach has achieved wide acceptance since there is a strong emphasis on seeking engineering solutions to transport problems. This represents a low-hanging fruit due to the ubiquity of information systems. An important effect of the digitalization of mobility concerns its **[substitution effect](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/substitution-generation-information-technologies-mobility/ "The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on Mobility")**. Virtual activities can be substituted for physical activities requiring mobility. For instance, telecommuting, teleconferencing, and online banking all involve a form of mobility substitution. The diffusion of e-commerce has been an important driving force in the decline in store-related movements, including deliveries. Digitalization also has a **generation effect** as E-commerce generates logistics flows and activities involving fulfillment centers at locations different from those preconized by retail. These effects need to be better understood, particularly their impacts on the spatial structure. **Intelligent highways** have been considered a potential mitigation for road congestion and safety. They are a means of communication between the road and driver that warn of approaching road conditions. Warnings include electronic message boards suggesting alternate routes to approaching motorists and designated radio frequencies that give updated traffic reports and information. Closed-circuit TV systems (CCTV) record lane-by-lane occupancy, volume, and speed. At the same time, ramp meters record the amount of traffic entering the highway in real time. This information is analyzed and processed at a control center that can dispatch emergency equipment to accidents as they happen and can inform other drivers of road conditions, accidents, construction, and delays. However, technological developments in **personal computing devices** have sidetracked the full implementation of intelligent highways. They involve navigation aids through mobile devices and onboard systems. They have the double advantage of offering real-time routing options while providing locational and speed attributes that can inform about the network condition for all users. It is unclear to what extent information technologies in the form of navigation aids have contributed to optimizing mobility at the aggregate level and reducing congestion and energy consumption. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/digitalization_mobility2.png?resize=900%2C478&ssl=1 "The Digitalization of Mobility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Digitalization of Mobility![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ict_substitution_generation.png?resize=900%2C511&ssl=1 "The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on Mobility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on MobilityInformation technologies are providing many solutions to the problems of pricing transportation assets, particularly **road pricing**. Toll collection increasingly uses electronic means without requiring vehicles to stop at toll booths. In its simplest form, vehicles equipped with a transponder that emits details of the vehicle are allowed to pass through toll lanes without stopping to pay. Receptors at the booth record the passage and debit the account. This is at the heart of the cordon pricing and most new toll systems. Toll collection is rapidly evolving from the conventional toll booth approach where a fare was manually collected or a vehicle needed to slow down to go through a toll gate. The latest systems are gantries on top of collection points where the electronic tags of vehicles are scanned and wherein the case of a vehicle without tag license plates is scanned for an invoice to be issued to the registrant’s address after a specific amount of time or number of toll use. An emerging digitalization paradigm concerns **mobility as a service** where transportation services are offered to users through information technology platforms. Thus, there is the possibility of better using existing transportation assets through a higher level of market transparency in the cost, scheduling, and availability of services. A salient example concerns ride-sharing services that substantially impacted urban mobility by creating an extensive market of drivers offering mobility services. The digitalization of mobility has also been associated with the automatic generation of large quantities of data, colloquially labeled “**big data**“. This sensor-derived data collection allows transport assets such as vehicles, equipment, and terminals to generate information about their location, users, and status, which can serve analytical purposes. --- ## Related Topics - [9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6284) - [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/governance-and-management/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/governance-and-management/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/governance-and-management/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/governance-and-management/?share=reddit) - --- ### [10.1 - Transport Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/improving-transport-infrastructure/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The resilience of transportation is challenged by congestion and the need to add capacity and better manage existing infrastructures. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Enduring Challenge of Congestion](#1_The_Enduring_Challenge_of_Congestion) - [2. The Geography of Resilience](#2_The_Geography_of_Resilience) - [3. The Life Cycle of Transport Infrastructure](#3_The_Life_Cycle_of_Transport_Infrastructure) # 1. The Enduring Challenge of Congestion Congestion is likely to remain one of the ongoing issues in transport geography because unprecedented demands for transportation are generated by a global economy that is ever more dependent upon mobility in part due to an increase in living standards. It remains a constant challenge to the resilience of transportation systems since it is a stress test of their capabilities. The causes of congestion are **well understood**, even if the **solutions are not**. Congestion occurs across modes and locations and arises from two causes. - The first and most important is when the demand for mobility **exceeds the capacity of the transport system**. - Second, when **random but predictable events** bring about a temporary service disruption, such as an accident or a natural hazard, such as flooding. In the case of the second set of causes, it is possible to mitigate their effects if the occurrence is frequent, such as accidents, or if the risks are high, such as flooding. A common and attractive solution is to increase capacity. However, increasing capacity engenders a hidden, induced demand, so adding lanes to an expressway attracts even more circulation. Furthermore, in a context of an enduring growth in demand, the practicality of this solution may be questioned. The expected growth of mobility demands is likely to have major impacts on the nature and form of the future transport industry. In the short term, road transport is expected to continue its dominance. There are two primary reasons for this assertion. In the developed world, automobiles and trucks already dominate the market, and the spatial patterns of economic activities are interdependent with the demands of these modes. Such low-density, space-extensive patterns push the traffic congestion further out, making it difficult for other higher-capacity modes to compete. At the same time, the demand for mobility is growing due to rapid industrialization in developing economies such as China and India. In this context, economic development incites a **modal shift favoring road transport**. Congestion is not limited to urban traffic. International trade will likely continue to be dominated by maritime transport (in terms of weight) and [air transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3750) (in terms of value). This has already led to a **concentration of traffic** in a relatively small number of [gateways and hubs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1416), which are capable of extracting scale economies. For example, the [20 largest container ports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3373) handled over 50% of global traffic in 2022. However, traffic concentration is already producing capacity problems in many of these gateways, particularly in accessing their hinterlands. International trade has grown faster than economic growth as measured by the GDP in recent decades, and there are expectations that congestion related to trade flows (or long-distance freight transportation) will remain an issue. These expectations may, however, be counterbalanced by technological changes in manufacturing and locational behavior. A whole range of issues arise from the growth of demand and congestion. First, there are a series of questions surrounding **how to provide solutions.** Second, there are the **effects on future spatial patterns**. Conventionally, the solution to congestion was to provide more capacity by building more infrastructure. Such a response depended heavily on engineering solutions to design and construct infrastructure and to develop further technological innovations. However, **transport policy and planning require a broader perspective** that considers different goals and alternatives, responds to different mobility needs, and seeks ways to manage demand. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Freight-AIrports-2018.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Freight Traffic at the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/world-freight-airports/map-freight-airports-2018-2/)Freight Traffic at the Worlds Largest Airports 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Gateways-Index-2018.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "Global Gateways Index, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-gateways-index/map-global-gateways-index-2010-png/)Global Gateways Index 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-2020.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "World's Major Container Ports, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/map-teu-throughput-2/)Worlds Major Container Ports 2020# 2. The Geography of Resilience Congestion is **spatially bound**, so there are geographical factors in the resilience of transportation systems. It takes place in specific locations with impacts at a multitude of scales, from a particular highway intersection that may delay traffic over a few hundred meters, to delays in a port that may disrupt the flow of goods over a hinterland spanning half a continent. Each event produces a spatial response illustrative of resilience, from the car driver searching for an alternative route to the shipper who selects a different mode or point of entry for subsequent shipments. Increased demand and the increasing likelihood of congestion will intensify **new spatial responses,** and thus, more resilient spatial flows and structures will likely emerge. They involve: - **Demand management**. Concerns about the conditions and locations where travel demand can be influenced. In a market context, when supply is fixed, and demand increases, an upward price adjustment inevitably occurs. This is common in maritime and air transport, with yield management strategies trying to match supply and demand through price incentives. However, many transport infrastructures, such as roads, are provided free of access, implying no cost changes as congestion levels increase, only the cost of time wasted for the users. There is thus a growing need to provide incentives (or disincentives) and reassess the priority in the use of infrastructure, particularly in urban areas. - **Concentration versus deconcentration**. Accessibility and infrastructure improvements usually lead to a concentration of activities, while congestion is a counteracting force to concentration since it creates various diseconomies. There is already evidence of deconcentration for ports, airports, and distribution centers with the selection of less congested peripheral sites that offer more technical advantages, such as available land. The density of economic and social activities and the related intensity of transport use imply a balance between central and peripheral locations and how the forces of concentration and deconcentration pan out. - **Economic and social impacts**. In a context where transport networks are increasingly synchronized, congestion can create multiplying effects, impacting costs, and the reliability of transport systems. The economic and social impacts of congestion remain a salient issue, particularly in developing economies where it can impede economic growth and in developed economies where it mainly impairs performance and reliability. Still, resilience comes with additional costs as it requires duplicating infrastructure and options. - **Passengers versus freight**. Congestion also raises the issue of the prioritization of passengers versus freight when they share transport infrastructure or when freight activities such as terminals or distribution centers are in proximity to locations where large numbers of passengers are in transit. This requires carefully assessing the congestion costs on specific passenger and freight transport systems and in which circumstances congestion exerts the most externalities. A salient issue concerns how freight distribution could be better integrated into the urban environment where passenger movements dominate; the realm of [city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792). # 3. The Life Cycle of Transport Infrastructure Regardless of the specific solutions to congestion, increasing demand is placing unprecedented requests for investments in transport infrastructures. A major question is **how to finance** the construction and maintenance of transport infrastructures so that capacity and resilience can be improved. As economies of scale are applied to transport systems, such as [larger containerships](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2232) or [doublestacked rail corridors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6446), capital requirements increase in proportion. Governments have traditionally been the primary source of funding in the transport sector. Still, the costs of keeping pace with the growth in demand are making it difficult for even the wealthiest countries to provide public funding on the scale required to meet expectations about the mobility of passengers and freight. Capital requirements are particularly prevalent on both sides of the [infrastructure life cycle](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5423) spectrum. Over this matter, the [highways in China and North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1869) represent two salient cases. For China, an impressive level of highway construction since the 1990s resulted in the setting of a national highway network, the longest in the world. Comparatively, the American Interstate highway system is in the maturity phase of its life cycle. Substantial capital investment will be required to upgrade the system and maintain its operability, including thousands of aging highway bridges. While most of the Interstate is publicly funded, almost all Chinese highways were funded by private interests (state enterprises) using tolls to recover their investments. Irrespective of the context, the issue of the role of private and public actors in transport infrastructure, as well as pricing mechanisms, will remain salient: - **Public-private partnerships** and completely private solutions are one set of solutions. For many developing economies, this is the main option since public finances are usually insufficient for the high level of capital investment required by modern transport infrastructure. Thus, private involvement in providing transport infrastructure is to be expected. Several models have already been implemented: BOT (Build-Operate-Transfer), where the private sector builds and operates a facility or system and then transfers it back to the government after an agreed period; BLT (Build-Lease-Transfer), where after building a facility, it is leased for a fixed period and finally transferred back; ROT (Rehabilitate-Operate-Transfer) where the private party refurbishes an existing facility to be operated for a term before being turned back to the state. - **Pricing**. Another approach that is gaining momentum is charging for the use of transport infrastructure. Several segments of the transport system are privately owned and operated, such as maritime shipping and air transportation, implying that market forces generally set pricing. Still, many transport infrastructures, such as roads and airports, are wholly or partially owned by the public sector. Pricing is becoming an important feature of transport planning in urban areas where the common use of transport infrastructures is in high demand. Whether it is cordon pricing, congestion pricing, yield management, or tolling, road users are being forced to pay for access, and limited price elasticity has been observed so far. With growing environmental concerns, charging for the externalities of transport modes is becoming a reality in many jurisdictions. It remains to be seen how effective these alternatives are and their effects on travel behavior. [![Containership Size Class Panamax New Panamax ULCS](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerships_evolution2.png?resize=900%2C959&ssl=1 "Evolution of Containerships | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/evolution-containerships-classes/containerships_evolution2/)Evolution of Containerships[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Intermodal_System.png?resize=900%2C750&ssl=1 "The North American Intermodal Rail System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-north-america/na_rail_intermodal_system/)The North American Intermodal Rail System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/life_span_transport_asset.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Lifespan (Life Cycle) of Main Transport Assets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/life_span_transport_asset/)Lifespan Life Cycle of Main Transport Assets[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lenght_interstate_chinese_expressway.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Length of the Interstate Highway System and of the Chinese Expressway System, 1959-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/highway-length-china-united-states/us_interstate_china_expressway/)Length of the Interstate Highway System and of the Chinese Expressway System 1959 2021Most transport infrastructure projects are **long term** but are typified by high capital investment requirements incurred over a short initial phase for securing land, rights of way, and constructing infrastructure. Even if transport infrastructure can be built and expanded in phases, most private enterprises cannot take a long-term perspective because they need to cover their expenses and recover their capital investments over short time periods. Further, the maintenance of transport infrastructure can be subject to different approaches: - **Reactive**. The standard approach is when maintenance is performed after infrastructure damage or failure. While it imposes less stringent financial burdens, the disadvantage of this approach is the loss of capacity while maintenance is being performed. It is particularly prevalent for public infrastructures such as roads since the public sector is reluctant to commit resources. - **Preventive**. Maintenance is performed regularly to ensure that the transport infrastructure operates according to defined parameters and assumptions regarding lifespan. This form of maintenance can be capital-intensive since it could involve unnecessary investments. - **Proactive**. Maintenance is performed before infrastructure is predicted to be damaged or fail. This requires monitoring the infrastructure and the capability to accurately expect damage or failure at a certain point in time and under specific usage and environmental conditions. Each of these approaches illustrates a different perspective on resilience. With the growing unwillingness or inability of the public sector to fund and provide transport infrastructure, new forms of infrastructure provision, maintenance, and operation need to be achieved. This is where the financial sector, particularly long-term investment funds, such as pension and sovereign wealth funds, can be involved with a better synchronism between the capital and time horizons of transport infrastructure projects. Eventually, due to technological obsolescence, public policy, or commercial changes, transportation infrastructure can reach the **end of its life cycle**. The challenge becomes how to **recover and reuse the existing footprint**, which can take many forms. For linear infrastructures such as canals, rail lines, and roads, the right of way can be kept and used by another transport mode. For terminals such as ports, warehouses, and rail stations, facilities can be converted to any urban use, including parks, residential, and commercial facilities. The real estate value of the footprint is often a determining factor in the incentive to re-purpose transportation infrastructure since it competes with other uses. This underlines that transportation infrastructure in remote or low-density areas is often abandoned at the end of its life cycle. The cost to re-purpose may exceed the potential benefit. In the coming decades, particularly in advanced economies, large tracts of transport infrastructure will need to be reconverted to other uses, creating several opportunities for innovation in spatial planning. --- ## Related Topics - [8.4 – Urban Transportation Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621) - [9.4 – Transportation, Disruptions and Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/) - [B.16 – The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8689) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/improving-transport-infrastructure/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/improving-transport-infrastructure/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/improving-transport-infrastructure/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/improving-transport-infrastructure/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chapter 10 - Challenges for Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** Transport geography seeks to understand the spatial organization of mobility. It has emerged as a full-fledged field within geography with a strong propensity to include concepts and methods from other disciplines such as economics, engineering, environmental sciences, and sociology. Because transportation systems are involved in various scales and modes, from local public transit to global maritime shipping, it tends to be **partitioned**. It is challenging to reconcile perspectives such as pedestrian mobility issues or the selection of air cargo hubs by a freight forwarder. Multidisciplinary approaches remain at the core of transport geography simply because its modes are simultaneously independent but interconnected at different scales. Irrespective of the scale and the mode, transport geography shares several common issues and challenges. Transportation is growing significantly and changing in the face of challenges and drivers of change, such as sustainability, congestion, governance, and technology. As the transport industry becomes more complex, conventional approaches, focusing on a narrow range of factors, have to be replaced by more **nuanced analysis and solutions**. Further, issues related to freight mobility are assuming greater importance within the discipline, partly driven by the setting of global supply chains and the growth of urban freight distribution. The scope for transport geography remains diverse in the transport industry, public planning, and research institutions. The same forces will likely shape future transportation systems as in the past, but it remains to be seen which technologies will prevail and their impacts on the spatial structure. --- ## Contents ### [10.1 – Transport Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/improving-transport-infrastructure/ "10.1 – Improving Transport Infrastructure") ### [10.2 – Governance, Management and Digitalization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/governance-and-management/ "10.2 – Governance and Management") ### [10.3 – Social and Environmental Responsibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/social-environmental-responsibility/ "10.3 – Social and Environmental Responsibility") ### [10.4 – Future Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/ "10.4 – Future Transportation Systems") --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Street Network Orientation, Selected Cities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-orientation-selected-cities/) **Published:** October 28, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/street_network_orientation.png?resize=900%2C424&ssl=1 "Street Network Orientation, Selected Cities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Street Network Orientation Selected Cities*Source: Adapted from Boeing, G (2019) “Urban spatial order: street network orientation, configuration, and entropy”. Applied Network Science 4, 67.* *Note: Each city chart is a 360-degree histogram divided into 36 bins. The length of each bin is the frequency of the streets having this bearing. Since each street has two directions, each chart has a perfect 180° symmetry.* Out of a sample of 100 cities, 49% have a general north-south-east-west orientation, with another 14% with similar orientations. Cities such as Chicago, Los Angeles, and Beijing show a remarkable consistency in the cardinal orientation of their streets. Even cities without a strong grid orientation often demonstrate an overall tendency to favor a north-south-east-west orientation. Several cities on the above chart have a high level of entropy (disorder), such as Seoul, London, and Sao Paulo. This can result from a long history of successive urban developments, a complex landscape with hills and rivers, and a growth process that has annexed separate towns with their street grids. Regardless, cities worldwide depict a cardinal orientation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-orientation-selected-cities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-orientation-selected-cities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-orientation-selected-cities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-orientation-selected-cities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [9.2 - Transport Planning and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dr. Theo Notteboom and Dr. Brian Slack > Transport planning focuses on the public provision and financing of transportation assets, particularly roads and public transit systems. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Purpose of Planning](#1_The_Purpose_of_Planning) - [2. Contemporary Transport Planning](#2_Contemporary_Transport_Planning) - [3. Transport Demand Management](#3_Transport_Demand_Management) - [4. Pricing](#4_Pricing) - [5. Governance in Transportation](#5_Governance_in_Transportation) # 1. The Purpose of Planning > “Long-range plans engender the dangerous belief that the future is under control.” > > *Max Gunther* Transport planning usually addresses specific problems or broad transport concerns at a local level and has been traditionally a preoccupation of lower-tier governments (state, county, municipal). Because of this fact, **transport planning is most developed in the urban sphere**, and it is there where most experience has been gathered. The planning process, however, has several similarities with the policy process. Identifying a problem, seeking options, and implementing the chosen strategy are also essential steps in planning. Because it deals with localized problems, the solutions adopted in transport planning tend to be much more exact and specific than policy directives. The common perspective is that planning is the realm of the public sector, although the private sector owns and operates substantial transportation assets. This implies that planning can be undertaken by private transport actors, such as carriers, to manage their assets at a scale beyond that of the public sector. The **time horizon** is an important part of the [planning process](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/time-horizon-decision-structure-transport-planning/ "The Time Horizon and Decision Structure of Transport Planning"): - **Strategic planning.** A high-level long-term planning horizon that relies on strategic plans implementing a **vision**. They tend to be capital-intensive and focus on developing large transport infrastructures like highways and terminals. Strategic planning recognizes a problem, such as the lack of capacity, and elaborates remediation policies and strategies. Policies can evolve due to economic and technological changes, so an adaptable strategic planning environment is necessary. - **Tactical planning.** Involves both financial and strategic planning, often reported through **business plans**. Budgeting for allocating resources to specific activities and projects is part of the financial planning process. The time horizon usually involves three to five years and allocates resources to different activities to meet specific objectives. This assumes a competitive environment in which the allocation of resources will affect the structure and level of demand. - **Operational planning.** Involves decisions solving **practical problems** related to transport operations, usually within a year. The time horizon is too short to allow significant changes in the transport supply, such as by infrastructural investments, but allows for the allocation of mobile assets such as vehicles. Three basic approaches can be identified concerning the hierarchical decision structure of the [planning process](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/time-horizon-decision-structure-transport-planning/ "The Time Horizon and Decision Structure of Transport Planning"): - **Top-down planning**. The government or a related authority sets the strategic goals and prepares plans. On the positive side, such an approach can offer a comprehensive and long-term perspective to transport planning. The main issue is the potential for conflicts with stakeholders as they may not agree with the nature, the allocated resources, or the implementation of the planning goals. - **Bottom-up planning**. Stakeholders such as carriers and operators are the main drivers of the planning process by providing actionable input. The government or related authority uses these inputs to create a strategic plan with limited oversight. One advantage is that the planning process effectively reflects the goals of the core stakeholders and market potential, leading to support. However, such an approach may be subject to capture by special interest groups and opportunistic behavior taking advantage of public funds to develop projects of limited value. - **Hybrid planning**. The government or related authority sets the strategic intent of the planning process and asks stakeholders to propose projects supporting the main goals. The process involves a form of consensus, which can be a structured confrontation between different interests. Hybrid planning seeks a balance between macroeconomic objectives and microeconomic goals. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/time_horizon_structure_transport_planning.png?resize=900%2C282&ssl=1 "The Time Horizon and Decision Structure of Transport Planning | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Time Horizon and Decision Structure of Transport PlanningConventionally, planning was a field dominated by engineers who gave it a distinctly **mechanistic character**. The planning process was considered a series of rigorous steps to measure likely impacts and propose engineering solutions and their financing. For instance, there were four major steps in this standard approach applied to urban transport planning; trip generation, trip distribution, modal split, and route selection. Planning evolved to rely on mathematical models, including regression analysis, entropy-maximizing models, and critical path analysis that are part of custom-designed software or, more generally, used as components of Geographic Information Systems. There are many reasons why the results of these models should be treated with caution: - They are only **as good as the data** they manipulate, and often the data is inaccurate or incomplete. The requirement for data has led to complex and costly collection processes, often delaying decisions. - They are **based on assumptions** that the mathematical relationships between variables remain constant. Socioeconomic and technological changes often change assumptions. - They can be **manipulated** to produce the outcome that would be the most preferred by the actors promoting policy or a project. For instance, only specific scenarios can be considered, and negative conditions are not allowed to be data points. - Because the predictions were **rarely subjected to subsequent evaluation**, their validity is largely questioned. In this context, models will attempt to [predict the future](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1625) since projections rarely question the [validity of the methodology](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1629), even when they turn out to be highly inaccurate. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/prediction_future_outcomes.png?resize=900%2C561&ssl=1 "The Prediction of Future Outcomes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/prediction-future-outcomes/future_outcomes/)The Prediction of Future Outcomes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/common_flaws_forecasting.png?resize=900%2C461&ssl=1 "Common Flaws in Forecasting | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/flaws-forecasting/flaws_forecasting-2/)Common Flaws in Forecasting[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vicious_circle_congestion.png?resize=900%2C490&ssl=1 "Vicious Circle of Congestion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/vicious-circle-congestion/vicious_circle_congestion/)Vicious Circle of CongestionThe predictions of future traffic levels produced by the four-stage sequence are then used to identify urban planning options. Since the most common prediction of the modeling is that present capacities will be unable to cope with expected traffic growth, the tendency has been to produce planning solutions that call for **expanding capacity**. This has been referred to as predict and accommodate. It is the solution that has typified much of the urban transport planning from the 1940s to the 1980s. It has given rise to the expansion of highway construction that reinforced the dominance of the automobile. Rarely postmortems of the prediction models are undertaken. As it was learned through empirical observations, the issue of **[induced demand](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/vicious-circle-congestion/ "Vicious Circle of Congestion")** has distorted traffic outcomes since additional capacity incites additional traffic. # 2. Contemporary Transport Planning Planning is commonly scale-specific and multidimensional. In cities, traffic problems have increased significantly since the 1970s, despite a great deal of urban transport planning. There is a growing realization that perhaps planning has failed, and the wrong questions have been asked. Rather than estimate traffic increases and then provide the capacity to meet the expected growth, it is now accepted that what is required is **better management of the transport system**, particularly maintenance, through new approaches to planning. Just as urban planning requires the input of many specialists, transport planning uses a multi-disciplinary perspective to broaden the scope of the planning process. Planning is still a [multi-step process](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/the-transport-planning-process/ "The Transport Planning Process"), but it has changed considerably: - **Goals and objectives**. While the goal of traditional transport policy, improving accessibility, is still valid, it must be considered in the context of other desirable goals. For instance, improving safety and health, reducing vehicle emissions, improving equity, enhancing economic opportunities, improving community livability, and promoting mobility are all valid. However, the prioritization of goals results in a very different planning process. Defining goals becomes a much more complicated stage in contemporary planning and can lead to conflicts. Increasingly, goals have turned to consider managing demand rather than trying to build capacity. - **Options**. Given the possible range of goals that transport planners must consider, providing a set of possible options becomes necessary. Several objectives may be desirable, and thus, it is important to consider what they imply. Several scenarios may have to be considered, and they must become important components of the planning process. - **Identification of actors, institutions, and stakeholders**. Given that transport planning has the potential to influence so many elements of society, it is important that those affected by the transport problem and its potential resolution should be identified so that they can be engaged. This would be a much broader list of affected parties than those involved in transportation activity and requires recognizing a role for citizen participation. Failure to do so runs the risk of a project meeting significant opposition from stakeholders perceiving that they have been left out or can be negatively impacted. - **Predicting outcomes, identifying benefits, and assessing costs**. The stage of predicting the outcomes for each of the options is a critical step in the process. Models continue to play an important role, but whereas the traditional models were based on the number of trips, modeling is increasingly becoming more activity-based. Urban transport is seen in the context of scheduling household decisions in time and space. Demographic and social data are used extensively, and mathematical models have become more sophisticated. Nevertheless, there are roles for other types of analyses, including non-objective forecasts. The predicted outcomes must then be assessed as to their benefits and costs. These may be expressed in monetary terms, but many transport planning situations call for measurement in other terms, such as visual effects, environmental externalities, and employment impacts. - **Choosing a course of action**. Evaluation of the scenarios must consider the costs and benefits from the frequently conflicting perspectives of the stakeholders and actors. Extensive public consultation may be required, potentially creating delays. The information must be disseminated and explained so an informed public can participate in the debate. Ultimately, it will be the politicians who decide. Still, they are swayed by the strength of the arguments presented by the transport professionals and, in publicly contentious cases, by pressure from interest groups. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_planning_process.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "The Transport Planning Process | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Transport Planning ProcessThe vast preponderance of transport planning, particularly at the urban level, has been devoted to passengers involving road transportation and public transit. The automobile and public transit issues have preoccupied planners since individual mobility can be highly political; drivers and users are also voters. Yet, the **mobility of freight** represents a significant part of many problems that planning seeks to address. Planning for freight movements, such as [city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792), is emerging. As a large private sector activity, it is difficult to control, and the industry itself makes many of the decisions that affect trucking. The emergence of large distribution centers on the outer fringes of metropolitan areas is taking place without much public control or oversight. This also involves large freight transport terminals such as ports, rail yards, and airports with freight activity, often under the jurisdiction of a separate authority responsible for planning. The models and data used in transportation planning are of **limited relevance** when applied to the mobility of freight. For example, demographic data, such as household size, the backbone of passenger analysis, are irrelevant to freight flows within the manufacturing sector. However, it matters for home deliveries. The bi-polar daily peak of traffic movements applies only to passengers, freight movements being distributed in a different profile over a 24-hour period. Therefore, a more comprehensive freight planning process is emerging. In many cities, there is limited data on freight traffic, so planning takes place ad hoc. A much greater focus on freight planning is required since freight distribution is an important component of urban mobility and activities, with facilities such as distribution centers, ports, airports, and rail yards important components. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/car_truck_daily_trip_distribution.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Typical Car and Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/car-truck-trips-temporal/car_truck_daily_trip_distribution/)Typical Car and Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trips_public_transport_united_states2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Trips by Public Transport in the United States, 1903-2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-ridership-united-states/trips_public_transport_united_states2/)Trips by Public Transport in the United States 1903 2019# 3. Transport Demand Management In questioning the paradigm of building capacity, transport planners have turned increasingly to **managing both demand and the transport system**. Building roads has produced a car and truck-oriented society that can constrain modal alternatives. Car ownership is beyond the ability of the transport planner to control directly, and the question remains if this should be the case. Still, land use and density affect car use and ownership, both elements that planners can affect. High population densities favor walking, bicycling, and public transit use. This is why that a great deal of attention in planning is being paid to **densification and integration**. This includes concentrating development along well-served transport corridors (transit-oriented development) and increasing densities in areas undergoing rehabilitation. Managing the demand for transport is made up of a large number of small interventions that cumulatively can impact demand but, in particular, improve the livability of cities. A sample of well-practiced and successful interventions includes: - **Park and ride**. Parking spaces are provided, usually close to an expressway, where drivers can board public transit (e.g. buses or light rail) that provide service to the city center. This has become a staple feature in the outer zones of many North American and European cities. Its success is variable, however, and there is some evidence that park and ride may increase car use, as people who may have used regular bus services now use their cars to drive to the car parks. - **Traffic calming**. Measures that seek to reduce the speed of vehicles in urban areas, such as speed bumps and street narrowing. For residential streets, the goal is to make their use by drivers unattractive because of the obstacles. For thoroughfares, the objective is to reduce the average speeds. The measures indicate the need for much greater attention to street design and layout. - **Priority lanes for buses and high occupancy vehicles and truck routes**. Lanes on major thoroughfares and expressways can be reserved for buses, taxis, and passenger vehicles with several occupants. This has become an essential feature of transport planning in North America, where major highway expansion projects offer priority lanes. The goal is to encourage the use of buses and high occupancy vehicles that can be seen to travel at higher speeds along the reserved lanes by other drivers who may be stuck in traffic jams. The setting of truck routes allows for better segregation between passengers and freight traffic and more fluidity in traffic flows. - **Teleworking and alternate work schedules**. Encouraging work hours other than the dominant 9 to 5 schedule. One of the most salient problems in transport planning is that demand is concentrated in two main peak periods. In the past, efforts were made to meet this demand by increasing road capacity, which resulted in the under usage of the off-peak capacity. Promoting flexible schedules and encouraging teleworking are policies that seek to spread out the demand for transport over more hours and even reduce the demand altogether. The Covid-19 pandemic underlined the potential and feasibility of teleworking, particularly in roles requiring information technologies. - **Promoting micro-mobility**. In some countries, particularly the Netherlands, the bicycle is an important mode of travel. Walking, cycling, and other forms of micro-mobility, such as electric bikes and scooters, are energy efficient and encourage physical activity. However, in automobile-dependent cities, micro-mobility is difficult to integrate with trucks and cars. Encouraging greater use of micro-mobility requires significant planning adjustments, such as providing sidewalks, reserved lanes, charging stations, and bike stands. - **Car or ride-sharing**. Conventionally, such schemes encouraged drivers to share car use with neighbors or co-workers when their mobility coincided. Information technologies have enabled the extension of car-sharing schemes to a wider base of ride-sharing through platforms that reconcile drivers offering mobility and users. - **Enhancing pedestrian areas**. In many areas of high population density, the quality of life (enhanced safety, less pollution, etc.) and the visual attractiveness of streetscapes can be enhanced by excluding vehicles from streets altogether or limiting access to public transport vehicles. In Europe, this has become a distinctive feature of the historic cores of many cities. - **Improving public transit**. Public transit use has declined in most cities. Yet it is the only alternative to the car in these cities, and thus enhancing the use of transit has become a major planning objective. Improvements include making transit more attractive by improving bus schedules and the appearance and comfort of transit vehicles and stations. At the same time, efforts are underway to widen the range of transit alternatives. These include extending commuter rail services and constructing new systems such as light and heavy rail modes. - **Parking management**. Restricting on-street parking and charging higher rates for parking. This also applies to the parking of delivery vehicles, which has become an important issue with the growth of e-commerce and the associated home deliveries. # 4. Pricing While planning interventions may positively affect transport demand, a more direct approach involving imposing more stringent cost measures on users can be an option. For instance, it is widely accepted that car users pay only a small proportion of the actual costs of their vehicle use. Economists argue that **users should bear the external costs** of their mobility. As rational as this argument may be, there are several problems with its application: - First, there are **difficulties in measuring externalities**, with considerable variations in estimates between different studies. Different types of use, speeds, engines (internal combustion engines and electric), vehicle weight, or driving conditions, make it challenging to produce broadly accepted values. Decision-makers have difficulty in agreeing to impose charges when there is a diversity of evidence about external costs. - Second, there are **practical difficulties in collecting these costs**. One of the easiest and most widely used methods is a gasoline tax. However, it is a crude approach because it imperfectly distinguishes between driving conditions and engine type. A fuel-efficient vehicle may have just as high consumption in heavy urban traffic as a less efficient vehicle in a rural setting. The growth in alternative fuels, such as electric vehicles, will further challenge fuel taxes. - Third, is the political difficulty of **imposing such additional costs on the public**. Free access to roads tends to be seen as a right, and it is intensely unpopular to propose any new forms of revenue generation that hint at additional taxation. The use of pricing mechanisms trends toward the greater application of some forms of tolling is accelerating. **Congestion pricing** (or cordon pricing) has been applied in several jurisdictions where access to certain areas, usually the CBD, is tolled. A seminal application was the decision to charge private vehicles for entry into Central London in early 2003. Despite a great deal of opposition, this program has proved successful. Other cities, such as Stockholm (2007) and Milan (2012), implemented similar schemes. However, such strategies can be unpopular, as in the case of New York, which was initially proposed in 2007 and approved in 2019 but subject to delays in its implementation. As of 2023, it was still to be implemented. The commonality of congestion pricing applied to central areas concerns **high density and limited transport capacity**, such as parking spaces ([high cost of parking](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5123)), creating high demand and the willingness of users to pay for access. An even more drastic example is Singapore, where extreme measures limiting car purchases, high vehicle licenses, electronic tolls on highways, and cordon pricing in the downtown area have restrained car use. Another form of charging is the **imposition of tolls on new highways and bridges**. In North America, the public had become used to the notion that highways are free of access, a legacy of the Interstate Highways Act, primarily funded by Congress. The legislation now permits private companies to build and operate private roads and bridges and to collect tolls to cover costs. A similar trend applies to developing economies such as China, where many new highways and bridges are toll-based to recover capital investments. A common trend, irrespective of the context, is that any new highway project will likely include tolls. With congestion pricing, certain highway lanes are **tolled at variable rates**. When traffic is moving freely, there are no charges for the tolled lanes. But as traffic builds up and speeds are reduced, such as during peak hours, the costs of using the reserved lanes increase. The collection of the tolls is electronic, and drivers are informed of the current charges by large signs. Therefore, drivers are given a choice to stay in the slower lanes for free or move to the tolled lanes at a cost that is proportionate to the speed on the congested lanes. In the ride-sharing sector, congestion pricing mechanisms are also applied (**surge pricing**), particularly when demand exceeds supply. As fares increase, more drivers are incited to provide ride-sharing services, and users consider postponing their trips until an equilibrium is reached. Congestion pricing schemes are not just the purview of road transportation. Early in its history, commercial aviation saw the implementation of higher landing fees at congested airports, particularly during peak hours. An outcome was to use higher capacity aircraft, push general aviation away to smaller airports, and generate more revenue to improve facilities. Ports, canals, and waterways can also use forms of congestion pricing, such as the Panama Canal, that offers the opportunity to book a certain number of daily passage slots at a higher rate to be guaranteed a specific time window. There is even an opportunity to book a high-priority passage at a very high cost compared with the regular toll. # 5. Governance in Transportation Transport policy and planning require governance, which is associated with the **practical usage of existing resources** as well as the allocation of new resources, such as investments. Like all sectors of activity, transportation has a unique set of characteristics about its governance as both the public and private sectors are actively involved. > **Governance** concerns the ownership and management of assets and resources to fulfill goals such as profit or welfare through the exercise of authority and institutional resources. It concerns the public as well as the private sectors but tends to apply differently depending on if public or private interests are at stake. In both cases, a significant concern is performance, which is how effectively available assets are used. The governance of transport infrastructure is particularly relevant because of its **strategic, economic, and social importance** and the cross-jurisdictional character of many infrastructures, such as highways, rail, and telecommunication networks. Transport is not a mere convenience but a fundamental infrastructure that must systematically and continuously be available to its users. This is where governance plays the important role of ensuring continuity in operations. Effective governance is complex to assess since it is not linked with a specific governance structure, but generally conveys several advantages: - **Confidence**. It provides confidence that an activity, such as a terminal, a transit system, or a logistics zone, is effectively managed. This can involve daily operations as well as the planning, design, and funding of new infrastructure. Effective governance is linked with consistent and reliable services as well as a good level of responsiveness and feedback when an unexpected issue arises. - **Capital costs**. Lowers capital costs as investors and financial institutions have confidence that the allocated capital will be effectively used to develop and expand productive assets, generating returns. Avoiding wasteful investments and practices tends to attract private capital. - **Competitiveness**. Improves the capability to compete through the retention of existing users and the attraction of new ones. This can take many forms, such as lower costs, but factors such as clear expectations and transparency are also significant. Keeping market considerations constant, organizations with better governance are usually more competitive than organizations with less effective governance. - **Stability**. It confers long-term resilience in the organization, providing stability in capital markets and the financial institutions supporting them. Many transportation infrastructures have a [long life span](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-assets-lifespan/ "The lifespan of Main Transport Assets") that can be more effectively managed with a stable long-term governance structure. For transport infrastructures such as port terminals, airports, highways, inland ports, or logistics zones, many different forms of governance are in place, which shape modes of financing, operations, functioning, and external relationships. This includes mechanisms and options for the [respective roles of public and private actors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/public-private-roles-transport-infrastructure-terminals/ "Public and Private Roles for Transport Infrastructure and Terminals") in the ownership, management, and operation of transport infrastructure and terminals. This is particularly important as large transport infrastructure involved in global flows of passengers and freight that are complex, capital intensive, and of strategic importance to the economic welfare of regions. Therefore, the capital intensiveness and the long life span of transportation infrastructures underline the need for effective governance to ensure that the infrastructures are adequately funded, maintained, operated, and expanded. There are two main components of transport governance; ownership and operations. **Ownership** involves who is the owner of the terminal site and facilities (including equipment): - **Public ownership**. Common because of the economic and strategic importance of many terminals. In several jurisdictions, passenger railroads are owned by the national government, and the passenger stations are thus under the control of the state-owned railway company, as is the case in China, Europe, and North America. Public ownership of ports and airports is also prevalent and can occur at the state or municipal levels of government. Under public ownership, investment in infrastructure and planning future expansion is carried out by the public authority using public monies or public guarantees for capital borrowed from private markets. The private sector is then offered leasing opportunities through concessions in which terms and duration can be negotiated. - **Private ownership**. Less evident in transport terminals, but there are numerous exceptions for specific modes. Examples include road freight (distribution centers), rail freight transport in North America (terminals and rights of way), and where privatization has taken place in ports and airports in the United Kingdom and New Zealand. Here, private capital is used to provide infrastructure. **Operations** involve the day-to-day management and carrying out of terminal activities: - ****Public** control**. This is typical in many ports, state-controlled railroads, and publicly-owned airports. In these cases, the public authority provides the handling equipment, contracts with the labor force, and operates the rail, airport, and port terminals. - **Private companies**. Manage and carry out operations in privately owned terminals. They are also active operators in many publicly owned facilities under a concession agreement. The latter is a growing trend in [ports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3363) and airports, where facilities are leased to terminal operators for fixed terms. The types of concessions vary considerably in terms of duration and conditions. Some are short-term, a few years or so; more typically, they are long-term concessions of 15 to 30 years. In some, the owner provides equipment, such as gantry cranes in ports. In others, concession holders are expected to invest in equipment. In some, they are required to use public employees, while in others, they may use their own workers. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/life_span_transport_asset.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Lifespan (Life Cycle) of Main Transport Assets | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Lifespan Life Cycle of Main Transport Assets![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/public_private_roles_transport.png?resize=900%2C416&ssl=1 "Public and Private Roles for Transport Infrastructure and Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Public and Private Roles for Transport Infrastructure and Terminals![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Terminal-Surface-1.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Container Terminals of the World's Major Port Holdings, 2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Container Terminals of the Worlds Major Port Holdings 2019Public ownership and operations have been important in many modes because of the **strategic importance of transport and the long-term investments required** that the private sector may be incapable or unwilling to make. In this way, the terminals can be owned and operated as public goods and integrated with regional and national economic policies. On the other hand, public facilities are seen as slow to respond to market conditions, with a propensity to over-invest in non-economic developments, and with high user costs. The default commonly leaves the governance structure as it is since inertia is the usual norm for managing large infrastructures. --- ## Related Topics - [9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6279) - [9.3 – Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6289) - [B.16 – The Financing of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8689) - [City Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792) (External site) ## Bibliography - Ewing, R.H (1999) Traffic Calming: state of the practice. Washington, DC: Institute of Transportation Engineers. - Flyvbjerg, B. (2009) “Survival of the Unfittest: Why the Worst Infrastructure Gets Built and What We Can Do About It”, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 344–367. - Gordon, P. and H.W. Richardson (1997) Are compact cities a desirable planning goal? Journal of the American Planning Association; Vol. 63, No. 1, pp. 95-106. - Kenny, C. (2009) “Transport construction, corruption and developing countries”, Transport Reviews, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 21-41. - Krizek, K.J. and D.A. King (2021) Advanced Introduction to Urban Transport Planning, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. - Meyer, M. and E. Miller (2000) Urban Transportation Planning, Second Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill. - Nash, C. and B. Matthews (2013) “Transport Pricing and Subsidy”, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage. - Stopher, P. and J. Stanley (2014) Introduction to Transport Policy, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Modal Split, Journey to Work Trips, Selected Cities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/modal-split-work-trips/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_split_selected_cities2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Modal Split, Journey to Work Trips, Selected Cities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Modal Split Journey to Work Trips Selected Cities*Source: Adapted from Passenger Transport Mode Shares in World Cities, Journeys, December 2014.* Modal split across cities can vary substantially according to the level of development, urban density, and land use patterns. Dense cities (such as Asian and European cities) are generally more transit-oriented. In contrast, less dense cities (namely in North America and Australia) tend to rely more on the automobile as the dominant mode of urban travel. In developing economies, cycling and walking are more prevalent modes because of their low costs and the lack of modern transport infrastructures. Economic development, particularly income growth, is linked with a growing share of the private automobile for commuting. For instance, in cities such as Beijing and Shanghai, the share of private vehicles was less than 5% in the 1990s, but by the 2010s, it increased to 20-25%. Outside economic considerations, social preferences can also play a significant role, such as the large share of cycling in Amsterdam (38%) and the large share of the automobiles in Dallas (89%). It remains to be seen how the modal composition of urban mobility will evolve. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/modal-split-work-trips/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/modal-split-work-trips/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/modal-split-work-trips/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/modal-split-work-trips/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a City](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-spatial-structure-city/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C453&ssl=1 "Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a CityThe urban spatial structure considers the location of different activities in **central areas** and the **periphery**. A central area is a cluster of core and/or central activities, and the most central area of a city is usually labeled as the central business district (CBD). **Core activities** are those of the highest order in the urban spatial structure, namely tertiary and quaternary activities involved in management (head offices, finance, and insurance) and consumption (retailing). They commonly benefit from high accessibility to the workforce and customers. **Central activities** focus on the functions of production and distribution with activities such as warehousing, manufacturing, wholesaling, and transportation. They require a good level of accessibility but need more land than core activities. **Peripheral activities** are primarily residential or servicing local needs. Each city has its history, but it is possible to derive a general common process in the evolution of the urban spatial structure: - **(A) Preindustrial city**. For cities set before the Industrial Revolution, the CBD was limited to a small section of the city, generally nearby the waterfront, the market, or a site of religious or political importance. These were locations where major transactions took place, including a marketplace, and thus required financial, insurance, warehousing, and wholesale services. - **(B) Mechanized city**. With the industrial revolution came mass production and consumption. This enabled the emergence of a distinct retailing and wholesaling part of the CBD while manufacturing was located outside the core. Major terminal facilities, such as ports and railyard, were also located in proximity to the city core and contributed to urban centrality. Managing these expanding activities also increased the need for office space near traditional financial interaction places. As the Industrial Revolution matured in the first half of the 20th century, major transportation axes spurred from the central area towards the periphery. - **(C) Mobile city**. In the second half of the 20th century, industries massively relocated away from central areas to suburban areas, leaving room for the expansion of administrative and financial activities. The CBD was thus the object of an important accumulation of financial and administrative activities, particularly in the largest cities, as several corporations became multinational enterprises. These activities were even more willing to pay higher rents than retailing, pushing some retail activities out of the CBD. New retailing centers emerged in suburban areas because of road accessibility and growing suburban demand. Warehousing and transportation, no longer core area activities, also relocated to new peripheral locations close to modern terminal facilities such as container terminals and airports. The spatial structure of many cities became increasingly multicentric. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-spatial-structure-city/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-spatial-structure-city/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-spatial-structure-city/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-spatial-structure-city/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Urban Spatial Structures](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-spatial-structure-types/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_urban_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C766&ssl=1 "Types of Urban Spatial Structures | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Urban Spatial StructuresThe urban spatial structure can be characterized by its level of centralization and clustering of value-added activities such as retail, management, fabrication, and distribution. **Centralization** refers to the preponderance the central part of the city has on the organization of urban activities, which is mainly derived from accessibility. **Clustering** refers to the overall respective proximity that urban activities maintain, which is mainly derived from the benefits of agglomeration. A centralized and clustered setting (Type A) implies that most of the value-added activities are located around the central area of a city and are also in close proximity to one another. Although the four above types of urban spatial structures are possible, the two most significant trends that have impacted urban spatial structures have been decentralization. Still, this decentralization took place while maintaining a high level of clustering (Type C). This is reflective of a [multicentric city](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4760). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-spatial-structure-types/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-spatial-structure-types/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-spatial-structure-types/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-spatial-structure-types/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chapter 8 - Urban Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** Considering that a growing share of the global population lives in cities, urban transportation issues are of foremost importance to support the mobility of passengers in large urban agglomerations. Transportation in urban areas is highly complex because of the modes involved, the multitude of origins and destinations, and the amount and variety of traffic. Traditionally, urban transportation has focused on passengers, as cities were viewed as locations of utmost human interactions with intricate traffic patterns linked to commuting, commercial transactions, and leisure/cultural activities. However, cities are also locations of production, consumption, and distribution linked to freight mobility. Conceptually, the urban transport system is intricately linked with urban form and spatial structure. Urban transit is an important dimension of mobility, notably in high-density areas. --- ## Contents ### [8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ "8.1 – Transportation and the Urban Form") ### [8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/ "8.2 – Urban Land Use and Transportation") ### [8.3 – Urban Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/ "8.3 – Urban Mobility") ### [8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/ "8.4 – Urban Transport Challenges") --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Functions of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/transport-terminal-function/) **Published:** November 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/functions_transport_terminals.png?resize=900%2C331&ssl=1 "The Functions of Transport Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Functions of Transport TerminalsA transport terminal is composed of a set of intermodal infrastructures taking advantage of a geographical location, conferring a higher level of accessibility to local, regional, and global markets. Depending on the mode being considered, terminals are bound to various degrees to their sites. For instance, maritime transportation terminals are particularly dependent on local conditions, especially for large port activities which can be accommodated in a limited number of locations. Airport terminals are more flexible in their locations, but still bound to specific locational constraints. Terminals fulfill three general functions within transport systems: - **Connectivity**. Transport terminals provide connectivity within a modal transport network as they are the only locations from which a network can be entered or exited. For instance, subway stations are the connecting nodes of a transit network, while ports and airports are the connecting nodes within maritime and air networks. - **Interface**. Transport terminals provide an interface between transport modes, enabling passengers and cargo to transit. Ports and airports are interface points between maritime or air and land transport systems. - **Buffer**. Transport terminals provide a [buffer](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3069) between the different capacities and frequencies of the transport modes they connect, such as a port for maritime and land transportation systems. A containership carrying thousands of containers may call a port once every two days, while trucks carrying single containers may come in and out of the terminal every few minutes. A similar analogy applies to airports that act as buffers between the various levels of service of land transport systems and the scheduling of air services. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/transport-terminal-function/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/transport-terminal-function/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/transport-terminal-function/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/transport-terminal-function/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Latitudinal Intermediacy: COPA Airlines](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/latitudinal-intermediacy/) **Published:** November 13, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Copa-Airlines.png?resize=900%2C776&ssl=1 "Latitudinal Intermediacy: COPA Airlines | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Latitudinal Intermediacy COPA Airlines*Source: Network from COPA Airlines web site. Paths are approximate.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Copa-Airlines.pdf) COPA Airlines is a medium-sized Panamanian company operating from its major hub in Panama City (Tocumen International Airport – PTY). In 2022, it carried 15.72 million passengers. Panama City is strategically located as the intermediate location of the Americas; the main reason why the airline labels its hub as “Hub of the Americas in Panama”. This hub services two ranges; the circum-Caribbean through a standard hub-and-spoke network structure and a latitudinal intermediacy connecting medium / long-distance destinations in the northern and southern hemispheres (longitudinal intermediacy connects airports along an east/west range). Because of its central location, Panama particularly well covers the Caribbean and offers a competitive alternative for Miami, particularly for passengers from Central and South America. COPA’s fleet is composed of Boeing 737-700/800s with a range of around 5,500 km, placing services such as Panama – Montevideo (5,400 km) at the extreme range. From Tocumen, COPA Airlines is thus able to reach almost all the major destinations in North and South America except for the Pacific Northwest and the tip of South America (southern Chile and Argentina). Panama has historically been a small actor in the Latin American airline industry. The national economy did not generate a large amount of air traffic, and because of the small size of the country, there was almost no domestic market to develop, unlike countries like Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia, which support significant and fast-growing domestic markets. With a traffic of 15.7 million passengers in 2022, Tocumen ranked the first airport in Central America, but only ranked the 20th largest Latin American airport. Still, airports such as Mexico City, Bogota (a major hub), and Lima are handling traffic 2 to 4 times as much as Panama City, largely because of their substantial local populations. However, the growth of Tocumen and COPA is indicative that Panama will play a larger role in Latin America by connecting the circum-Caribbean, North, and South American air transport systems. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/latitudinal-intermediacy/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/latitudinal-intermediacy/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/latitudinal-intermediacy/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/latitudinal-intermediacy/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Longitudinal Intermediacy: Icelandair](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/longitudinal-intermediacy/) **Published:** November 12, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Icelandair.png?resize=900%2C655&ssl=1 "Longitudinal Intermediacy: Icelandair | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Longitudinal Intermediacy Icelandair*Note: Also includes seasonal services.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Icelandair.pdf) Icelandair is a small airline company that carried around 3.44 million passengers in 2022, from a pre-pandemic peak of 4.4 million in 2019. Because of the convenient intermediary location of Reykjavik along the transatlantic Great Circle route, the airline has successfully established a pure long-distance hub-and-spoke system servicing mostly Northern Europe and nine North American cities. Scandinavian airports using Reykjavik to reach North America have a particularly low deviation. The same applies to western North American airports (Seattle, Denver, and Minneapolis), having a low deviation from Western European airports. Additionally, Scandinavian countries may not generate enough traffic to justify regular direct services to American airports, and using congested European hubs such as London, Paris, or Amsterdam involves higher deviation and the risk of delays. Therefore, the consolidation of traffic at Reykjavik becomes an effective business proposition. Icelandair’s fleet of 43 aircraft is mainly composed of 757s, whose range of 7,700 km is sufficient to support its service pairs (the range of the aircraft goes beyond Anchorage, which is the longest service route). This fleet is being replaced by 737 Max 8 and 9 having a similar range and better fuel efficiency. Since the intermediacy offered by Icelandair connects the eastern and western parts of the Atlantic, it is labeled as **longitudinal intermediacy** (latitudinal intermediacy connects airports along a north/south range). Iceland is the only effective location for such a pan-Atlantic network as there are no other significant airports in the North Atlantic. It is expected that with the growth of economic activity along the Arctic Circle, the role of Iceland as an intermediary hub would be reinforced. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/longitudinal-intermediacy/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/longitudinal-intermediacy/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/longitudinal-intermediacy/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/longitudinal-intermediacy/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The World's Busiest Air Transport Routes, 2018](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/busiest-air-routes/) **Published:** November 12, 2017 **Author:** John Bowen **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Busiest-Air-Travel-Routes-1.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "The World's Busiest Air Transport Routes, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Worlds Busiest Air Transport Routes 2018*Source: Informa Markets. Note: Direct lines may not represent actual flight paths.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Busiest-Air-Travel-Routes.pdf) Although air transportation is commonly believed to mostly service long-distance markets, the business thrives at servicing short-haul markets of less than 1,000 km; less than 2 hours of flight time. The world’s busiest air route is between Seoul and the resort island of Jeju, located 450 km apart. It accounted for 16 million passengers in 2022. Short-haul air routes take different configurations depending on the region they serve: - **[East Asia](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3771)** has experienced fast growth in its air travel industry. Japan accounts for many of the busiest routes, even if the national urban system has been extensively linked with [high-speed rail](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7465). The routes involved are beyond the 2 hours service timeframe for high-speed rail (Sapporo, Fukuoka), or not connected by high-speed rail services (Okinawa). The Hong Kong – Taipei segment emerged since direct flights between Taiwan and mainland China were prohibited until 2014. The Chinese domestic air market is substantial, with the main routes involving long-distance connections between Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. This connectivity is complemented by a high-speed rail system. - **Southeast Asia**. Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam have substantial domestic air markets partly driven by their geography (archipelago nations) and the poor connectivity of their national highway systems. - **Europe**. Although the European air transport network is extensive, it does not figure predominantly among the world’s busiest air routes. For many of the largest city pairs that used to represent important air routes, the development of high-speed rail has captured a significant amount of traffic. Many airports within Europe confer an extensive air transport network, but few large-scale airports. The corridors that still rank among the world’s busiest involve city pairs not well-serviced by train services, such as Paris – Toulouse, Paris – Nice, and Madrid – Barcelona. Still, policies are being implemented to shift short-distance air travel with high-speed rail. - **North America** has the longest domestic routes, where many of the busiest routes involve more than 2 hours flights. New York – Chicago, Los Angeles – San Francisco, and New York – Los Angeles are the most proeminent. - **Central and South America**. Mexico, Colombia, and Brazil have developed active domestic markets partly due to economic development and constraining geography that does not support highway system development. - Dubai – London and London – New York are the most salient long-distance routes. They are all major regional connectors and the hub of major global carriers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/busiest-air-routes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/busiest-air-routes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/busiest-air-routes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/busiest-air-routes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Maritime Transport Life Cycle and Main National Actors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/life-cycle-maritime-transport/) **Published:** November 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/maritime_transport_life_cycle.png?resize=900%2C549&ssl=1 "The Maritime Transport Life Cycle and Main National Actors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Maritime Transport Life Cycle and Main National Actors*Source: Adapted from UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport, various issues. J. Hoffmann (2014) “Who controls the world’s fleet? Trends in the ship owning countries”, Marine Money Geneva Forum.* Maritime transport has several economic ramifications since it involves core and ancillary (support) activities. Such an association is often referred to as the **ocean (or “blue”) economy.** Maritime shipping is part of a life cycle involving five major phases (a “blue chain”) involving different national actors. - **1. Building**. Once a ship has been ordered, building in a specialized shipping yard can take two months or more, depending on the ship class. Most of the shipbuilding is assumed by South Korea and China. - **2. Ownership**. Ships are owned by corporations and family interests incorporated in specific countries, referred to as beneficial ownership locations. Greece, Japan, and China are the world’s most important beneficial ownership locations. - **3. Registration**. Due to maritime law, the country of registration of a ship relates to the rules and regulations it is subject to. These are known as flags of convenience, with Panama, Liberia, and the Marshall Islands accounting for the most significant ship registry countries. - **4. Operations**. Maritime transportation is operated by large shipping companies that offer transport services to their customers and organize the utilization of their assets along shipping routes. Denmark and Switzerland have the head offices of the world’s two largest shipping lines, Maersk and MSC. - **5. Scrapping**. Once a ship has completed its commercial life, often after being sold to secondary shipping markets, it will be brought to a scrapping yard to be disassembled and recycled. India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are among the most significant locations where ships are scrapped. Ships are usually bought for cash on secondary markets by scrapping yards. Additionally, the maritime transport life cycle is supported by **ancillary activities**. For instance, shipping, such as building or operations, needs to be financed and insured. The UK and Scandinavian countries have developed a specialization in this sector. Maritime operations require seafarers, many of whom are recruited from the Philippines and Indonesia. A share of the world’s port terminals is operated by [global terminal operators](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3358), with Hong Kong, the Netherlands, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates accounting for the largest. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/life-cycle-maritime-transport/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/life-cycle-maritime-transport/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/life-cycle-maritime-transport/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/life-cycle-maritime-transport/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Food Consumed per Capita, Selected Countries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-consumed-selected-countries-per-capita/) **Published:** March 16, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/food_consumed_selected.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Food Consumed per Capita, Selected Countries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Food Consumed Selected Countries in grams per capita per day*Source: Overseas Development Institute (ODI), 2014. Derived from FAOSTAT.* Each society and culture can be represented by a diet, which reflects a preference for specific food sources. Historically, local diets were coordinated by the availability of food supplies, which tended to reflect a scarcity of calories and proteins. The core of the food consumed were cereals (rice, wheat, corn) and starchy roots (potato, turnip, beet). Looking at a sample of developing economies, it is quite apparent that diets have substantially changed in terms of total intake and composition. The growth in the consumption of animal products (e.g. meat, eggs, milk) is the most significant change since it is associated with higher-quality food sources. The consumption of vegetables has also increased, also reflecting a switch towards higher-quality food sources. The conventional diet leaning on cereals and starchy roots did not experience any notable change, implying that as incomes improve, populations are less leaning on conventional diets. This presses new demands on food systems and requires more extensive food distribution systems. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-consumed-selected-countries-per-capita/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-consumed-selected-countries-per-capita/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-consumed-selected-countries-per-capita/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-consumed-selected-countries-per-capita/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Estimated Famine Victims since the Mid 19th Century](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/estimated-famine-victims-since-mid-19th-century/) **Published:** March 14, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/famine_victims_history.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Estimated Famine Victims since the Mid-19th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Estimated Famine Victims since the Mid 19th Century*Source: Adapted from Our World Data.* Before the 20th century, most famines and related food shortages occurred because of supply failures related to droughts and flooding. The lack of transportation and distribution capabilities prevented compensating for local shortages by bringing agricultural surpluses from other regions. The case of China is illustrative. While similar climatic conditions created a famine in the 1870s and the 1920s, the death toll was radically different. Between 9 and 13 million people were estimated to have died from the first famine, while the figures went down to half a million for the second famine. Despite population growth, the major explanation for these differences was better distribution capabilities. There are also contexts where a climatic event impacts food supply and incites food traders to hoard supplies with the expectation that food prices will increase. This can remove a large quantity of food from the market, particularly if there are limited distribution capabilities. Monopolistic trading power was associated with famines in India (Punjab) and Bangladesh in the 1940s. The political context behind famines is also highly relevant. Famine in a functioning democratic regime has never been observed, particularly since these regimes are associated with more effective market mechanisms. However, the worst famines in recorded history are associated with repressive communist and socialist regimes. Collectivization in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and political turmoil in China in the 1950s and 1960s (Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution) were associated with massive famines of 15 and 24 million deaths, respectively. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/estimated-famine-victims-since-mid-19th-century/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/estimated-famine-victims-since-mid-19th-century/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/estimated-famine-victims-since-mid-19th-century/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/estimated-famine-victims-since-mid-19th-century/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Availability of Fresh Produce by Season and Region](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/availability-produce-season-region/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/seasomal_availability.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Availability of Fresh Produce by Season and Region | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Availability of Fresh Produce by Season and Region*Source: Adapted from the Oppenheimer Group.* Cold chain logistics have enabled the availability of fresh produce almost continually. What used to be only seasonally available can now be provided year-round, either because the supply is in a tropical with a continuous growing season, it is grown in controlled conditions (e.g. greenhouses), or because of the ability to switch to supply sources according to seasonal variations. For instance, bananas and pineapples are available year-round because they are grown in tropical countries like Costa Rica or Ecuador. Other products such as apples, citrus, and grapes are grown seasonally in different parts of the world, conferring a constant level of availability (although quantities will vary). Produce price will thus fluctuate according to the quantity produced, the distances involved, and its perishability. The most stable price is usually found in the banana trade because of the large economies of scale in this sector, well-developed cold chain logistics, and year-round production. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/availability-produce-season-region/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/availability-produce-season-region/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/availability-produce-season-region/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/availability-produce-season-region/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Banana Ripening Room](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/banana-ripening-room/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Banana Ripening Room](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/banana_ripening_room.jpg?resize=768%2C1024&ssl=1 "Banana Ripening Room | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Banana Ripening Room*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2013.* The banana is the world’s most consumed fruit and is subject to a specific ripening process before being ready for consumption. If the ripening is done under controlled conditions, the quality (even ripening with no imperfections such as black spots) and market value of the product increases as consumers are expecting to see on store shelves perfectly ripenned bananas. While the bananas are harvested in tropical locations such as Costa Rica or Thailand, ripening commonly takes place close to the market in specialized facilities or increasingly in large grocery distribution centers that will include specifically designed rooms. There are available technologies that can enable ripening during transport in a refrigerated container, but at this point, their use appears to be marginal. Cartoons of green (unripened) bananas are commonly imported in reefers at 13 degrees Celsius. After being brought to a specialized facility or grocery distribution center, the cartoons are loaded into the sealed ripening room (colloquially known as “banana room”) with the temperature controlled to 17 degrees Celsius. Ethylene, a natural ripening agent, is pumped into the room (at 1 ppm) and left for 24 hours. The ethylene is then ventilated out of the room, and the bananas are left to ripen for three to four days, depending on their initial condition and the ripening level the customer would like. The ripened bananas are then ready to be delivered to grocery stores. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/banana-ripening-room/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/banana-ripening-room/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/banana-ripening-room/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/banana-ripening-room/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Preponderance of Fresh and Frozen Cargo by Transport Mode](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/fresh-frozen-cold-chain-transport-mode/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fresh_frozen_cargo_transport_mode.png?resize=900%2C428&ssl=1 "Preponderance of Fresh and Frozen Cargo by Transport Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Preponderance of Fresh and Frozen Cargo by Transport Mode*Source: adapted from Seabury Cargo Advisory.* The nature of the transport of cold chain food products varies substantially according to the transport mode, which is a matter of speed. For instance, about 96% of the food cold chain cargo carried by air transport is fresh (chilled temperature; 2 degrees Celsius), while the remaining 4% is frozen (-10 degrees Celsius). Freight forwarders are willing to pay the premium air cargo rate to ensure that perishable products are quickly available on global markets. Since frozen products have a longer shelf life, maritime transport assumes a much higher share of this form of cold chain transport (37% of the cold chain cargo it handles). Many of the fresh cargo that maritime shipping transports concerns tropical fruits such as bananas and pineapples. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/fresh-frozen-cold-chain-transport-mode/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/fresh-frozen-cold-chain-transport-mode/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/fresh-frozen-cold-chain-transport-mode/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/fresh-frozen-cold-chain-transport-mode/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World's Largest Urban Regions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/world-urban-regions/) **Published:** January 2, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Urban-Regions.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's Largest Urban Regions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Largest Urban Regions[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Urban-Regions.pdf) Urbanization is a well-understood process that has led to a global urban system, including several mega-cities. A further step concerns the emergence of urban regions, which are entities that transcend the conventional perspective of a city into a wider scale including rural areas and interconnected systems of cities. Even the concept of rural has been transformed through closer integration with urban activities, including leisure, specialized agriculture (e.g. “truck farming” or market gardens), and punctual exurban developments (e.g. distribution centers, manufacturing). Although an urban region is rarely a jurisdictional entity, it is a functional spatial unit that can take three main forms: - **Urban corridor**. A linear accumulation of transport infrastructure, mainly highways, and rail networks (including high-speed rail), that supports a linear system of cities. Many corridors are the anchor structure of mega urban regions. However, many urban corridors are not mega urban regions as they do not have large agglomerations (commonly more than 2 million inhabitants) to provide a strong urban imprint or do not have extensive enough interactions (e.g. for less developed economies). As they further develop, many urban corridors can become mega-urban regions. - **Extended Metropolitan Region (EMR)**. A large urban agglomeration, usually of more than 5 million inhabitants, exercises a substantial influence on its surrounding landscape and is complemented by a system of smaller satellite cities. An EMR is commonly a dominant gateway and cluster of economic activity within a national economy (sometimes more than 25% of the national GDP for Bangkok, Paris, Madrid, Gauteng, Lima, and the Mexico City area). - **Mega Urban Region (MUR)**. A complex system of economically integrated and interconnected cities spanning a large territory (several hundreds of kilometers in diameter). They usually have more than 10 million inhabitants spread over several large metropolitan areas, but many MURs have populations above 25 million. All MURs are the economic, political, and cultural core of their respective countries. Mega urban regions do not have formal names since they are not official jurisdictional entities. Therefore, they are usually labeled either by a significant common physical feature (e.g. a river delta) or by the name of their two most important cities (or the cities at their respective ends). Still, this naming can be subject to contention, and different alternatives have often been advocated. The world has about 40 mega urban regions and extended metropolitan regions, with the urban regions on the above map accounting for more than 1 billion people. The world’s most important urban regions are found in [Asia](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7724). For instance, the MURs of the Yangtze River Delta, the [Tokaido corridor](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7748), and the Pearl River Delta have 88, 80, and 70 million inhabitants, respectively. They represent the largest accumulation of urban infrastructure on earth. The only true transnational MUR is the Rhine/Scheldt Delta, which spans Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany and has a population of 26 million. Singapore – Kuala Lumpur is also a transnational MUR, but to a lesser extent. The United States, mostly because of its high level of economic development and its integrated national economic system, has several large MURs, with BostWash (Boston-Washington; 44 million) and ChiPitts (Chicago-Pittsburg; 54 million, but the urban region is more diffuse and less integrated) being the most significant. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/world-urban-regions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/world-urban-regions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/world-urban-regions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-mega-urban-region/world-urban-regions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [FAO Food Price Index, 1990-2023](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/fao-food-price-index/) **Published:** September 4, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fao_food_price_index2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "FAO Food Price Index, 1990-2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")FAO Food Price Index 1990 2023*Sources: FAO. (2014-16=100).* The **FAO Food Price Index** (FFPI) is a composite measure of the monthly change in international prices of a basket of food commodities. It consists of five commodity group price indices weighted by the average export shares of each group over the 2014-2016 period. - **Meat price**. The average export market prices of bovine, pig meat, poultry meat, and bovine meat. - **Dairy price**. The combined price of butter, skim milk powder, whole milk powder, and cheese. - **Cereals price**. The combined price of wheat, maize, and rice. - **Oils price**. The combined price of soybean, sunflower, rapeseed, groundnut, cottonseed, copra, palm kernel, palm, linseed, and castor oil. - **Sugar price**. Based on the average International Sugar Agreement price. The trade and consumption of food commodities have notably changed over the last three decades with periods of inflation and deflation. Because the world’s population grows steadily and predictably, the trade and consumption of food do not vary significantly. The fluctuations in food prices are mainly attributable to weather events, such as a drought in a large producing region as well as changes in **energy prices** since agriculture requires substantial energy inputs. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/fao-food-price-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/fao-food-price-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/fao-food-price-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/fao-food-price-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Empty Trucks Crossing the Border between Hong Kong and Shenzhen](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/empty-trucks-hong-kong-shenzhen/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Emty Trucks Border Hong Kong Shenzhen](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/emty_trucks_border_hong_kong_shenzhen.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Empty Trucks Crossing the Border between Hong Kong and Shenzhen | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Empty Trucks Crossing the Border between Hong Kong and Shenzhen*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2005.* Freight flows between China and the rest of the world tend to be imbalanced, with a greater quantity of outbound traffic. Since the port of Hong Kong is an important outlet for the Pearl River Delta’s exports, a significant share of cross-border freight traffic concerns empty loads towards Shenzhen. Procedures have been developed to accommodate such flows. To expedite the border crossing process, truck drivers are asked to leave the back door open so that customs officers can see with a glance that the truck is empty. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/empty-trucks-hong-kong-shenzhen/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/empty-trucks-hong-kong-shenzhen/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/empty-trucks-hong-kong-shenzhen/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/empty-trucks-hong-kong-shenzhen/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Grocery Section of a Large Food Distribution Center](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-section-distribution-center/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Grocery Food Distribution Center](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/grocery_food_distribution_center.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Grocery Section of a Large Food Distribution Center | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Grocery Section of a Large Food Distribution Center*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2013.* Food distribution relies on a very stable demand that must be satisfied in a timely fashion, particularly for the distribution of perishable food products such as produce, dairy, and meat. The tendency has been the consolidation of food distribution in large complexes servicing extensive markets through the cross-docking paradigm (outbound and inbound sides of the distribution center and warehousing in the middle). The facility in the above photo is a 1.1 million square foot Regina warehouse owned by [Loblaw](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6613), which is comprised of several chambers: - Grocery (G) section with 285,000 square feet at room temperature. - Produce (P) section with a total of 35,000 square feet, subdivided into a wet room (10,000 square feet at 2 degrees Celsius, mostly for lettuce), a citrus room (10,000 square feet at 7 degrees Celsius), and a general produce room (15,000 square feet at 13 degrees Celsius). - The dairy and meat (D) section has a total of 75,000 square feet at 2 degrees Celsius. - Frozen (F) section with 82,000 square feet at -10 degrees Celsius. Each of these chambers has its own temperature range and square footage relative to the volume it handles. In the grocery section above, orders taken from the racks (right side) are assembled (palletized) into truckloads in front of loading doors (left side). Each load will be delivered to a specific grocery store in the market area serviced by the distribution center, which encompasses most of Western Canada. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-section-distribution-center/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-section-distribution-center/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-section-distribution-center/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-section-distribution-center/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Large Scale Grocery Cold Chain Distribution Center](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-cold-chain-distribution-center-schema/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/large_scale_grocery_cold_chain_dc.png?resize=900%2C728&ssl=1 "Large Scale Grocery Cold Chain Distribution Center | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Large Scale Grocery Cold Chain Distribution CenterA contemporary large cold chain distribution center is usually set as a crossdocking facility where inbound loads are serviced on one side and outbound loads on the other. Inbound loads originate from a wide variety of local, national, and international suppliers, reflecting the whole range of food products available in a large grocery store. Third-party logistics providers usually provide these deliveries that service directly from food-producing facilities, and that may consolidate loads in their own refrigerated warehouses. Outbound loads are customized shipments bound to specific grocery stores, with transportation often provided by a fleet of reefer vehicles owned by the retailer or performed on its account. These deliveries are usually regional in scope, which corresponds to the market area of the distribution center. Not surprisingly, power consumption is the most important operating cost for a refrigerated warehouse, with labor coming as the second. Locations that are able to offer lower-cost energy are thus at an advantage in cold chain logistics. Within the warehouse are several compartments of different temperatures to support specific cold chain requirements. Ambient (20 degrees Celsius), which commonly accounts for a large share of the square footage, is used for standard [non-perishable grocery products](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6726) (e.g. canned goods, pasta, bread, or at least goods that do not require cold chain transportation and storage). ‘Banana’ (10 degrees Celsius) applies to a whole range of products such as bananas (obviously), citrus, fruits, potatoes, and onions. Chilled (2 degrees Celsius) is commonly used for dairy products and meat. In comparison, freeze (-10 degrees Celsius) relates to frozen goods such as ice cream, pre-prepared meals (e.g. pizza), frozen vegetables, meat, and seafood. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-cold-chain-distribution-center-schema/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-cold-chain-distribution-center-schema/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-cold-chain-distribution-center-schema/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/cold-chain-logistics/grocery-cold-chain-distribution-center-schema/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Average Food Losses by Food Type, 2010](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/global-average-food-losses-food-type/) **Published:** March 17, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_average_food_losses.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Average Food Losses by Food Type, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Average Food Losses by Food Type 2010*Source: FAO (2011) Global Food Losses and Food Waste.* There are five major sources of food waste along the food supply chain: - **Agricultural production**. For fruits, vegetables, and cereals, harvesting can be a source of losses of the food product that is damaged mechanically, spilled, or threshed. Meat losses are accounted for by animal deaths during breading. For fish losses, they represent discarded specimens (improper size or species) during fishing. - **Postharvest handling and storage**. Spillage and degradation losses take place after the harvest as the food items are stored at the production unit. For meat, it includes losses during transportation to slaughterhouses. For fishes, it involves losses during icing, packaging, and storage once a fishing ship has reached the shore. - **Processing**. Losses when food items are processed, such as washing, peeling, slicing, boiling, or other forms of more advanced processing (e.g. mixing, baking). Some items, particularly fruits and vegetables, can also be discarded if judged not of the right shape and size (consumer preferences). For meat, losses are during cutting and trimming. For fishes, it includes losses during canning and smoking. - **Distribution**. An array of losses once food items are distributed through the market system (wholesalers, distributors, grocers) are often linked to inadequate storage and transportation or unforeseen delays resulting in spoilage. - **Consumption**. Losses and waste during consumption at the household level, which can include those during storage and preparation. It considers food items that are not consumed and discarded. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/global-average-food-losses-food-type/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/global-average-food-losses-food-type/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/global-average-food-losses-food-type/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/global-average-food-losses-food-type/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Food Mile: Yogurt Supply Chain, Germany](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/food-mile-yogurt-supply-chain/) **Published:** December 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Well-Travelled-Yogurt-Pot.png?resize=900%2C971&ssl=1 "The Food-Mile: Yogurt Supply Chain, Germany | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Food Mile Yogurt Supply Chain Germany*Source: adapted from Böge, S. (1995) “The well-travelled yogurt pot: lessons for new freight transport policies and regional production”, World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 1, pp. 7-11.* One dimension of green logistics concerns food supply chains and the growing awareness that supplying food products to consumers concerns large distances. The term food-miles has been brought forward to try to capture the distances involved in all the stages and processes of food production, from the farm up to the consumer. It is assumed that more food-miles are related to less environmentally efficient supply chains. A classic example concerns a yogurt supply chain in south Germany. Although a simple product, a yogurt pot involves a wide variety of components ranging from milk, sugar, and jam (product) to labels, jars, and boxes (packaging). The above map shows direct, first-order relations between the manufacturer with its suppliers and customers (second tier relations, such as for the supplier of a supplier, are not depicted). It may indicate that the supply chain is environmentally damaging because of the distances involved and that these distances should be shorted to achieve greener logistics. However, statements in the line that supply chains should be more locally and regionally focused can be misleading. The following nuances should be considered: - **Input weight factor** (material index). Location theory has underlined that the weighting of the industrial inputs often influences a location. The higher the material index of input, the more important it is as a location factor. A yogurt pot can be considered a bulky product, with more than 85% of its weight (milk and sugar) and 90% of the package (glass jars) being sourced regionally. Other inputs play a small, if not negligible role. From an input weight factor perspective, the concerned food supply chain appears much more optimal. - **Different location factors**. Suppliers within a supply chain may have different location factors that may appear to be far from optimal in relation to their customers. Still, they can be optimal in relation to their suppliers. Changing their location to optimize one supply chain (or simply one segment) could lead at the aggregate level to diseconomies for other supply chains. - **Economies of scale and regional specialization**. The extension of food miles is, in part, reflective of emerging regional specializations in food production, many in developing countries where agribusiness is a growing source of employment and income. The benefits derived in terms of lower input costs and economies of scale may out weight higher transport costs. Consequently, the example of the yogurt pot as an environmentally damaging supply chain is mostly inaccurate and misleading. Striving to shorten supply chains may appear at first glance to be imminently desirable. Still, they must be considered within a broader context, namely the nature of the inputs and the location factors of the suppliers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/food-mile-yogurt-supply-chain/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/food-mile-yogurt-supply-chain/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/food-mile-yogurt-supply-chain/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/food-mile-yogurt-supply-chain/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Food Prices Relative to Average Hourly Wages, United States, 1919-2019](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-prices-relative-average-wages-united-states/) **Published:** April 6, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/food_prices_relatives_hourly_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Food Prices Relative to Average Hourly Wages, United States, 1919-2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Food Prices Relative to Average Hourly Wages United States 1919 2019*Note: Hourly wage was $0.43 per hour in 1919 and $34.33 per hour in 2019. Source: The Simon Project, Human Progress.* Due to a variety of technical improvements in agriculture, transformation, and distribution, the time price of food has declined across a wide range of items. The time price refers to the nominal price divided by the nominal average hourly wage. For instance, while a dozen bananas accounted for 74% of the average hourly wage in 1919, the time price fell to 6% in 2019. Across a wide basket of food items, the average time price fell by 87%. This means that food is increasingly affordable as less amount of work can be spent to access the same amount of food. Affordability improved at an average rate of 2% to 2.5% per year during that time period. Workers at a lower pay scale saw slightly fewer improvements, while workers at a high pay scale saw significant improvements. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-prices-relative-average-wages-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-prices-relative-average-wages-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-prices-relative-average-wages-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/food-prices-relative-average-wages-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Agricultural Area, 1961-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/world-agricultural-area/) **Published:** March 15, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_agricultural_area.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Agricultural Area, 1961-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Agricultural Area 1961 2021*Source: FAO. Note: Agricultural area is the sum of areas under Arable land and Permanent crops and Permanent pastures.* About 37% of the world’s land is devoted to agriculture. Up to the 21st century, the world’s agricultural surface (crops and pastures) was growing at a rate much lower than the world’s population. While agricultural areas grew by about 11% between 1960 and 2000, the global population doubled (from 3.0 to 6.1 billion). This implied that agricultural yields were steadily improving. However, since 2000, the global agricultural surface has leveled and started to decline. A part of this decline is linked to the expansion of urban areas, which is often at the expense of the most productive agricultural areas. The share of pastures has remained stable at about 68% of all agricultural land. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/world-agricultural-area/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/world-agricultural-area/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/world-agricultural-area/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/world-agricultural-area/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Length of Growing Period (LGP), in Days](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/length-growing-period-days/) **Published:** February 17, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Lenght Growing Period](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Lenght_Growing_Period.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "Lenght of Growing Period | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Length of Growing Period LGP in Days*Source: UNEP (2010): The GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO, TERRASTAT I Global GIS Databases Poverty and Food Insecurity Mapping Project. United Nations Environment Programme.* One of the core determinants of agricultural output is the time available for normal crop growth with photosynthesis. The length of the growing period (LGP) is a proxy that combines temperature and moisture considerations. It is the number of days under rain-fed conditions with temperatures above 5°C (minimum temperature for wheat to grow) and excludes periods that are too cold, too dry, or both. 90 days is considered the minimum period to grow crops. Areas of the world that have above 200 days of LGP are among the most potentially productive. However, such areas also support complex ecosystems (e.g. rain forests), implying the competition between land used for agriculture and land used by natural ecosystems. Agricultural systems have been the most extensively developed in the area of intermediate growing season and biodiversity. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/length-growing-period-days/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/length-growing-period-days/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/length-growing-period-days/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/length-growing-period-days/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Agri-Food Supply Chain](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-agri-food-supply-chain/) **Published:** February 8, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/agri_food_supply_chain.png?resize=900%2C501&ssl=1 "The Agri-food Supply Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Agri food Supply Chain*Source: adapted from Humphrey, J. and O. Memedovic (2006) “Global Value Chains in the Agrifood Sector”, United Nations Industrial Development Organization Working Paper, Vienna. J.W. Grievink (2003) The Changing Face of the Global Food Industry, OECD Conference, The Hague.* The agri-food supply chain, which is a standard supply sequence in a [food system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=12835) ranging from inputs to the final delivery, concerns several actors. Since food supply can be considered the most extensive and prevalent, its consumer base is essentially the entire population. In the case of Western Europe, 89 million customers are using 170,000 retail outlets, which makes food available to 160 million consumers (e.g. members of a household). There are about 3.2 million food producers in Western Europe, supplying tier suppliers and manufacturers. These suppliers are using the inputs of producers to make intermediary food products used to make final goods. However, despite the size of the food system, the purchasing power is concentrated in a rather limited number of buying desks, which are agencies responsible for purchasing food products on behalf of large retailers. 110 buying desks account for 85% of the total retail food in Western Europe. These food items are then distributed and sold to large supermarkets and retail outlets. In the United States, a large supermarket can carry 40,000 separate food items, while this number can be around 30,000 in Europe. The shape of this supply chain is similar to a funnel since a small number of actors have a high level of control and pricing power. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-agri-food-supply-chain/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-agri-food-supply-chain/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-agri-food-supply-chain/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-agri-food-supply-chain/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Food System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-food-system/) **Published:** February 7, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/food_system2.png?resize=900%2C464&ssl=1 "The Food System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Food SystemA food system is composed of several stages where inputs, agricultural commodities, processed food, and wastes are moving downward and upward a commodity chain: - **Nutrient management**. The biological conditions supporting food production, such as soils and water reservoirs, which are directly related to key environmental characteristics such as temperature and precipitation. These tend to occur naturally, unless the conditions in which food is grown have been substantially modified, such as for aquaculture and greenhouses. - **Farm inputs**. The inputs that are provided through capital and labor (more than often mechanized) include irrigation, seeds, fertilizers, and the equipment required to prepare, maintain, and harvest crops. The manner in which these inputs are organized is linked to different forms of farming, such as subsistence farming, commercial agriculture, and corporate farming. - **Production**. The activities involved in harvesting food from crops (e.g. grains) or collecting food from their natural or artificial habitat (e.g. cattle or seafood). These activities are becoming increasingly mechanized. - **Transportation and storage**. Food that has been harvested or collected for commercial purposes needs to be transported and stored. For instance, grain elevators are nearby transport facilities such as [rail](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3651) or [ports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7363). The scale and condition in which food can be transported and stored is a function of how perishable and fragile it is. - **Processing**. The transformation of agricultural products into food involves a highly diversified range of activities, scales, methods, and skills. It is usually divided into primary (transforming an agricultural product into food; milling grain into flour), secondary (creating food from ingredients; baking bread), and tertiary (manufacturing; ready-to-eat food) processing. - **Distribution**. The range of activities related to food packaging, packing, storage, and distribution for final and intermediate uses. For perishable food, this often involves cold storage facilities and modes. Distribution also includes retailers acting as intermediaries, such as wholesalers, grocers, and restaurants. - **End-use**. The consumption of food in a variety of social and commercial settings, including homes, cafeterias, and restaurants. This is linked to cultural preferences and affordability. As societies get wealthier, the consumption of food involves a larger share of meat, a larger caloric intake, more processed food, and an increasing variety of food items. - **Post-use**. Discarding and recycling food can be a substantial post-use activity, as about 30% of the food consumed in the world is discarded. These stages involve complex interactions between biological, economic, and political systems, each subject to risks. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-food-system/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-food-system/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-food-system/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-global-food-systems/the-food-system/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.13 - The Containerization of Commodities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/containerization-commodities/) **Published:** January 13, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Authors: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Theo Notteboom > Containers can carry commodities such as coffee, coal or grain that used to be carried in bulk or breakbulk. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. A New Growth Dynamics for Containerization](#1_A_New_Growth_Dynamics_for_Containerization) - [2. Potential Markets](#2_Potential_Markets) - [3. Commodities in Containers](#3_Commodities_in_Containers) - [4. Transloading and Terminal Issues](#4_Transloading_and_Terminal_Issues) - [5. Containerized Commodity Chains](#5_Containerized_Commodity_Chains) # 1. A New Growth Dynamics for Containerization The investigation of cargo being carried by containers appears to be underrepresented, particularly for commodities and the cold chain. The perception of the container as a transport unit must be expanded to consider the container as a supply or commodity chain unit as well. Containerized freight is commonly characterized by the movement of manufactured goods and parts from manufacturing facilities to retail activities with a range of distribution activities in between, such as terminals and distribution centers. This process has substantially benefited from the mobility containerization provided in terms of spatial flexibility and distribution efficiency. The outcome has been the emergence of global production and distribution networks. This underlines that containerization has mainly been investigated from the principle of flow, particularly in light of maritime and inland logistics developments. Issues such as shipping networks, service configurations, and the setting and operation of maritime terminals and inland ports have received attention to explain the structure of **global supply chains**. The conventional [growth dynamics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2634) of containerization have mainly relied on an array of factors, including the derived volume linked with globalization, the substitution of break-bulk traffic into containerized traffic, the requirement to reposition empty containers, and a level of transshipment taking place at intermediary hubs. Still, the dynamics based on derived demand may have reached maturity in terms of its containerization potential, as many global supply chains are now fully containerized. For the conventional containerized market, this implies that changes are derived from the ebb and flows of commercial activity and much less from the geographical and functional diffusion of the container. As the derived growth function of containerization becomes less dynamic, an increasing share of the growth will develop niche markets and opportunities that were initially bypassed. It is thus important to consider **commodity chains** as a component of containerization. > **Commodity**. Resources that can be consumed with no qualitative differentiation. They can be accumulated for a period of time (some are perishable while others can be virtually stored for centuries), exchanged as part of transactions, or purchased on specific markets (such as futures market). Some commodities are fixed, implying that they cannot be transferred, except for the title. This includes land, mining, logging, and fishing rights. In this context, the value of a fixed commodity is derived from the utility and the potential rate of extraction. Bulk commodities are commodities that can be transferred, which include for instance grains, metals, livestock, oil, cotton, coffee, sugar, and cocoa. Their value is derived from utility, supply, and demand (market price). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/containerization_growth_factors2.png?resize=900%2C446&ssl=1 "Containerization Growth Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/containerization-growth-factors/containerization_growth_factors2/)Containerization Growth FactorsCommodities, from grains, chemicals to wood products, are among a [large array of goods being traded](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4028) in the global economy and represent a niche for containerization. It can thus be argued that a subsequent phase in the geographical and functional diffusion of containerization will relate to commodities, which represent a notable market potential being realized. Both transport systems – bulk and containerized – have a role to play, implying that the containerization of commodity chains is more likely to be a process based on complementarity rather than competition since each transport chain has its own advantages. It is clear that for several commodities, such as grain, iron ore, and coal, containerization will, at best, perform a niche role in the total volume handled. Both are likely to benefit since containerization offers speed and flexibility, while bulk offers the lowest transport cost possible. Because of vested interests, in terms of accumulated infrastructure investment and long-standing practices, many opportunities could be captured by commodity producers, large and small alike, over niche markets (high-quality grains, organics, etc.). For instance, about 9% of all the US waterborne agricultural exports are containerized, which accounted for 825,000 TEUs in 2012. # 2. Potential Markets The degree of market penetration of containerization remains to be assessed, and there is a wide variety of levels to which the container can be embedded within various commodity chains. Some commodities are already [**fully containerized**](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8407), while containerization is still in its infancy for others. For instance, 95% of all European coffee imports are containerized since coffee is a commodity of high value, and its consumption is rather ubiquitous and of a mass-market level. The demand structure of coffee is thus well suited for the benefits of containerization. Many segments of raw materials and food commodity chains are in the process of being containerized, which is starting to account for a notable share of international trade. This process is supported by [several factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8429): - The growing **availability of containers** in transport markets around the world, making it a rather ubiquitous transport product. Yet, this ubiquity is challenged by shortages of containers and of specific container sizes in some markets. - Economies of scale in [bulk shipping](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2176), making the minimum load unit increasingly large and less accessible to smaller commodity exporters. The container is offering an alternative for these exporters. - A general [rise in commodity prices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6246) and growing demand in new markets have made many commodities more prone to be containerized from a value proposition standpoint. - Fluctuations and rises in bulk shipping rates have incited the search for alternatives to bulk shipping when possible. Volatility also makes long-term planning for bulk shipping complex and subject to risks. - Relatively stable and even declining container shipping costs, particularly in light of rising commodity prices, rendered the container even more attractive since shippers can be confident about the stability of container shipping rates. - A propensity towards the diversification of products and their attributes, allowing specialized goods to be carried in containers that can maintain cargo integrity. - Global trade imbalances are transcribed in imbalanced container shipping rates, which represent a notable **export subsidy** for return (backhaul) cargo. For markets having notable imbalances, such as China (exports) and the United States (imports), incentives are acute. - Empty container repositioning has created opportunities by making **pools of empty containers** available that can be filled for backhaul flows. - A trend to move **processing close to production**, particularly for agricultural sectors in developing economies focusing on global markets exports. Unlike unprocessed raw materials or agricultural goods, processed goods are more suitable for containerization. For instance, processed cocoa and cashew nuts are highly suitable for containerization. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vessel_size_groups2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Vessel Size Groups | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/vessel-size-groups/vessel_size_groups2/)Vessel Size Groups in deadweight tonsContainerization has benefited substantially from economies of scale, particularly for maritime shipping. The container confers **few differences in scale economies for a producer** as each container is a unique transport unit and since containerized shipping networks are fairly ubiquitous. Barriers to entry are thus quite small as each container is an independent load unit that can accommodate lower volumes without many drawbacks as long as other containerized volumes are present; economies of scale are significant for terminal operators and maritime shipping. For instance, agricultural producers may develop their own markets by sending small agricultural commodity loads through regular containerized supply chains. Thus, containerization can provide the double benefit of permitting the development of global niche markets where numerous small exporters may compete and offer new economic development venues in commodity sectors that could not previously access foreign markets. Yet, more attention should be placed on analyzing the potential, particularly the time and flexibility benefits, for the containerization of commodity markets. For instance, the opportunity created by trans-Pacific trade imbalances has yet to be better captured by the North American commodity sector, particularly in light of expected [Chinese demand](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4360). The same applies to the European commodity sector in terms of the imbalanced Pacific-Indian-Mediterranean routes. Policy can also be an inhibiting factor. For instance, in 2005 the United States Department of Agriculture started waiving the mandatory inspection of high-quality specialty grain exports, which was imposing undue additional costs for small exporters. This policy was beneficial for exporting identity-preserved grains in containers bound for international markets, particularly in Europe and Japan. Containerization may also have an impact on the commodity markets themselves. Due to the large volumes concerned, commodities are commonly traded on markets, with large brokers securing an output through various contractual forms. **Commodity futures** are a legally binding agreements, made at a futures exchange, to buy or sell a commodity or financial instrument at some point in the future. Futures contracts are standardized according to the quality, quantity, delivery time, and location of each commodity. The only variable is price, which is discovered on a trading floor as traders get more accurate information about future market conditions as they unfold. **Forward contracts** are cash contracts in which a seller agrees to deliver a specific commodity to a buyer sometime in the future. Forward contracts, in contrast to futures contracts, are privately negotiated. On the opposite end of the spectrum, **spot trading** is a transaction where delivery occurs within a short lag between the transaction and its delivery. This also requires standards about the quality of the commodities being traded, which are common requirements for the majority of commodities exchanges. According to these definitions, the function of distribution could play a significant role in setting futures or forward contracts. With the containerization of some commodity markets, a contract could involve allocating empty containers through a leasing agreement to provide the fulfillment capacity at a specified point in time. It would require the setting of container storage facilities near terminals (particularly rail) that would be able to release containers accordingly. This could reduce the expected time frame of a futures contract, making it closer to a spot market contract. Containerization is thus likely to accelerate the resolution of commodity market contracts. A higher level of integration between commodity markets and freight distribution is to be expected. # 3. Commodities in Containers Because of the nature of the freight it handles, the containerization of commodities creates a unique set of challenges. There are several problems related to placing and removing commodities from containers. The first and most fundamental is the **locational** and **load unit** availability of containers; they must be available in proximity, in sufficient quantities, and be of a suitable load unit. While for light commodities, the load unit is secondary, the twenty-foot container is the most suitable for ponderous commodities. This is an important factor behind the fact that the twenty-foot container still accounts for more than 27% of the world’s container fleet. For hinterland transportation, the availability of containers can be an issue as maritime shipping companies own the majority of the global container assets and prefer these containers to be within the maritime system where they generate income for the carriers as opposed to the hinterland where they generate income for truck, rail, and barge companies. Another issue involves **container preparation**. Containers are well adapted to handle packaged freight directly (“floor loaded”) or on pallets. This is another matter for commodities, particularly bulks. Some, like grains, would require a container to be thoroughly cleaned before being loaded to avoid any form of shipment contamination. In many cases, container liners will be used to protect the products being carried. The most common liners are made of polyethylene to protect common dry bulk products such as chemicals and minerals. For commodities that require a level of air circulation, such as coffee or cacao, polypropylene liners are used. Another form of lining concerns thermal protection so that goods can be shielded against temperature spikes that could degrade or damage them. It is often required that containers be cleaned once unloaded to be used for other purposes without contaminating other shipments. The usage of dedicated containers is also a possibility as it would reduce preparation costs but would likely imply empty movements and high repositioning costs, which tends to defeat the purpose of containerization (a ubiquitous load and transport unit). Still, specialized containers exist for liquids and refrigerated cargo. The next issue is related to **container loading, unloading and transloading**. Containers carrying manufactured goods are dominantly loaded horizontally, either manually or with forklifts. Loading a container horizontally with bulk cargo is a complex task, often requiring a panel to block the back door and hold the loose cargo. Alternatively, containers can be flipped vertically to be loaded or unloaded, but this requires specialized handling equipment. Still, this is an attractive option in situations of constant volume. The usage of different modes to reach the load center (such as rail hopper cars) or the switch from domestic (53 footers) to maritime (40 footers) containers require a transloading operation, which represents additional costs. Some commodity chains, such as specialty crops, also benefit if the **chain of integrity** is maintained from the origin to the destination. It guarantees the quality of the shipment and product differentiation. This requires the source loading of containers. Containerization supports an increased **product variety** within the commodity sector, which is less possible with bulk transportation. **Weight** is also a major issue as container loads are much lighter for conventional (mainly retail) freight than commodities. The shipping industry has adapted to this characteristic and prefers using larger containers (40 footers, high cube when possible) as they offer more volume for the same handling costs. Retail goods tend to have a higher volume-to-mass ratio than commodities. Shipping commodities such as grain tend to rely on 20-footers (one TEU) for the simple reason that they can handle each load of around 26 to 28 tons. In contrast, a 40-footer, because of structural integrity issues, has a loading capacity of about 30 tons, but this load occupies twice the shipping volume. Consequently, the commodity sector mostly relies on a load unit (20 footers), which is different from many containerized supply chains, such as retail, relying on the 40 footers, particularly the high cube. This results in a problem of load unit mismatch between inbound and outbound logistics. **Weight distribution** is also a related problem, as containerships are designed to accommodate a specific weight load and distribution. Figures of 10 to 14 tons per loaded TEU are common in operational considerations when allocating containers on a containership. In North America, export containers tend to be twice as heavy as import containers because of the higher commodity share for exports. If a ship is presented with a significant container volume of more than 20 tons per TEU, adjustments in this load distribution must be made. Under normal circumstances where there is an equilibrium between inbound and outbound traffic, a containership presented with a full load of heavy containers could only be filled at 75% of its capacity. This can be mitigated by considering the current structure of trade imbalances in North America, with much of the containers leaving West Coast ports being empty. A scenario implying a full distribution of containers loaded with commodities and empties is thus applicable. # 4. Transloading and Terminal Issues Most commodities extracting regions tend to be located inland. In contrast, manufacturing and consumption tend to take place more in coastal regions. The containerization of commodities relies on a close interaction between gateway ports and inland terminals. A fair amount of containerized freight is transloaded once they reach a gateway. For the North American West Coast, this amounts to about 20 to 25% of all containers. Maritime shipping companies are reluctant to have their containers moving inland as they prefer to keep them within their networks. There is thus a preference at major import gateways to transload maritime containers (mainly 40 footers) into domestic containers (mainly 53 footers) in addition to the significant unit advantage it confers as the contents of three maritime containers are transshipped into two domestic containers. However, domestic containers are not well adapted for shipping commodities (less structural integrity) and cannot be forwarded on export markets. This dynamic has incited the development of container stuffing facilities in the vicinity of major gateway ports. Commodities are brought to the facility (or the terminal) through regular bulk transportation (e.g. [trucking](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8420), hopper railcars) and [stuffed](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8425) into empty maritime container pools made available by import transloading activities. Transloading also results in fewer maritime containers available inland to be used for exports; the benefits of transloading for importers may impair inland exporters. Bulk and containers rely on very different terminal characteristics and dynamics. Many bulk terminals were built to handle specific commodities and cannot readily be converted to other uses. Bulk commodities can be stored at port terminals in a relatively compact manner, such as grain in [grain elevators](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7363) or coal and iron ore in simple large piles. The same volume of containerized commodities can consume as much as four times the terminal space. Still, this could be mitigated if the loading process takes place inland, either at a load center or a satellite terminal. Additionally, the intermodal velocity of containerized freight tends to reduce its spatial imprint since a container spends much less time at a terminal. A container port experiencing a growing role as a platform to export containerized commodities is expected to see a notable increase in the demand for storage space and pressures on dwell time. Since containerized commodities tend to be heavier than regular container loads, they may require adaptations in terminal management and operations (stacking and equipment usage). With large volumes, terminals could start having dedicated sections for containerized commodities, as they already have to accommodate reefers. # 5. Containerized Commodity Chains There is limited evidence underlining that the containerization of commodities is competing with existing bulk commodity chains. The process is more one of an emerging complementary between bulk and containerized commodity chains within global freight distribution, each having its own characteristics: - **Bulk commodity chains**. These chains are commonly based on the specialization of terminals; often by specific commodity since each requires specialized handling and storage facilities. There is also the issue of empty return movements as modes carrying commodities do so in only one direction, with backhaul cargo opportunities almost non-existent. For instance, a crude oil tanker comes back empty after unloading its cargo. Thus, from a transportation perspective, this distribution system is prone to inefficiencies and has a level of usage which is in theory 50%, but lower in reality because of the seasonality of some commodity markets, notably agricultural production. - **Containerized commodity chains**. They are increasingly used, and it is becoming a matter of embedding commodity flows within the containerized freight distribution system. This would mainly concern niche markets where product separation (e.g. different grades of grain), smaller batches, delivery time, and accessibility are more important. The containerized commodity chain, likes its bulk counterpart, also faces the empty movement challenge. However, considering the current international trade structure, higher integration of commodities in containerized freight distribution would actually play a positive role in mitigating imbalances. The transport of commodities is already characterized by substantial investment in bulk handling equipment, both for modes and terminals. Thus, there is a lot of accumulated **inertia in existing distribution channels,** making stakeholders such as freight forwarders reluctant to change practices. In light of these powerful stakeholders, how containerized commodity chains can take shape remains to be seen. The most likely processes involve capturing niche markets, accommodating seasonal and regional demand surges, servicing new or expanding markets where bulk infrastructures are not adequate or accommodating low volume situations where economies of scale are difficult to achieve. Despite substantial imbalances, empty container backhauls cannot be fully exploited because of **demand mismatches**. It is common for commodity trade that import regions are not the same as export regions. While imports regions tend to be consumption-related and correspond to large metropolitan areas, export regions are mainly rural areas or resource extraction areas with low population densities. One thus attracts a large number of full containers but may not necessarily provide a similar volume of exports. Simultaneously, the other could generate a substantial export volume but does not have a significant import volume. The setting of a cargo rotation would permit repositioning opportunities and help mitigate the availability of containers for exports. Sometimes, due to time and cost issues, repositioning is not performed, and the empty container goes straight back to the port instead of being loaded for the backhaul. Many commodities, such as agricultural products, have a seasonality. This implies that for a region, there will be a surge in demand at specific times of the year, while at other times, demand would be considerably less. Additionally, seasonality has a geography since harvesting time varies between different regions of the world, which implies temporal and geographical fluctuations in the repositioning of empty containers. Seasonality is also linked with commodity price fluctuations, implying that as one gets closer to the delivery time of a futures contract, the market price tends better to reflect the real physical relationship between supply and demand. It is common in the agricultural sector that commodity prices will drop during the harvest season as real output is finally known and uncertainties are removed. If the output is higher than expected, then prices drop, making containerization a less appealing alternative. The further developments of containerized niche markets lean on supply chain integration since containerized commodity movements are particularly suitable where there is a significant backhaul movement of empty containers. Since the inbound flows relate to a very different supply chain (mostly retail), effective use of backhaul containerized assets requires a concerted effort between major commodity producers, rail operators, container owners (shipping and container leasing companies), and terminal operators. Over this, inland ports have a role to play by being platforms where inbound and outbound flows can be reconciled more effectively. Still, the availability of containers inland remains a salient challenge for commodity exporters. A mitigating strategy would be for commodity exporters or inland ports to acquire their own containers and thus have pools at their disposal for exports. An issue is that it would shift the “backhaul” problem to the importer as containers will have to wait to get import cargo bound to the region where the container pool is located. Integrating the movements of commodities within containerized distribution systems involves a new set of challenges as their dynamics differ. Still, there is substantial potential for growth in the usage of containers to carry various commodities on global markets. With the continuing growth of the global population, the agricultural sector and its commodity chains have much to gain from the velocity, ubiquity, and flexibility of containerized freight distribution. --- ## Related Topics - [Freight Transportation and Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3924) - [Intermodal Transportation and Containerization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1768) - [The Repositioning of Empty Containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9481) - Commodity Chain Analysis - [The Cold Chain](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6585) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/containerization-commodities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/containerization-commodities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/containerization-commodities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/containerization-commodities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Turnpikes in Great Britain and Travel Hours from London, Late 18th and Early 19th Century](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-turnpike-19th-century/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/turnpikes_uk_travel-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Turnpikes in Great Britain and Travel Hours from London, Late 18th and Early 19th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Turnpikes in Great Britain Late 18th and Early 19th Century*Source: adapted from D. Bogart (2004) “Turnpike Trusts and the Transportation Revolution in Eighteenth Century England”.* The first Turnpike Trust was established in 1706. Each Trust was responsible for constructing and maintaining a specific road segment requiring capital. Capital was publicly raised, and revenues were generated by charging tolls on users. This came as a change as road users became accustomed to using any public roads freely. Some would even jump over toll gates to avoid paying the fare. Spikes (or pikes) were installed on top of toll gates to prevent this, thus the name turnpike. The most potentially profitable roads became Trusts, which at their peak never accounted for more than 20% of Britain’s road network. Turnpike Trusts were a success and improved road circulation substantially. The above graph depicts this evolution through phases of introduction, fast growth, maturity, and then obsolescence. Between 1750 and 1800, the average time for a journey from London to Edinburgh was reduced from 12 to 4 days. The time of a journey from Manchester to London fell from 3 days in 1760 to 28 hours in 1788. Road freight transportation also improved due to the introduction in the 1760s of “flywagons”; a freight distribution system involving changing horses and crews at specific stages and thus permitting day-long movements. By 1780, England had about 25,000 km of turnpike roads, and most of the country was within 12.5 miles of one. The turnpike system peaked at 32,500 km by 1836, but by then, rail transportation had started to emerge, which marked the downfall of turnpikes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-turnpike-19th-century/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-turnpike-19th-century/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-turnpike-19th-century/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-turnpike-19th-century/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Representations of the Effects of Distance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/representations-effects-distance/) **Published:** November 20, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/representations_effects_distance.png?resize=900%2C349&ssl=1 "Representations of the Effects of Distance | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Representations of the Effects of DistanceDistance is an important concept in transport geography as it is associated with a cost or effort to reach a location at the local, regional, national, and global levels, each representing an isochrone. From a given location, distance and its effects can be represented in three fundamental ways: - **Linear**. The effect of distance (also known as distance decay) increases proportionally from the origin, which can represent fuel cost or time spent. It tends to apply to land transportation services going in one direction. Such effects can be apparent both at the [urban](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/isochrone-map-manchester/ "Isochrone Map of Manchester, 1917") and [international](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/travel-time-between-london-world-1914/ "Travel Time between London and the Rest of the World, 1914") levels. - **Logarithmic/Nonlinear**. Applies well to commuting and retail activities as most of the interactions are for short distances from a location with a return trip. The cost of undertaking travel over long distances for such a purpose quickly becomes prohibitive, implying a “lens-like” look of the effect where short distances are dominant in this representation. The Swedish geographer Hagerstrand was the first to articulate this logarithmic distance-decay effect when looking at migration patterns in Sweden during the 1950s. For specific [retail and service activities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/retail-distance-decay-curve-conventional/ "Conventional Distance Decay Curves for Retail Activities"), the effect of distance is more nonlinear, implying the willingness to travel over longer distances. Still, these representations are strongly impacted by the effect of distance. - **Inverse**. Although this relation may appear counterintuitive, since what is close is distant and what is distant can be closer. Long-distance transportation services such as air travel and maritime shipping have prohibitively high short-distance costs in part attributed to [high loading and unloading costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/terminal-costs/ "Terminal Costs") and the related inability to compete with other modes such as cars, trucks, or rail for short distances. They will be unwilling to offer impractical local services, implying a “tunnel-like” look of the effect of distance. The longer the travel distance, the less the cost per unit carried, implying an inverse effect of distance up to a range that is usually intercontinental. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/representations-effects-distance/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/representations-effects-distance/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/representations-effects-distance/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/representations-effects-distance/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Conventional Distance Decay Curves for Retail Activities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/retail-distance-decay-curve-conventional/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_decay_curves_retail.png?resize=900%2C660&ssl=1 "Conventional Distance Decay Curves for Retail Activities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Conventional Distance Decay Curves for Retail ActivitiesEven if located at the same location, different retail-based activities will draw a different customer base because of their size or function. Large stores tend to have a lower distance decay function as they offer a wider range of goods, often at lower prices (mainly due to economies of scale). While a customer is unlikely to travel a long distance to a convenience store, a department store (also known as a superstore or a “big box” store) will likely draw customers from a substantial distance. A convenience store usually offers goods that are purchased regularly and in small quantities. In contrast, large stores focus on purchased goods less frequently and in greater quantities or big-ticket items. While someone wishing to purchase a beverage will do so in the immediate vicinity, someone wishing to purchase an appliance will either elect for a specialized or department store, which may require a longer trip. The area under each curve represents the number of customers patronizing a store. The introduction of e-commerce has provided a new dimension to the distance decay curve, which becomes flat. Since the buyer of an online good does not travel, this is technically no effect of distance, outside parcel distribution constraints. Delivery time becomes an essential factor in attracting customers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/retail-distance-decay-curve-conventional/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/retail-distance-decay-curve-conventional/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/retail-distance-decay-curve-conventional/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/retail-distance-decay-curve-conventional/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation Fuel Markets](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/transportation-fuel-markets/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** **Fuel****Marine****Aviation****Road**Type of fuelLow quality (bunker oil)High quality (jet fuel)Medium quality (diesel, gasoline)Share of energy consumption2%6%90%Market size (year)150 M metric tons190 M metric tons650 M metric tons% of operating costs40%25%18-20%Road transportation is the largest fuel market, accounting for 90% of all the fuel consumed by transportation. Even if the marine and aviation fuel markets are comparatively smaller, their importance in supporting global trade should not be underestimated. While there are many alternatives for road transportation over short distances (rail, public transit, cycling), there are very few, if any, for long-distance air and maritime transportation. Additionally, each transportation sector tends to use a specific fuel quality, which is linked to its performance and a level of dependency. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/transportation-fuel-markets/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/transportation-fuel-markets/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/transportation-fuel-markets/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/transportation-fuel-markets/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Airport Location Factors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-location-factors/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/basic_airport_location_factors.png?resize=900%2C502&ssl=1 "Basic Airport Location Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Airport Location FactorsThe suitability of an airport site considering an **isotropic plain** can be viewed as a balance between two opposing forces: - **Benefits**. The closer an airport is to the city center, the more benefits are derived from shorter commuting times from the airport to centers of activity. The airport can conveniently service a metropolitan area and maximize the market potential of its customer base. The commuting radius represents a tolerable commuting distance/time from the city center (CBD), which is in the range of 1 hour and similar to the average commuting time. Beyond that threshold, an airport does not serve its metropolitan area well, as an undue amount of time must be spent to reach it. The integration of rail systems with airport development, such as in Hong Kong and Paris, reduces the friction of distance by connecting the airport more efficiently to its urban core and region. However, many airports (such as Narita and New York-JFK) have poor connectivity with their metropolitan areas because of congestion and the lack of alternatives to road access. - **Externalities**. Locations closer to the city center have more incurred externalities. The opportunity cost for the land devoted to the airport, the number of people adversely affected by noise, and incompatibilities with local land use increase. Externalities have been a strong factor pushing airports away in recent developments, such as Denver and Hong Kong. Under such circumstances, an airport site should be as far as possible from the city center. In the case of Hong Kong, approximately 380,000 people lived within the 65 dB noise contour of the old Kai Tak airport; but no one lived within the 65 dB contour of the new airport when it opened in 1997. - **Suitability**. Benefits and externalities functions tend to be inversely proportional. Consequently, a compromise is sought by choosing a site that is close enough to provide significant benefits and far enough to minimize externalities. A location ring of high suitability is derived from an overlay of the benefits and externalities curves. The real locational context of an airport is obviously much more complex with additional geographical (availability of flat land) and land use constraints, implying that fewer sites may be suitable. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-location-factors/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-location-factors/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-location-factors/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-location-factors/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Electric Streetcar, Lisbon, Portugal](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/electric-streetcar-lisbon/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Electric Streetcar Lisbon](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_1093.JPG?w=900&ssl=1 "The Electric Streetcar, Lisbon, Portugal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Electric Street Car Lisbon Portugal*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2007.* The streetcar, although sometimes seen as an artifact of transit, is still a prominent form of public transportation in many cities around the world, such as in Lisbon, Portugal. This particular system began to be constructed in 1873 and has been operating with similar technology and fleet since then. The network is servicing the older part of the city and represents an accumulated asset performing a mobility function. In many cases, old streetcar services have been upgraded with [light rail transit systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5085). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/electric-streetcar-lisbon/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/electric-streetcar-lisbon/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/electric-streetcar-lisbon/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/electric-streetcar-lisbon/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Modern Airport Terminal, Barajas, Madrid, Spain](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-terminal-madrid/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0341.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Modern Airport Terminal, Barajas, Madrid, Spain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Modern Airport Terminal Barajas Madrid Spain*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2006.* Airports are among the most complex terminals. Moving large numbers of people through an airport has become a very significant challenge, not least because of security concerns. Passengers may spend several hours in transit, with check-in and security checks on departure, baggage pick-up, and, customs and immigration for international arrivals. Planes may be delayed for a multitude of reasons. The result is that a wide range of services has to be provided for passengers not directly related to the transfer function, including restaurants, bars, stores, and hotels. In addition, there are activities directly related to operations, such as check-in halls, waiting areas, passenger loading ramps, and baggage handling facilities. Simultaneously, airports have to provide for the very specific needs of the aircraft, from runways to maintenance facilities, from fire protection to air traffic control. The above photo of the new Barajas terminal in Madrid, opened in 2006, is typical of a modern airport terminal design. Very high ceilings convey an impression of spaciousness, which has a calming effect on passengers. Since the linear design conveys long distances between gates, mechanized walkways are a common feature. The growing size of planes has also incited the provision of larger waiting areas at the gate. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-terminal-madrid/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-terminal-madrid/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-terminal-madrid/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-terminal-madrid/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Locks of the Montreal – Lake Ontario Section of the Seaway prior to 1901](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/locks-system-montreal-ontario-1901/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/locks_montreal_ontario_1901.png?resize=900%2C717&ssl=1 "Locks of the Montreal - Lake Ontario Section of the Seaway prior to 1901 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Locks of the Montreal Lake Ontario Section of the Seaway prior to 1901*Source: adapted from J. Gilmore (1957) “The St. Lawrence River Canals Vessel”, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Transactions, 1957, pp. 111-161.* The St. Lawrence River, between Montreal and Kingston, is composed of a series of rapids, impending navigation, and fluvial lakes. Prior to 1780, the only way to bypass the rapids was through portages, which substantially limited the commercial potential of the route. Canoes were the privileged mode of transportation in the 18th century as they could easily be carried across rapids, but their payload was limited. By the late 18th and early 19th century, they were replaced by bateaux of 35-40 feet in length, 6 feet in width, and a cargo capacity of 3.5 tons. They could also be portaged or towed upstream and were also able to cross some rapids going downstream. Yet, this was insufficient to support the growing trade relations with the fast-developing regions of Southern Ontario. In order to have access to the Great Lakes, a set of locks and canals were built between 1785 and 1901. The canals and locks permitted to bypass the rapids between Lake St. Louis and Lake St. Francois in 1785, but the locks’ size were modest (40 feet long by 6 feet wide and a depth of 2 and a half feet). As the system evolved, the capacity and reliability of canals improved. The completion of the Lachine Canal in 1825 is an important landmark as a major navigational constraint, to which Montreal owns its location, was finally bypassed. In 1848, with the completion of the Beauharnois Canal and a series of locks bypassing the International Rapids between Lake St. Francis and Prescott at the tip of Lake Ontario, portages were finally no longer required. By 1901, with the expansion of the locks forming the Williamsburg Canals and the completion of the Soulanges Canal, which was of higher capacity than the old Beauharnois Canal, it was possible to go from Montreal to Prescott through a 4.25 meters (14 feet) deep canal system. These dimensions would remain until the St. Lawrence Seaway was completed in 1959. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/locks-system-montreal-ontario-1901/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/locks-system-montreal-ontario-1901/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/locks-system-montreal-ontario-1901/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/locks-system-montreal-ontario-1901/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The St. Lawrence / Great Lakes System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-great-lakes-system/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/st_lawrence_great_lakes_system.png?resize=900%2C427&ssl=1 "The St. Lawrence / Great Lakes System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The St Lawrence Great Lakes SystemThe St. Lawrence is part of a complex system, which includes the Great Lakes, the [St. Lawrence Seaway](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9075), and a dredged channel between Quebec and Montreal. The main purpose of the Seaway is to provide a maritime link between Montreal, an ocean port, and the Great Lakes by using a series of locks and canals. The best known is the Welland Canal linking Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, a 99-meter climb over the Niagara escarpment. A major issue for the seaway is related to its limited capacity and being closed for about three months during the winter. The St. Lawrence itself can be subdivided between the estuary, which is accessible to deep navigation, and the river, where vessels close to the Panamax standard can access year round the Port of Montreal. The channel between Quebec and Montreal has a depth of 11.3 meters (37 feet) and can handle containerships up to 4,200 TEU. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-great-lakes-system/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-great-lakes-system/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-great-lakes-system/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-great-lakes-system/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Laker on the Seaway at Montreal](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/laker-seaway-montreal/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Laker Seaway Montrealpg](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/laker_seaway_montrealpg.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Laker on the Seaway at Montreal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Laker on the Seaway at Montreal*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2009.* Lakers are ships specifically designed to go through the St. Lawrence Seaway and thus navigate the Great Lakes (thus their name). The above laker, the CSL Laurentien owned by Canada Steamship Lines, has just entered the St. Lawrence Seaway through the St. Lambert Lock with downtown Montreal in the background. Built in 1977, the ship is a self-unloading bulk carrier of 37,000 deadweight tons with a length of 730 feet and a width of 75 feet. There are also “thousand footer” lakers (1,004 feet long, 105 feet wide, and carrying up to 60,000 tons of cargo) that can only use the Upper Great Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie), for which they were specifically designed. They are too large to use the Welland Canal and the St. Lawrence Seaway. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/laker-seaway-montreal/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/laker-seaway-montreal/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/laker-seaway-montreal/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/laker-seaway-montreal/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The St. Lawrence Seaway](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-map/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-St-Lawrence-Seaway.png?resize=900%2C645&ssl=1 "The St. Lawrence Seaway | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The St Lawrence Seaway[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-St-Lawrence-Seaway.pdf) Stretching from Montreal to Lake Superior, the system of locks and canals comprising the St. Lawrence Seaway enables access to the Great Lakes and the American Midwest. It is composed of two systems of locks. The first section links **Montreal to Lake Ontario**, with the first lock being St. Lambert, right at the outlet of the Port of Montreal, and the last lock is Iroquois, which lifts ships just about one meter. Between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie is the Welland Canal Section, lifting ships 99 meters through the Niagara Escarpment. Once at Lake Erie, Lake Huron and Lake Michigan are readily accessible. Reaching Lake Superior requires transit through the Soo Locks, where ships are lifted an additional 7 meters. For several reasons, including the increase of containerized cargo (most of which being handled at the port of Montreal), ever-increasing competition between transport modes accompanying deregulation and trade liberalization, and, more importantly, the fact that maritime transportation remains the least expensive mode per tons shipped, the seaway corroborates its function as primarily a bulk cargo transit corridor. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-map/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-map/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-map/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-map/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Welland Canal at the Niagara Escarpment](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/welland-canal-niagara/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/welland_niagara_escarpment.jpg?resize=850%2C636&ssl=1 "Welland Canal at the Niagara Escarpment | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Welland Canal at the Niagara Escarpment*Photo: Boris Gjenero.* The Welland Canal is a strategic link between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. To accommodate as much traffic as possible and mitigate the delays of going through three consecutive locks, the lock system was divided in two so that ships could be accommodated in both directions. The above photo depicts the three locks necessary to climb the Niagara escarpment (locks 4, 5 and 6), representing a lift of about 100 feet. A lock has the capacity to accommodate about 32 vessels per day, which means that it takes 45 minutes to transit through a lock. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/welland-canal-niagara/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/welland-canal-niagara/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/welland-canal-niagara/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/welland-canal-niagara/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Tonnage Transiting Through the St. Lawrence Seaway, 1960-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/st_lawrence_seaway_transits.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Tonnage Transiting Through the St. Lawrence Seaway, 1960-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Tonnage Transiting Through the St Lawrence Seaway 1960 2022*Source: The St. Lawrence Seaway Authority and Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation.* From its opening in 1959 up to the late 1970s, tonnage on the St. Lawrence Seaway increased steadily, particularly because of the growth of North American grain exports and the prevalence of the steel industry in the American Midwest. An enduring pattern has been an imbalance in its traffic flows, with downbound tonnage being more dominant, which underlines the role of the Seaway as an outlet for bulk cargoes coming from the Midwest. Since the early 1990s, tonnage started to decline as grain got carried more by rail and as the steel industry in the Midwest experienced a decline. The Seaway has been unable to capture other types of cargo, such as containers, than those it conventionally handled. It is, therefore, bound to the cycles of bulk and grain trades. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Laker Ship Supplying a Steel Mill in Hamilton, Ontario](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/laker-steel-mill-hamilton/) **Published:** November 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Tadoussac-4-24-07-jm.jpg?resize=900%2C642&ssl=1 "Laker Ship Supplying a Steel Mill in Hamilton, Ontario | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Laker Ship Supplying a Steel Mill in Hamilton Ontario*Source: Great Lakes & Seaway Shipping Online* Stelco Inc., whose Hamilton facilities are shown in this photo, was one the largest steel companies in Canada. It was in operation from 1910 to 2010, when it ceased making steel. It moved each year about 7.5 million tons of coal and ores over the St. Lawrence Seaway. No other means of transportation have the capacity or would be cheap enough to carry this quantity of bulk freight. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/laker-steel-mill-hamilton/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/laker-steel-mill-hamilton/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/laker-steel-mill-hamilton/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/laker-steel-mill-hamilton/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Iroquois Locks, St. Lawrence Seaway](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/iroquois-locks-seaway/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Iroquois_Locks.jpg?resize=900%2C583&ssl=1 "Iroquois Locks, St. Lawrence Seaway | The Geography of Transport Systems ")*Photo: St. Lawrence Seaway Authority.* The primary function of the Iroquois Locks is to adjust the traffic transiting the Seaway to the water level of Lake Ontario. This means that the lift varies between 2 to 6 feet (0.6 and 1.8 meters) depending on the water level. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/iroquois-locks-seaway/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/iroquois-locks-seaway/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/iroquois-locks-seaway/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/iroquois-locks-seaway/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Technical Characteristics of the St. Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/technical-characteristics-saint-lawrence-seaway/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/technical_st_lawrence_seaway.png?resize=900%2C896&ssl=1 "Technical Characteristics of the St. Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Technical Characteristics of the St Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes SystemThe St. Lawrence Seaway is the infrastructural link used for navigation between the St. Lawrence River at Montreal and Lake Erie at the end of the Welland Canal. Downstream, the St. Lawrence River Channel, which is dredged to ensure a control depth of 10.5 meters (35 feet), extends to Quebec City. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/technical-characteristics-saint-lawrence-seaway/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/technical-characteristics-saint-lawrence-seaway/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/technical-characteristics-saint-lawrence-seaway/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/technical-characteristics-saint-lawrence-seaway/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Composition of the Traffic Transiting Through the St. Lawrence Seaway, 1978-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic-composition/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/traffic_type_st_lawrence_seaway.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Composition of the Traffic Transiting Through the St. Lawrence Seaway, 1978-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Composition of the Traffic Transiting Through the St Lawrence Seaway 1978 2016*Source: The St. Lawrence Seaway Authority and Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation. Note: Before 1999, coal tonnage was part of bulk.* The traffic handled by the seaway is dominated by bulk cargo (iron ore and coal), with general cargo accounting for only 5% of the total tonnage, a share that has been declining. This implies that the great majority of ships using the seaway are bulk carriers. The Seaway is also an important gateway for the export of North American grain to global markets. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic-composition/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic-composition/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic-composition/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lawrence-seaway-traffic-composition/?share=reddit) - --- ### [First Ship to Cross the St. Lambert Lock, April 1959](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lambert-locks-seaway-1959/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![First Ship St Lambert Lock 1959](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/first_ship_st_lambert_lock_1959.jpg?resize=663%2C631&ssl=1 "First Ship to Cross the St. Lambert Lock, April 1959 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")First Ship to Cross the St Lambert Lock April 1959*Source: St. Lawrence Seaway Authority.* The Seaway was opened for navigation in 1959. The first ship to cross the St. Lambert Lock in April 1959 was the Frontenac, an icebreaker. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lambert-locks-seaway-1959/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lambert-locks-seaway-1959/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lambert-locks-seaway-1959/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-lambert-locks-seaway-1959/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway, 1958](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-catherine-locks-seaway-1958/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Construction Ste Catherine Lock 1958](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/construction_ste_catherine_lock_1958.jpg?resize=526%2C390&ssl=1 "Construction of the Ste. Catherine Lock, 1958 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Construction of the Ste Catherine Lock 1958![Flooding Lower Beauharnois Lock 1958](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/flooding_lower_beauharnois_lock_1958.jpg?resize=532%2C418&ssl=1 "First Flooding of the Lower Beauharnois Lock, 1958 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")First Flooding of the Lower Beauharnois Lock 1958*Source: Saint Lawrence Seaway Management Corporation.* The construction of locks was a difficult undertaking as in several places the rock foundation proved to be harder than expected. As the St. Lawrence Seaway was nearing completion in late 1958, locks were being flooded for the first time. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-catherine-locks-seaway-1958/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-catherine-locks-seaway-1958/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-catherine-locks-seaway-1958/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/saint-lawrence-seaway-development/saint-catherine-locks-seaway-1958/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.18 - Climate Change and the Adaptation of Transport Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/) **Published:** February 18, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Climate change is expected to have notable impacts on transport systems, mainly because of the risks of rising sea levels, more precipitation events, and heat waves. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Expected Impacts of Climate Change](#1_Expected_Impacts_of_Climate_Change) - [2. Adaptation versus Mitigation](#2_Adaptation_versus_Mitigation) - [3. Towards Resilience](#3_Towards_Resilience) # 1. Expected Impacts of Climate Change Climate change has occurred throughout the world’s climatic history with cooling (e.g. Ice Ages) and warming periods. However, there is a growing body of evidence underlining that human activities, such as the emission of greenhouse gases, are contributing to climate change. The natural (physical) processes of climate change are thus being compounded by anthropogenic factors leading to additional risks and uncertainties. Predictions about the nature and extent of climate change are complex, mainly due to the dynamics of weather systems and feedback effects, such as the positive impacts of carbon dioxide on plant growth. The [most salient risks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9427) are: - **Rising sea levels**. Both because of an increase in the average seawater temperature and releases from other water masses (e.g. ice caps), evidence underlines an ongoing rise in sea levels. This presents a risk for coastal areas, particularly for coastal transport infrastructure such as ports. - **Increase in Arctic temperatures**. Because of the receding ice cover, this may provide opportunities to shorten maritime shipping distances and to better access resources in the Arctic. However, this benefit is counterbalanced by the degradation of the permafrost soil layer, which increases instability and can damage the foundation of Arctic transport infrastructures. - **Increase in intense precipitation events**. May impair air travel (e.g. turbulence) and damage transport infrastructure through flooding. - **More frequent hurricanes**. Increase the risk of coastal infrastructure damage and failure due to wind and flooding. - **Heat waves**. In addition, to provide stress on human physiology, heat waves can impact construction activity and may impair the integrity of road pavements and other structures such as bridges. The real risks and their impacts remain to be comprehensively assessed. Transportation provides crucial linkages along global supply chains and communications. Therefore, transport systems being affected by climate change, like rising water levels, extreme weather conditions, and rising temperatures, would have implications for the development and mobility prospects of regions around the world. For instance, air transportation has become an important support for long-distance mobility. Climate change is likely to increase atmospheric turbulence and make air transportation more hazardous; planes could spend more fuel to avoid areas of high turbulence. This could be particularly the case over the North Atlantic, which includes the world’s most heavily used long-distance air corridors. Coastal areas are also vulnerable since 38% of the global population lives within 100 km of the coast, with this share climbing to 44% for distances up to 150 km. This share is much higher for countries such as Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, Bangladesh, and the Netherlands. For instance, 60% of the population of China lives in coastal provinces. Furthermore, most of the world’s [largest urban agglomerations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4981) are in coastal areas. Concerns have also been raised for small island states that may be more vulnerable to climate change as well as depending more on coastal infrastructure. Major coastal cities are also equipped with significant [port infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3373) servicing hinterlands that depend on port facilities to access global trade. From a supply chain perspective, strategies such as “[just-in-time](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5442)” involve lower inventory levels and a constant circulation of supplies, which is more vulnerable to disruptions. Thus, there is little doubt that transport infrastructures are highly vulnerable to the implications posed by climate change. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/average_global_temperature_carbon_emissions.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Global Temperature and World Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning, 1880-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/average-global-temperature-world-carbon-emissions-fossil-fuel/global_temperature_carbon_emissions2/)Average Global Temperature and World Carbon Emissions From Fossil Fuel Burning 1800 2021[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/climate_change_impacts_transport.png?resize=900%2C526&ssl=1 "Climate Change and its Potential Impacts on Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/climate-change-impacts-transportation/climate_change_impacts_transport/)Climate Change and its Potential Impacts on Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Sea-Level-Change.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "Remotely Sensed Sea Level Change, 1992-2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/sea-level-change/map-sea-level-change/)Remotely Sensed Sea Level Change 1992 2012[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-Polar-Routes-Simplified.png?resize=900%2C900&ssl=1 "Polar Shipping Routes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/polar-shipping-routes/map-polar-routes-simplified/)Polar Shipping Routes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Cities-2020.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World's Largest Cities, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-largest-cities/map-world-largest-cities/)Worlds Largest Cities 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-TEU-2020.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "World's Major Container Ports, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/map-teu-throughput-2/)Worlds Major Container Ports 2016[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/just_in_time_logistics2.png?resize=900%2C381&ssl=1 "Just-in-Time and its Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/logistics-just-in-time/just_in_time_logistics2/)Just in time and its Logistic# 2. Adaptation versus Mitigation Apart from rising sea levels and flooding through storm surges, the exact impacts of climate change are still ambiguous. Thus, they are highly diversified regarding what will be affected (e.g. airports, seaports, highways, or inland ports) and how it will be affected. Indeed, considerable differences exist among regions due to specific local characteristics. Hence, each region and supply chain has its own set of vulnerabilities and risks, underlining that when dealing with adaptation to climate change, apart from international best practices, local conditions, and how a particular infrastructure services supply chains should not be overlooked. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/risks_global_supply_chains2.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Risks in Global Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/supply-chain-risks/risks_global_supply_chains2/)Risks in Global Supply Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/resilience_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C403&ssl=1 "Resilience of Transportation Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/resilience-transportation-systems/resilience_transport_systems/)Resilience of Transportation SystemsMany impacts posed by climate changes on transport infrastructures, like flooding, are gradual and moderate compared to other aspects, like hurricanes. This raised the question of whether adaptation of transport infrastructure to the risks of climate change was essential, or at least, a priority. For example, flooding is a regular occurrence among several of the world’s major river systems flowing through areas of high economic activity, such as China (Yangtze system), the United States (Mississippi system), and Western Europe (Rhine system). The impacts of climate change on transport infrastructure can be perceived as moderate, or implicit when compared to other priorities such as capacity and maintenance. So far, there have been little or no incentives for transport managers to adapt to the potential challenges of climate change. The above problems are partly due to a lack of financial and planning resources to enable the effective implementation of solutions (even partial) in tackling the implications posed by climate change by transport infrastructures, particularly ports. These include reliable assessments about the nature of the risks and how to adapt infrastructure and operations effectively. Given the scarcity of reliable information, there lies the question of to what extent infrastructure managers and decision-makers understand the issue and the risks involved, not to mention implementing practical solutions. For example, among many transport managers, there is a misunderstanding between the concepts of **adaptation** and **mitigation** as they relate to climate change. However, they are fundamentally different concepts. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), adaptation to climate change is the adjustment of natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates impacts or exploits beneficial opportunities. It is different from mitigation, which is an intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases. In the current geopolitical context where climate change appears to be unavoidable, resources are better spent on adaptation or enhancing the resilience of transport infrastructure. # 3. Towards Resilience The increase in global average temperature is a factor behind the severity and frequency of weather events, many of which are disruptive. This is likely to be related to additional damage to transportation infrastructures, particularly those in coastal low-lying areas. Ports and rail infrastructure are particularly vulnerable since they could be damaged or temporarily isolated. This forces the re-routing of passengers and freight flows, impacting the cost and performance of supply chains. Further, climate change is likely to impact the distribution of agricultural production to new regions, which will affect the flow of agricultural goods and may require the setting of new transport infrastructure. In general, transport infrastructures still lack physical and organizational resilience in adapting to the implications posed by climate change. Advance forecasting is critical since it requires 72 to 96 hours to shut down and prepare critical infrastructure for a disruptive weather event such as a hurricane. This implies the ability of organizations to adapt to the consequences of (catastrophic) failure, including preparedness, protection, response, and recovery. Further, new infrastructure must be built considering the expectations about weather conditions throughout its lifespan. Given the diversified regional nature around the world, adaptation is highly localized, which requires not only best practices but also information sharing, mutual learning, effective cooperation with local authorities, and the ability for managers to apply such best practices from a local perspective. Also, support for research and collecting empirical evidence devoid of political and ideological biases is of core importance. This involves comprehensively defining and understanding the implications of climate change, the risks involved, and the possible effective adaptation approaches, thus minimizing unintended consequences. Otherwise, there is the risk that climate change policies and mitigation could have more negative consequences than benefits, including: - **Higher resource and energy costs** because of policy-derived scarcity. The outcome would be particularly negative on the poorest segments of the population, notably in developing economies. A division between unaffected virtue-signaling elites and the working class could become salient. - **Limitation on trade and access to goods and services**. Some resources, goods, and services could be restricted from access and available in much lower quantities. - **Curtailing innovations** through the imposition of norms such as ESG. The conventional innovative process could be sidetracked by limitations such as permissible energy sources, raw materials, and compliance with regulations. - **Limitation on personal mobility** options and the related economic opportunities. Some forms of transportation, such as the automobile and air travel, could be restricted, impeding employment, personal, and recreational opportunities. - **Restrictions on civil rights** through imposed locational and consumption behavior and penalties for uncompliant behavior. This can go as far as penalizing groups and individuals for expressing doubts and reservations concerning public policy and its effectiveness. --- ## Related Topics - [The Environmental Impacts of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5711) - [Transportation and Energy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5717) - [Transportation, Land Use and the Environment](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5721) - [Transport and Sustainability](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5725) - [Transportation Disruptions and ResilienceDisasters](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6295) - [Transportation Environmental Management](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) ## Bibliography - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. - Jaroszweski, D., L. Chapman, and J. Petts (2010) “Assessing the potential impact of climate change on transportation: the need for an interdisciplinary approach”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 331-335. - Koetse, M. J., and P. Rietveld (2009) “The impact of climate change and weather on transport: An overview of empirical findings”, Transportation Research Part D, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 205-221. - Koetse, M. J. and P. Rietveld (2012) “Adaptation to Climate Change in the Transport Sector”, Transport Reviews, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 267-286. - UNCTAD (2020) Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation for Coastal Transport Infrastructure: A Compilation of Policies and Practices, New York: United Nations Publications. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Climate Change and its Potential Impacts on Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/climate-change-impacts-transportation/) **Published:** February 18, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/climate_change_impacts_transport.png?resize=900%2C526&ssl=1 "Climate Change and its Potential Impacts on Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Climate Change and its Potential Impacts on Transportation*Source: adapted from National Research Council (2008) Potential impacts of climate change on U.S. Transportation. Transportation Research Board.* Elements associated with climate change have an array of potential impacts on transport operations and infrastructures. - **Heat waves**. In addition to providing stress on human physiology, impairing activities such as the construction and maintenance of transport infrastructure, heat waves can impact air operations by requiring longer take-off distances because of lower air density. This creates a similar effect to being at a higher altitude. An airplane taking off at a sea level airport at an ambient temperature of 37 degrees Celsius would operate in conditions similar to if it was at an altitude of 800 meters. Heat stress can negatively impact transport infrastructure, such as the softening of pavement, which can then be substantially damaged by vehicle circulation. - **Rising sea levels**. Evidence underlines an ongoing rise in sea levels because of an increase in the average seawater temperature and releases from other water masses (e.g. ice caps). In coastal areas, transport operations can be impaired by the temporary flooding of key infrastructures. When an urban area is flooded, circulation is disrupted with negative economic outcomes because of the high concentration of activities. This obviously presents a risk for coastal areas, particularly for coastal transport infrastructure such as ports. - **Increase in intense precipitation events**. May impair air travel (e.g. turbulence), road circulation (hazardous driving conditions), and damage transport infrastructure through flooding. Further, events such as thunderstorms can temporarily shut down airport operations, creating system-wide disruptions. - **More frequent hurricanes**. Hurricanes impose substantial disruption of transport operations over a wide area, including maritime shipping and air operations. Increase the risk of coastal infrastructure damage and failure and the time it takes to bring back operational conditions. - **Increase in Arctic temperatures**. The receding ice cover over the Arctic may extend the shipping season in the region and improve the accessibility to Arctic resources, such as mining and energy. There is also the potential to use shorter Arctic shipping routes, shortening the [maritime shipping distances](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=412) within the Northern Hemisphere. However, increasing Arctic temperatures are also disruptive to the land connectivity of the region, with a shorter time span for ice roads which are crucial for supplying remote communities and resource extraction operations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/climate-change-impacts-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/climate-change-impacts-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/climate-change-impacts-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/climate-change-transport-infrastructure/climate-change-impacts-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Passenger Modal Options](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/passenger-modal-options/) **Published:** November 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passenger_modal_options.png?resize=900%2C721&ssl=1 "Main Passenger Modal Options | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Passenger Modal OptionsTo support their mobility, passengers have several **modal options** depending on the type of movement (e.g. commuting, traveling), the concerned distance, and modal availability. They fall into four general categories: - **[Air](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1765)**. Air transport services usually come as scheduled services offered by competing air carriers within their respective networks. Based upon scheduled services posted several months in advance, a traveler (or someone acting on his/her behalf) will be able to book an itinerary that may include several flight segments. Charter air services are usually offered under specific circumstances, such as seasonal flights towards resort areas or private jets servicing the mobility needs of a corporation or an individual. They tend to be point-to-point services. - **[Road](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1756)**. It offers a range of motorized and non-motorized options for mobility that dominantly takes place over short distances that a user may opt for depending on affordability, convenience, availability, and comfort. The automobile has emerged as a preferred form of passenger transportation as it offers flexibility and convenience but also contributes to congestion, particularly in urban areas. Taxi either refer to conventional for-hire services or ride-sharing services. However, strategies promoting sustainable transportation systems underlie the importance of walking, cycling, and emerging forms of personal mobility (e.g. electric scooters) are essential for short-distance mobility. The term micromobility is often used to refer to small electric or human-powered transportation devices. - **[Rail](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1759)**. Intercity passenger services that have been active in many parts of the world for a century and a half are being expanded by setting up [high-speed rail](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7457) (HSR) services between high-density city pairs. Another salient form of rail services concerns urban transit systems that rely on specific rail technology applications. Subway systems support the densest forms of mobility in large metropolitan areas. Such systems are usually supported by commuter rail linking a central station to a network of satellite cities. Light rail transit (LRT) systems are also set in lower-density situations. - **[Maritime](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1762)**. The role of maritime transportation to move passengers has substantially declined but remains essential for ferry services. The [cruise ship](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7055) is not used as a form of transportation but as a touristic option between a network of ports of call. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/passenger-modal-options/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/passenger-modal-options/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/passenger-modal-options/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/passenger-modal-options/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.7 - Tourism and Transport](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/) **Published:** February 24, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Tourism, as an economic activity, relies on transportation to bring tourists to destinations, and transportation can be part of the touristic experience. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Emergence of the Tourism Industry](#1_The_Emergence_of_the_Tourism_Industry) - [2. Means and Modes](#2_Means_and_Modes) - [3. Mass Tourism and Mass Transportation](#3_Mass_Tourism_and_Mass_Transportation) - [4. Covid-19 and its Impacts](#4_Covid-19_and_its_Impacts) # 1. The Emergence of the Tourism Industry Since the 1970s where tourism became increasingly affordable, the [number of international tourists has more than doubled](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9628). The **expansion of international tourism** has a large impact on the discipline of transport geography since it links traffic generation, interactions at different scales (from the local to the global), and the related transportation modes and terminals. As of 2016, 1.2 billion international tourist receipts were accounted for, representing more than 10% of the global population. The industry is also a large employer accounting for 10% of all the global employment; 30 tourist visits are usually associated with one job. 30% of the global trade of services is accounted for by tourism. Tourism dominantly takes place in [Europe and North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9633), but geographical diversification is taking place. Traveling has always been an important feature, but its function has substantially evolved. Historically, travelers were explorers and merchants looking to learn about regions, potential markets and to find goods and resources. The risks and exoticism associated also attracted the elite that could afford the large expenses and the time required to travel to other remote destinations. Many wrote realistic and even imaginary travel accounts. As time moved on and as transportation became more reliable, traveling became a more mundane activity taking place in an organized environment; tourism. In the modern world, traveling is more centered around annual holidays and can be reasonably well predicted. As an economic activity, tourism is characterized by a high demand level of elasticity. As transport costs are significant for international transportation, cost fluctuations strongly influence demand. Therefore, transport is a key element in the tourism industry. The demand in international and even national transport infrastructures implies a large number of people to be transported in an efficient, fast, and inexpensive manner. It requires heavy investments and complex organization. Well-organized terminals and planned schedules are essential in promoting adequate transportation facilities for tourists, notably since the industry is growing at a fast rate. Transport is the cause and the effect of the growth of tourism. First, the **improved facilities have incited tourism**, and the expansion of tourism has prompted the development of transport infrastructure. Accessibility is the main function behind the basics of tourism transport. In order to access sought-after destinations, tourists have a range of transportation modes that are often used in a sequence. **Air transport is the primary mode** for international tourism, which usually entails travel over long distances. [Growth rates](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2368) of international air traffic are pegged to growth rates of international tourism. Transport policies and national regulations can influence destinations available to tourists. One dimension concerns the openness to tourism through travel [visa restrictions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9640), which vary substantially depending on the countries of origin of tourists. Unsurprisingly, travelers from developed countries, particularly Europe, face the least restrictions, while travelers from developing countries face a much more stringent array of restrictions. Another dimension concerns the provision of infrastructure. If the public sector does not cope with the demand in terms of transport infrastructures, the tourist industry might be impaired in its development. However, land transport networks in various countries are designed to meet the needs of commercial movements that tourism requires. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_tourism_arrivals_receipts.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "International Tourists Arrivals and Receipts, 1950-2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals/world_tourism_arrivals_receipts/)International Tourists Arrivals and Receipts 1950 2017[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_air_travel_freight.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried, 1950-2024 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/world-air-travel-freight/world_air_travel_freight/)World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried 1950 2018[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tourism_arrivals_regions.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "Share of International Tourist Arrivals by Region, 1950-2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals-region/tourism_arrivals_regions/)Share of International Tourist Arrivals by Region 1950 2015[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passport_index.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "The Passport Index | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/passport-visa-restriction-index/passport_index/)The Passport IndexTourism usually contributes enough to the local economy that governments are more than willing to improve road networks or airport facilities, especially in locations with limited economic opportunities other than tourism. There are, however, significant differences in the amount of spending per type of mode, namely between cruise and air transport tourism. Cruise shipping tourism provides much less revenue than a tourist brought by air travel. A significant reason is that cruise lines are capturing as much tourism expenses within their ships as possible (food, beverages, entertainment, shopping) and have short port calls, often less than a day. Tourists arriving by air transport usually stay several days at the same location and use local amenities. # 2. Means and Modes Tourism uses all the standard transportation modes since travelers rely on existing passenger transport systems, from local transit systems to global air transportation. - **Car traveling** is usually an independent transport conveyance where the traveler decides the route and the length of the trip. It is usually cheaper since road fees are not directly paid and provided as a public. It is the only transportation mode that does not require transfers, in the sense that the whole journey, from door to door can be achieved. Along major highway corridors, service activities such as restaurants, gas stations, and hotels have agglomerated to service the traffic, many of which touristic. Car transport is the dominant mode in world tourism (77% of all journeys), notably because of advantages such as flexibility, price, and independence. Tourists will often rent cars to journey within their destinations, which has triggered an active clustering of car rental companies adjacent to main transport terminals (airports, train stations) and touristic venues. - **Coach traveling** uses the same road network as cars. Coaches are well suited for local mass tourism but can be perceived as a nuisance if in too large numbers since they require a large amount of parking space. They can be used for short duration local tours (hours) but also can be set for multi-days journeys where the coach is the conveyance moving tourists from one resort to another. - **Rail travel** was the dominant form of passenger transport before the age of the automobile. The railway network usually reflects more the commercial needs of the national economy then holiday tourist flows which can make it a less preferred choice as a traveling mode. The railway systems of several countries, notably in Europe, have seen massive investments for long-distance routes and high-speed services. Due to the scenery or the amenities provided, rail transportation can also be a tourist destination in itself. Several short rail lines that no longer had commercial potential have been converted for tourism. - **Air transport** is by far the most effective transport mode. Notably because of prices, only 12.5% of the tourists travel by plane, but for international travel, this share is around 40%. Air transport has revolutionized the geographical aspect of distances; the most remote areas can now be reached any journey around the world can be measured in terms of hours of traveling. Business travelers are among the biggest users of airline facilities, but [low-cost air carriers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2459) have attracted a significant market segment mainly used for tourism. - **Cruises** are mainly providing short sea journeys of about a week. Cruising has become a significant tourist industry. Cruise ships act as floating resorts where guests can enjoy amenities and entertainment while being transported along a chain of port calls. The international market for cruising was about 22.2 million tourists in 2015, which involves an annual growth rate above 7% since 1990. The main cruise markets are the Caribbean and the Mediterranean, with Alaska and Northern Europe fjords also popular during the summer season. This industry is characterized by a high level of market concentration with a few companies, such as Carnival Corporation and Royal Caribbean Cruises who account for about 70% of the market. The impacts of cruising on the local economy are mitigated as the strategy of cruising companies is to retain as much income as possible. This implies that tourists spend most of their money on the cruise ship itself (gift shops, entertainment, casinos, bars, etc.) or on-island facilities owned by cruise shipping companies. [![Boarding Ryanair Flight](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_6952-1024x768.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Boarding of a Ryanair Flight | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/ryanair-boarding/img_6952/)Boarding of a Ryanair Flight[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-HSR.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World High Speed Rail Systems, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/map-world-hsr/)World High Speed Rail Systems 2014# 3. Mass Tourism and Mass Transportation Tourism transport can be divided into two categories: - **Independent means of travel**; controlled by individual tourists who book them on their own. This mainly involves the private automobile, but also mass conveyances that are booked to travel on an individual basis such as regularly scheduled flights, rail connections, ferries, and even cruises. - **Mass travel**; where tourists travel in organized groups. The most common form involves chartered buses and flights used for this single purpose. When tourism was mainly for the elite, independent means of travel prevailed. However, the emergence of mass tourism and the significant revenue it provides for local economies required the setting of mass transportation systems and specialized firms such as travel agencies organizing travel on behalf of their customers. These firms were able to take advantage of their pricing power being able to negotiate large volumes of passengers for carriers and hotels. Some were even able to become air carriers, such as Thomas Cook Airlines and Air Transat, which are major charterers in their respective markets. Paradoxically, the growth of online travel booking services has favored the re-emergence of independent means of travel since an individual is able to book complex travel services, including transport and hotel accommodations. Thus, the segmentation of the travel industry is linked with the segmentation of the supporting transport systems. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/monthly_global_air_passenger.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Monthly Global Air Passenger Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/monthly-global-air-passenger-traffic/monthly_global_air_passenger/)Monthly Global Air Passenger Traffic 2010[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/monthly_tourist_arrivals.png?resize=850%2C511&ssl=1 "Monthly International Tourist Arrivals, 2011 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/monthly-international-tourist-arrivals/monthly_tourist_arrivals/)Monthly International Tourist Arrivals 2011The [seasonality of tourism](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9661) has an important impact on the use and allocation of transportation assets. - **Air transport** has a [notable seasonality](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9653) where tourism results in variations in demand, summer being the peak season. Because of this seasonality and the high cost of acquiring additional assets to accommodate peak demand, the airline industry has pricing power during peak touristic demand. This also leads the seasonal charter services to pick up the potential unmet demand. During the winter, charterers focus on subtropical destinations (e.g. Caribbean, Mexico), while during the summer there is more a focus on the European market. - **Cruises** also have a seasonality where many cruise lines are [repositionning](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7100) their assets according to variations in the destination preferences. During winter months, the Caribbean is an important destination market, while during the summer, destinations like the Mediterranean, Alaska, and Norway are more prevalent. # 4. Covid-19 and its Impacts --- ## Related Topics - [Air Transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1765) - [Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3717) - [Transportation and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260) - [The Cruise Industry](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7055) ## Bibliography - Graham, A. and F. Dobruszkes (eds) (2019) Air Transport – A Tourism Perspective, Amsterdam: Elsevier. - World Economic Forum (2017) The travel & tourism competitiveness report 2017, World Economic Forum. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.23 - The Digitalization of Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/digitalization-of-mobility/) **Published:** July 26, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > The digitalization of mobility involves a **modification**, a **[substitution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=22039)**, or a **generation** of a movement. It is contingent upon the socioeconomic and geographical context in which mobility occurs. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transport Substitution](#1_Transport_Substitution) - [2. Navigation and Tracking](#2_Navigation_and_Tracking) - [3. Mobility as Service Markets](#3_Mobility_as_Service_Markets) - [4. Transport Asset Management](#4_Transport_Asset_Management) # 1. Transport Substitution The rapid proliferation of ICT**,** such as mobile phones, intranets, and teleconferencing, promotes new forms of mobility and the possibility of substituting mobility. Reducing vehicle use is one of the expected primary benefits of ICT, as it is assumed that substitution will take place or those vehicle assets will be used more efficiently. Yet, substitution remains relatively marginal for the physical mobility of people, and ICT has permitted additional forms of non-physical interactions. The most important substitution effect has been on postal services, where online methods of communication and tele-consumption have been associated with a [substantial decline in physical mail volumes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1698) and their associated transportation activities. While there were in 1990, about 268 billion mail items carried in the United States, and this figure dropped to 127 billion in 2022, despite ongoing population growth. Another important form of transport substitution concerns e-commerce, where for an online transaction, in-store purchases have been [substituted by home deliveries](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4524). ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ict_substitution_generation.png?resize=900%2C511&ssl=1 "The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on Mobility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Substitution and Generation Effects of Information Technologies on Mobility![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mail_parcels_carried_united_states.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Mail Carried by USPS and Parcels Carried by Major Carriers, United States, 2004-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mail Carried by USPS and Parcels Carried by Major Carriers United States 2004 2022# 2. Navigation and Tracking While navigation devices have been available for a while, the combination of **global positioning systems**, **wireless communication technology** to access the Internet, and **mobile computing devices** enabled advanced dynamic navigation and tracking forms. Navigation assistance and real-time information about traffic conditions provide accurate estimates of travel times and offer the possibility of alternate routes in case of disruptive events. It is estimated that one billion drivers worldwide are using navigation apps. This has enabled notable time and fuel savings by road users at the aggregate level for passengers and freight transport. Assisted navigation also creates challenges such as allocating vehicles on local streets, exacerbating local congestion, and dealing with disruptions such as school opening hours. It is now possible to track the location of vehicles and consignments, enabling them to estimate better arrival times or delivery or improve fuel consumption. For temperature-sensitive goods, it becomes possible to monitor the condition of their transport. As an inventory management strategy, tracking also allows for more flexible use of transportation since a consignment can be differed or re-routed if demand changes. Industry standards such as Track and Trace (T&T) are being introduced for containers. It defines processes, data, and interface standards that allow stakeholders such as carriers, shippers, and third-party logistics services providers to interact and track containers and their shipments across several modes. A forthcoming change concerns self-driving vehicles that are only commercially implementable if provided substantial real-time information about the environment they navigate through onboard sensors and information feeds supported by ICT. The large diffusion of self-driving vehicles would have substantial impacts on the transport system, reducing the number of vehicles required to meet the existing demand, enhancing the mobility of those that may have physical or financial impairments, reducing the risks of accidents, and improving the time and cost performance of passenger and freight flows alike. # 3. Mobility as Service Markets Conventionally, many transportation markets could only have been booked through **intermediaries** such as travel agents or freight forwarders. The development of the Internet has enabled users to book transportation services such as air, train, and bus travel directly, commonly referred to as [mobility as a service](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10887). These changes have been substantial for the airline industry, promoting competition and the convenience of air travel with the possibility to check in online and even use a mobile device to carry a virtual boarding pass. A similar trend has taken place with rail services, particularly high-speed rail, but this is also entering the mass transit market, including bike rental services. An indirect benefit is a drop in the consumption of resources and energy for issuing travel documents such as tickets, boarding passes, or bills of lading. This also reduces the time passengers spend at terminals queuing. More recently, the diffusion of **ride-sharing services** (e.g. Uber, Lyft, Didi) and car rental services has opened an entirely new array of opportunities, expanding the capacity to connect suppliers of transport services and customers. These services have been highly disruptive for the [conventional taxi industry](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=18702) since they compete directly with them. For public transit, ride-sharing appears to be both [competing and complementary](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10309). Online commercial platforms are also developing opportunities for the freight sector, enabling providers of freight transport services, such as shipping lines or trucking companies, to auction services or bid for an offered transport demand. In 2019, the giant e-commerce retailer Amazon started a digital freight brokerage platform, which reduced spot market prices by at least 25%. On a smaller scale, it is also possible for individuals to offer services like ride-sharing, but concerning the deliveries of packages, groceries, and even meals. # 4. Transport Asset Management Transportation remains a resource with limited capacity and availability. ICT-supported transportation services such as ride-sharing result in better management of vehicles, routes, and assets (higher load factor, more trips per vehicle, fewer vehicles for the same capacity, etc.). This is particularly the case with freight distribution, with the application of logistics supporting better levels of inventory management and more reliable deliveries. There are numerous applications of ICT in transportation asset management. One concerns appointment systems for terminals (ports and rail yards) and distribution centers. Users can use an online platform to reserve an access time slot to the facility, improving the efficiency of both the terminal and the vehicle assets. Just-in-time inventory management, which reduces inventory requirements, would not be possible without significant ICT support, including the ongoing automation of [modes, terminals, and distribution facilities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10788). [Blockchains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8517 "Digital Intermodalism: Blockchains and Intermodal Transportation") can support the complexity of intermodal transportation systems by allowing better synchronization of modes and terminals. Yield management and congestion pricing are also common to better manage available capacity in conditions of high demand, but this requires accurate real-time information about demand and supply characteristics. For instance, in the case of yield management, an airline can dynamically change the pricing of its seats and even request booked customers to delay their travel in exchange for compensation. ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_ecommerce_logistics.png?resize=900%2C463&ssl=1 "Retail Logistics and E-commerce | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Retail Logistics and E commerce![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/benefits_on_demand_taxi.png?resize=900%2C853&ssl=1 "Potential Benefits of On Demand Services Compared with Conventional Taxi Services | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Potential Benefits of On Demand Services Compared with Conventional Taxi Services![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/nyc_for_hire.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Monthly Trips by for Hire Services, New York City, 2015-2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Number of Monthly Trips by for Hire Services New York City 2015 2019![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_automation.png?resize=900%2C455&ssl=1 "Forms of Transport Automation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Forms of Transport AutomationAlthough mobility has not changed, since it remains passengers or freight flows, ICT has impacted mobility in various ways, often making it more efficient. It is increasingly able to offer a form of substitution to the mobility of passengers and freight, navigate in a changing environment (e.g. variations in the level of congestion), and track and manage transportation assets. However, ICT can also have unintended negative consequences. Since 2010, an increase in pedestrian fatalities has been observed, particularly in the United States. The main factor for this increase was attributed to distractions from using portable devices while walking. A similar observation applies where mobile devices provide a hazardous distraction to drivers trying to use them while operating their vehicles. --- ## Related Topics - [2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/ "2.4 – Information Technologies and Mobility") ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/digitalization-of-mobility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/digitalization-of-mobility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/digitalization-of-mobility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/digitalization-of-mobility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.1 - Teaching Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/teaching-transport-geography/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Transport geography has been part of the curriculum of many geography programs, providing significant conceptual and methodological contributions to the discipline and transportation studies. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Transport Geography Education](#1_Transport_Geography_Education) - [2. Curriculum Approaches](#2_Curriculum_Approaches) - [3. Transport Geography in the Classroom](#3_Transport_Geography_in_the_Classroom) # 1. Transport Geography Education Transportation geography is not a science, but dominantly a **field of application**. Many spatial theories are relying on the concepts of distance, mobility, and accessibility, perspectives on which transport geography offers a solid background. More recently, transportation networks and spatial organization issues have been notable contributions by the discipline to understand contemporary economic and social processes. The core issue in transport geography education, like any discipline, is related to **relevancy** and **coherence**. How relevant are the concepts and methods that are being taught and how coherently they are explained? Substantiating this question requires a critical overview of concepts, theories, and methodologies in transport geography and how they fulfill the curriculum requirements and also societal needs. The development of the modern transport geography curriculum began in the 1960s with Ned Taaffe and Howard Gauthier among the most significant contributors in the United States. This curriculum development, virtually from scratch, led to the seminal textbook, *Geography of Transportation* (1973), which brought rigor in the description and optimization of transport systems. Since then, transport geography education has evolved with the priorities and concerns of the public and private sectors, focusing increasingly on **global issues**, but still acknowledging that they are deeply rooted in the local. The importance of supply chain management and logistics is a reality of contemporary world economics. This leads to the provision of education in technical expertise related to information technology, inventory management, and transport management. The objective is to provide knowledge and skills across business areas and industrial sectors within a supply chain context. This situation is conducive to programs in transport management shifting towards logistics management. More importantly, transport geographers must be able to anticipate rather than follow policy needs. Where transportation geography is taught significantly impacts the curriculum since the **geographical setting changes the modal focus**. Under such circumstances, transport geography education must reflect the realities of the regional transport system as it is optimally the market in which students will find potential employment. In the case of Hong Kong, rail transportation has little importance, and most of the focus is on public transit and international transportation issues. In the case of several European countries, the perspective tends to be more policy-oriented. European governments tend to have more direct involvement over their transport systems through public and semi-public agencies. Transport geographers can thus be involved in the decision-making process in the public and private sectors through policy evaluation and formulation. The European emphasis is fairly different from the more privately owned system in North America, where deregulation has been a dominant paradigm for the last 20 years. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/fields_transport_geography.png?resize=900%2C387&ssl=1 "Fields of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-fields/fields_transport_geography-1/)Fields of Transport Geography[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_system2.png?resize=900%2C806&ssl=1 "The Transport System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-system-overview/transport_system2/)The Transport System[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/dimensions_transport_geography2.png?resize=900%2C904&ssl=1 "Dimensions of Transport Geography | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/what-is-transport-geography/transport-geography-dimensions/dimensions_transport_geography2/)Dimensions of Transport Geography# 2. Curriculum Approaches The last 50 years have seen the creation of a solid curriculum in transport geography as a sub-discipline to human and economic geography. Expanding the transport geography curriculum into the 21st century will require continuing this tradition with **new conceptual and methodological initiatives** since new problems will arise, and new perspectives will be developed. To tackle these issues, a new generation of transportation geographers will obviously have to be trained with a particular emphasis on analytical and methodological perspectives. Economic integration and sustainability issues are receiving growing attention in the transport geography curriculum. The **quantitative revolution** that spurred in the 1970s has led to a variety of methodological and technical dimensions in geographical education. Many of these have led to the mathematical abstraction and quantification of transport geography but may have substituted for relevance. Transport geography is a specialized part of spatial analysis and focused on the importance of integrating analytical tools in the curriculum. Many of the tools and methods traditionally used in transport geography, such as spatial interaction, accessibility, and network modeling, are now part of many GIS packages and readily available to investigate real-world problems. GIS-T has become a fundamental part of transport geography curriculums. A look at geography curriculums also reveals two transport geographies, one **general** and the other **urban**. The latter comes from the growing influence of Urban Geography in geography curriculums and growing traffic problems in cities. However, urban freight is largely absent from the perspective. In contrast, general transport geography has a more balanced orientation between passengers and freight, although modally, there are differences, particularly if the approach switches to an extended geographical scale. The development of concepts, theories, and methods is a collective undertaking that involves seeking a **consensus** about what is relevant but also what has lost its relevance. From this large pool of knowledge, the transport geographer brings **coherence** to a curriculum by making choices concerning what should be introduced in accordance with the requirements of a curriculum. This mainly involves three challenges: - **Theoretical and conceptual**. The core challenge of transport geography education is that it must underline how relevant are its theoretical and conceptual foundations in explaining contemporary events and processes. Prospects over this issue are very positive as empirical evidence underlines the growing mobility of people, freight, and information at all geographical scales. This is a good indication of the relevancy of transport geography, and it is thus important to ensure that it clearly gets conveyed to undergraduate audiences. - **Methodological**. Another important aspect of transport geography education obviously relies on how information is analyzed, which includes a wide array of methods ranging from qualitative policy analysis to quantitative operations research. Methodologies previously tended to be taught more from a technical perspective and often in a very abstract manner. As methodologies are merging with information technologies, there are opportunities to go beyond abstraction. - **Technical and applied**. This involves using technology to replicate techniques and their procedures, but also using technology for educational purposes. GIS-T remains a promising educational tool in transport geography, especially when used to demonstrate methodologies within simulations. Surprisingly and despite the emphasis educational technologies have received, their level of integration to transport geography education, even in its simplest form, remains fairly low. Another challenge resides within the institutional structure, as transport geography remains what departments and programs commit to the discipline in terms of human and physical resources. This challenge is however linked to educational issues as a successful curriculum, however modest, promotes its own continuation and growth. The question remains how transport geographers, through their contribution to geographical education, will make sure the discipline receives a role proportional to its relevancy. # 3. Transport Geography in the Classroom Students being introduced to a discipline are particularly sensitive to new concepts, ideas, and fields of application brought in the classroom, which will challenge and even change their vision of the world. This does not exclude a strong emphasis, with demonstrations and case studies, that concepts and methodologies are mutually embedded in any scientific investigation. Then, it is for the student to make the strategic decision to pursue this investigation in upper-level classes and at the graduate level. This decision may rarely take place if relevancy and coherence are not efficiently provided. While relevance is the responsibility of the whole scientific community, coherence is assumed by **individual transport geographers** within the classroom. As always, pertinent material cannot compensate for lack of pedagogy. The balance between concepts, methods, and applications is obviously the prerogative of the individual teacher to comply with a program’s stated objectives. Still, the following approaches can be suggested depending on the general types of transport geography classes: - **General introductory courses**. These transportation classes are generally offered to the undergraduate student population at large and tend to have no pre-requisites. Considering the wide variety of students’ backgrounds, they tend to be challenging classes but offer the possibility to attract students into a transportation or a geography program. Offering such courses should thus be seriously considered to place transportation issues within an academic community. Such classes should almost strictly focus on concepts by explaining the importance of transportation from the local to the global. A particular emphasis should be placed on presenting the relationships between transportation and geography, discussing its history, presenting major modes and terminals, as well as international and urban transportation systems. Methodological issues should not be discussed in detail, but how they are relevant to the discipline. - **Specific introductory courses**. Concern regular transport geography classes part of a geography curriculum. They are commonly offered at a more advanced level (e.g. second or third year) and thus assume that the students are already familiar with core geographical concepts linked to accessibility and spatial interactions. The goal is to expand these concepts through transportation issues with a balance between concepts and methodologies. If students have already received GIS training, it is possible to provide some GIS-T methodologies and exercises, but methods can still be solved “by hand” or using spreadsheets. This web site has specifically been designed for such a purpose and offers ample material to address a wide range of transport geography issues. - **Topical intermediate courses**. Concern specialized classes often focusing on methods and fields of application. Many have prerequisites linked with quantitative methods and GIS. They thus offer an opportunity to teach a selected group of students already familiar with transport a series of customized concepts and methods. In many programs, this is essentially a GIS-T class, but there are also opportunities to focus on topics such as supply chain management, urban transportation, transport policy or transportation, and land use. - **Advanced courses**. They tend to be seminars and offered to small groups of students, commonly at the graduate level. Many students come from different programs, such as economics, engineering, or political science, and will take such seminars to expand their knowledge and address their specific research topic. Paradoxically, these courses tend to be less methodologically oriented and focus more on policy and management issues. A good approach involves the analysis of advanced research papers selected to cover the students’ expressed interests. Students can be encouraged to develop projects in their fields of interest, leading to a variety of approaches ranging from advanced methodologies (with GIS-T) to content analysis that can be presented and debated at the seminar. --- ## Related Topics - [What is Transport Geography?](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=40) - [Methods in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=334) - [Issues and Challenges in Transport Geography](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=150) ## Bibliography - Rodrigue, J-P (2003) “Teaching Transport Geography: Conference Report and Viewpoint”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 73-75. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/teaching-transport-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/teaching-transport-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/teaching-transport-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/teaching-transport-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [International Tourists Arrivals and Receipts, 1950-2017](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals/) **Published:** February 24, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_tourism_arrivals_receipts.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "International Tourists Arrivals and Receipts, 1950-2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")International Tourists Arrivals and Receipts 1950 2017*Source: World Tourism Organization.* Since the 1950s, the international tourist industry has seen spectacular growth with the setting of mass tourism, reaching 1 billion arrivals in 2011. One of the most significant changes in global tourism was when in 1999, China started its Approved Destination Status (ADS) program. This program allowed Chinese citizens to travel to selected destinations as long as it was part of an organized tour group. Australia and New Zealand were the first Western countries to be granted that status in 1999. Most European Union countries granted ADS in 2004 and the United States in 2008. This allowed millions of Chinese tourists to travel abroad, with a corresponding surge in receipts. Tourism is an industry characterized by intense competition since the products often tend to be similar, notably for resort tourism, where one destination can be substituted for another. While in periods of recession, a stabilization or a small drop in the number of arrivals is observed, receipts are impacted to a greater extent. This implies that people may still travel but spend less at an aggregate level. This underlines that tourism remains a discretionary activity that can be easily forfeited or scaled down. The perception of security is also an important factor since, in recent years, tourism to major destinations such as Egypt has declined because of concerns following terrorist attacks on tourism complexes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/tourism-transport/international-tourist-arrivals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Three Basic Types of Interaction Models](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-basic-models/) **Published:** January 19, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/three_basic_interactions_models.png?resize=900%2C493&ssl=1 "Three Basic Types of Interaction Models | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Three Basic Types of Interaction ModelsThe general formulation of the spatial interaction model is stated as *Tij* , which is the interaction between location *i* (origin) and location *j* (destination).*Vi* is the attribute of the location of origin *i*, *Wj* is the attribute of destination *j*, and *Sij* is the attribute of separation between the location of origin *i* and destination *j*. From this general formulation, three basic types of interaction models can be derived: - **Gravity model**. The level of interaction between two locations is a function of their attributes pondered by their level of separation. Separation is often squared to reflect the non-linear friction of distance, but any exponent can be used. In the above figure, two locations (*i* and *j*) have a respective “weight” (importance) of 35 and 20 and are at a distance (degree of separation) of 8. The resulting interaction is 10.9, which is reciprocal. - **Potential model**. The level of interaction between one location and all the others is measured by the summation of the attributes of each other location pondered by their level of separation, which is squared to reflect the friction of distance. In the above figure, the potential interaction of location *i* (*Ti*) is measured by adding the ratio “weight” / squared distance for each other locations (*j*, *k* and *l*). The potential interaction is 3.8, which is not reciprocal. - **Retail model**. This model deals with boundaries instead of interactions. It assumes that the market boundary between two locations is a function of their separation pondered by the ratio of their respective weights. If two locations have the same importance, their market boundary would be halfway between. In the above figure, the market boundary between locations *i* and *j* (*Bij*), which are separated by a distance of 7, is at a distance of 4.9 from *i*, and, therefore, at a distance of 2.1 from *j*. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-basic-models/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-basic-models/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-basic-models/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-basic-models/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Traffic Concentration and Lorenz Curves](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-traffic-concentration/) **Published:** February 7, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/traffic_concentration_lorenz.png?resize=900%2C568&ssl=1 "Traffic Concentration and Lorenz Curves | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Traffic Concentration and Lorenz CurvesIn a simple system of 5 ports along a coast, the traffic for each port is the same for case A, so there is no concentration and, thus, no inequality. The Lorenz curve of this distribution is the same as the perfect equality line; they overlap. In case B, there is some traffic concentration in two ports, which is reflected in the Lorenz curve as it differs from the perfect equality line. Case C represents a high concentration level in two ports, and the Lorenz curve significantly differs from the perfect equality line. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-traffic-concentration/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-traffic-concentration/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-traffic-concentration/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve-traffic-concentration/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Simple Connectivity Matrix](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/connectivitymatrix-2/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/simple_connectivity_matrix2.png?resize=900%2C398&ssl=1 "Simple Connectivity Matrix | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Simple Connectivity MatrixA network can be represented as a connectivity matrix, which is rather simple to construct: - **Size of the connectivity matrix:** Involves a number of rows and columns equivalent to the number of nodes in the network. A connectivity matrix is always a square matrix. Since the above network has 5 nodes (A to E), its connectivity matrix is a five-by-five grid. - **Connection**: Each cell representing a connection between two nodes gets a value of 1 (e.g. Cell B – A). - **Non-connection**: Each cell not representing a direct connection gets a value of 0 (e.g. Cell D – E). - If all connections in the network are bi-directional (a movement is possible from node C to node D and vice-versa), the connectivity matrix is **transposable**. Adding up a row or a column gives the **degree of a node**. Node C is obviously the most connected since it has the highest summation of connectivity compared to all other nodes. However, this assumption may not be true on a more complex network because of a larger number of indirect paths, which are not considered in the connectivity matrix. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/connectivitymatrix-2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/connectivitymatrix-2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/connectivitymatrix-2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/connectivitymatrix-2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Fundamentals of the Physical Internet](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/fundamentals-physical-internet/) **Published:** July 23, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fundamentals_physical_internet.png?resize=900%2C642&ssl=1 "Fundamentals of the Physical Internet | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fundamentals of the Physical Internet*Source: Adapted from Montreuil, B. (2011). Toward a Physical Internet: meeting the global logistics sustainability grand challenge. Logistics Research, 3, 71-87.* The Physical Internet (PI) is a metaphor that aims at improving the connectivity and efficiency of logistics. It employs an analogy with the Internet, where information is distributed as packets moving through the network, mainly composed of servers and fiber optic cables. The PI relies on three fundamental concepts: - **Encapsulation**. Goods are carried using various load units, with boxes, pallets, and containers being the most common. The purpose is to consolidate (assemble) load units into modular units labeled the PI containers. This implies that the load units can be scaled up or scaled down depending on the demand characteristics. The challenge remains to associate PI containers with the physical characteristics and capacity of the physical load units (e.g. truckload, container load). - **Interfaces**. Focus on the capability to move PI containers across the transport chain. This can involve consolidating PI containers into loads allowing scale economies and their transport and relay (transshipment) across a multimodal network, including terminal facilities such as ports and distribution centers. These interfaces are also digital, with information systems able to interact by exchanging critical information. - **Protocols**. In a logistical system, each layer involves a series of tasks that must be regulated by protocols, implying what is feasible considering the characteristics of the product, the demand, and the transport supply. Protocols are standard tasks (services) that can be performed through the physical and digital exchange between layers of the logistical system. For instance, the encapsulation of a PI container is bonded by the protocols of the physical characteristics of the products set by the Logistics layer (L7) and the shipment characteristics of the Shipping layer (L5). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/fundamentals-physical-internet/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/fundamentals-physical-internet/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/fundamentals-physical-internet/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/fundamentals-physical-internet/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Graph Representation of a Real Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/graph-representation-real-network/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/graph_representation_real_network.png?resize=900%2C500&ssl=1 "Graph Representation of a Real Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Graph Representation of a Real NetworkThe goal of a graph is **to represent **the structure****, not the appearance of a network. The conversion of a real network into a **planar graph** is a straightforward process that follows some basic rules: - The most important rule is that **every terminal and intersection point becomes a node**. - Each connected node is then linked by a **straight segment**. The outcome of this abstraction, as portrayed in the above figure, is the actual structure of the network. Depending on its complexity, the real network may be confusing in terms of revealing its connectivity (what is linked to what). A graph representation reveals the connectivity of a network in the best possible way. Other rules can also be applied, depending on the circumstances: - A node that is not a terminal or an intersection point can be added to the graph if, along that segment, **an attribute is changing**. For instance, it would be recommended to represent the shift from 2 lanes to 4 lanes along a continuous road segment as a node, even if that shift does not occur at an intersection or terminal point. - A **“dummy node”** can be added for esthetical purposes, especially when the shape of the graph representation is required to be comparable to the real network. - Although the **relative location of each node can remain similar to its real-world counterpart** (as in the above figure), this is not required. It is, however, a preferred option to help understand the geographical context of the network being represented. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/graph-representation-real-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/graph-representation-real-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/graph-representation-real-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/graph-representation-real-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th Century](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/evolution-transport-technology/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_transport_technology.png?resize=900%2C488&ssl=1 "Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th CenturySince the 18th century, **mechanization** allowed each transportation mode to experience an evolution in motive methods and vehicles. New engine technologies can be used across several modes with specific adaptations. The first and most meaningful innovation was the steam engine which improved the performance of the maritime and railway modes from the end of the 18th century and into the 19th century. The bulk of a steam engine made it impractical to be applied to road transportation. The **internal combustion engine** (ICE) in the late 19th century brought the large-scale mechanization of transportation modes, especially road transport. It was followed by the diffusion of cars, buses, and trucks supported by the construction of vast highway networks. For rail, diesel locomotives replaced steam engines, improving power and range. However, high-speed rail (HSR) development relied on the electric motor due to its capacity to generate a velocity that an internal combustion engine would be unable to. For air transport, the internal combustion engine (piston engine) allowed heavier planes and the emergence of the first commercial services in the 1920s. Innovations in air propulsion led to [jet planes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1288) that could quickly transport a large number of passengers over long distances. Then, wide-body jets (such as the [B747](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1327)) further improved the scale at which air transportation could carry passengers and freight. The technological evolution of maritime transportation impacted more substantially conveyances than their speed, particularly their economies of scale. Metallic hulls and fuel propulsion enabled the growth of ship size as well as their specialization (oil, freight, containers). The introduction of **containerships** in the 1970s allowed a versatile cargo carrier that benefited from economies of scale and supported the rapid development of the global economy. In the 21st century, the **automation** of transport systems is unfolding, including its terminals. This improves their reliability and performance while reducing their operating costs. Self-driving vehicles and drones are being introduced. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/evolution-transport-technology/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/evolution-transport-technology/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/evolution-transport-technology/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/evolution-transport-technology/?share=reddit) - --- ### [10.3 - Social and Environmental Responsibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/social-environmental-responsibility/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Social and sustainability challenges address a range of issues such as mobility gaps, transport security, and climate change. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Societal Challenges](#1_Societal_Challenges) - [2. Sustainability Challenges](#2_Sustainability_Challenges) - [3. The Challenges of Decarbonization](#3_The_Challenges_of_Decarbonization) # 1. Societal Challenges The role of transportation in society has been increasingly acknowledged, which goes beyond its economic contribution. Concerns over **energy efficiency**, **safety,** and **security** are becoming more salient. While energy prices have been subject to [significant volatility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5880), the long-term trend indicates an energy transition, often labeled as the decarbonization of transportation. While technologies may make alternative fuel vehicles a commercial option to the internal combustion engine, the main question is to what extent this transition may be associated with higher transportation costs. Energy, particularly the availability of oil, has been a salient factor in developing transport systems. It remains to be seen which forms of transport and mobility will take shape as the energy transition away from fossil fuels takes place. Transportation safety issues are somewhat **paradoxical**. On the one hand, transportation modes and terminals are incrementally becoming safer as accident rates are declining. This is particularly the case for [air transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2507), in which safety performance has steadily improved despite substantial growth in the number of passengers being carried prior to the Covid-19 pandemic. Similar trends are observed for road transportation, particularly in developed economies, as fatality rates have declined. However, road transport safety remains a salient issue in developing economies where vehicle ridership is increasing and where enforcement of safety regulations is lacking. Therefore, an enduring issue is ensuring that transportation safety continues to improve through better modal and infrastructure design, operational practices, and enforcing existing regulations. Another prevalent matter concerns **security practices** that are now part of the business environment in which passenger and freight transport systems are evolving. Regulatory agencies impose most of these measures with consequences often challenging to assess, but always involving additional costs and delays for transport operators. A balance between security measures and the efficient flow of passengers and freight will need to be achieved through a variety of regulatory, operational, and technological innovations. Ongoing and recurring issues concerning terrorism, piracy, theft, illegal trade, migration, and economic sanctions have underlined that security issues in transportation have played a more prevalent role. The observed **mobility gaps** across groups remain challenging since they are associated with differences in [economic opportunities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5070) and social interactions. While there are differences in mobility according to gender and income, the contribution of transportation to these gaps is not clear since it can be their consequence, not their cause. Income is the most relevant factor in mobility gaps, for short (commuting) and long distances (tourism). The time spent commuting is also indicative of economic opportunities, with longer times associated with fewer opportunities. Lower incomes are linked with less mobility and available transport options. Since income is an important element defining residential preferences, the spatial pattern of residential areas leads to differences in accessibility. High-income areas tend to have high accessibility, while the opposite is observed for low-income areas. The challenges remain in providing transportation infrastructure and services that would help mitigate social gaps without resorting to social engineering and high subsidy levels, a process labeled **transportation equity**. New consumption patterns, social interactions, and usage of transportation are also emerging. The rapid growth of e-commerce has transformed retailing, consumer behavior, and the use of commercial space. With growing home deliveries, a footprint switch occurs from the retail stores to the distribution centers, involving different location patterns and forms of distribution. **Vehicle-sharing services**, including bicycle and scooter pools, are changing how people use transportation to provide an additional option to the conventional dichotomy between full vehicle ownership and reliance on public transit. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/wti_spot_oil_price.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "West Texas Intermediate, Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price (1970-2022) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/west-texas-intermediate-spot-price/west_texas_intermediate/)West Texas Intermediate Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_transport_fatalities.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-fatalities/air_transport_fatalities/)Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mobility_gaps_urban_areas2.png?resize=900%2C500&ssl=1 "Mobility Gaps in Urban Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/mobility-gaps-urban/mobility_gaps_urban_areas2/)Mobility Gaps in Urban Areas# 2. Sustainability Challenges The issue of sustainability has become an increasingly important consideration for the [transport industry](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6263). The need to balance economic efficiency, social factors, and the environment is being recognized. Of these three, economic efficiency has always been at the forefront, and governments have been important actors in regulating social conditions (safety, security, and working conditions). As global economic development increases welfare in many societies, additional pressures are emerging to regulate and innovate in the provision of transport technologies and services. Despite the strong historical relationships between transport and the environment, the latter has tended to be overlooked by the industry. This is rapidly changing, and environmental issues are likely to play an ever more **important role in the transport industry**, particularly over these core dimensions: - **Transport and atmospheric pollution**. Air quality standards are being implemented across jurisdictions. There are still striking differences between regions and between modes. For instance, most developing economies still have limited capabilities for enforcing environmental standards, such as vehicle emissions. However, the trend is towards greater control over emissions, which will affect modes and their respective competitiveness, particularly if a mode is subject to a greater degree of legislation than another. - **Transport and water quality**. The contribution of transport to the pollution of rivers and oceans is considerable and is only recently being addressed by international legislation. Significant progress has been made in a number of areas, such as ballast water, waste, and oil spills. As regulation gets more comprehensive, the more the transport industry is impacted. This is particularly evident in matters relating to dredging, where environmental constraints are placing a growing financial burden on ports seeking to deepen channels to keep pace with the growth of vessel size. - **Transport footprint**. Increased demand for transport is already placing enormous pressure on new infrastructures. Many of these transport facilities, such as airports and ports, require substantial amounts of land for their internal operations and external transport links. Rapid motorization in developing economies has resulted in the conversion of land to provide road infrastructure. This expanded scale of transport infrastructure questions the capacity of environmental systems to mitigate the disruptions and will likely have an impact on how transport infrastructure is designed. - **Transport and climate change**. Transportation both influences and is impacted by climate change. Transport activities, particularly vehicles, account for 24% of CO2 emissions worldwide. They are thus subject to regulatory pressures to improve their environmental performance regarding the greenhouse gases they emit. Concomitantly, transportation activities can be negatively impacted by climate change. Severe weather occurrences disrupt transport systems, particularly air transportation, which has become a crucial element of global and regional mobility. Potential impacts on infrastructure need to be assessed since infrastructures are built with an expected life cycle, which can be reduced by climate change or increased maintenance costs. The prospects of [sea level rises](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6421) are particularly challenging for coastal transport systems. The extent to which climate change is influenced by and will impact global transport systems remains to be assessed more rigorously instead of speculatively. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sustainable_transportation2.png?resize=900%2C323&ssl=1 "Sustainable Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/sustainable-transportation/sustainable_transportation2/)Sustainable Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Sea-Level-Change.png?resize=900%2C468&ssl=1 "Remotely Sensed Sea Level Change, 1992-2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/sea-level-change/map-sea-level-change/)Remotely Sensed Sea Level Change 1992 2012# 3. The Challenges of Decarbonization The decarbonization of transportation is a direct outcome of the perceived risks of climate change. Strategies are being implemented to reduce, mitigate, and even eliminate carbon emissions by adapting transportation infrastructures, conveyances, and operations. A core aspect is switching away from technologies supported by fossil fuels to technologies that are not or much less so. Electrification is a strategy that is actively being pursued, particularly for vehicles. Still, if decarbonization through electrification is a preferred strategy, it should involve the complete transformation of the electricity supply chain as the demand for electricity will surge. Electric grids may be unable to support the load, and power generation may not be capable of generating enough electricity, or generating electricity using fossil fuels. The question remains about what suitable level of decarbonization can be achieved and how sustainable this level is. The sustainability of transportation systems will be achieved through a series of innovations and measures to improve the performance of transportation modes, terminals, infrastructure, and management. Emerging paradigms such as the [circular economy](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8913) have sustainability at the core by adding feedback mechanisms, such as maintenance, reuse, remanufacture, and recycling, into linear supply chains. There are also attempts to control the flow of investments toward specific modes and terminals through metrics such as [Environmental, Social, and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/environmental-social-governance-criteria/ "Environmental, Social and Governance Criteria") (ESG) objectives. The challenge is that ESG can be ideologically and politically driven by stakeholders, which can result in a lack of investment and scarcity. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/decarbonization_transportation.png?resize=900%2C409&ssl=1 "The Decarbonization of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/decarbonization-transportation/decarbonization_transportation/)The Decarbonization of Transportation[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/circular_economy2.png?resize=900%2C621&ssl=1 "The Circular Economy and Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/circular-economy-supply-chains/circular_economy2/)The Circular Economy and Supply Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/esg_criteria.png?resize=900%2C308&ssl=1 "Environmental, Social and Governance Criteria | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/environmental-social-governance-criteria/esg_criteria/)Environmental Social and Governance Criteria--- ### Related Topics - [3.2 – Transportation and Society](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5264) - [4.4 – Transportation, Sustainability and Decarbonization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5725) - [2.4 – Climate Change and its Potential Impacts on Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9427) - [A.20 – Transportation Environmental Management](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8790) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/social-environmental-responsibility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/social-environmental-responsibility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/social-environmental-responsibility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/social-environmental-responsibility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Public and Private Roles for Transport Infrastructure and Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/public-private-roles-transport-infrastructure-terminals/) **Published:** December 14, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/public_private_roles_transport.png?resize=900%2C416&ssl=1 "Public and Private Roles for Transport Infrastructure and Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Public and Private Roles for Transport Infrastructure and TerminalsA public authority may decide to allow private actors to be involved in the management and operations of transport infrastructure and terminals over a series of options: - **Service contracts**. Involves the contracting of services or their outsourcing by delegating non-core activities from the public sector to a private entity. Several private firms have developed expertise in providing specialized services in the operation, maintenance, or management of transportation assets. - ­**Management contracts**. Contracting out management and operation of some core activities to a private entity, such as parking facilities, terminal concessions (stores and restaurants), and terminal operations. Management contracts for parking operations are particularly prevalent in the airport sector. - **Developer financing and operation**: There is a wide variety of developer financing and operation options, which include passenger terminals, parking garages, rental car facilities, fueling systems, cargo facilities, and general aviation facilities. The private sector can provide development, operation, maintenance services, and sometimes financing under long-term leases or concessions. - ­**Concession agreement**. A long-term lease involving managing and developing a facility to a private operator. The concession usually consists of the operator undertaking capital improvements. - **Sale**. The terminal or the infrastructure is transferred on a freehold basis with the requirement that it continues to be used for stated purposes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/public-private-roles-transport-infrastructure-terminals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/public-private-roles-transport-infrastructure-terminals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/public-private-roles-transport-infrastructure-terminals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/public-private-roles-transport-infrastructure-terminals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Resilience of Transportation Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/resilience-transportation-systems/) **Published:** June 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/resilience_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C404&ssl=1 "Resilience of Transportation Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Resilience of Transportation Systems*Source: Adapted from Linkov, I. and J.M. Palma-Oliviera (eds) (2017) Risk and Resilience, Amsterdam: Springer.* For a transportation system, resilience is the capability to recover from a disruption to an operational level similar to before the disruption in a timely manner. The longer and deeper the impact of the disruption on operations, the less resilient a transport system is. There is a wide range of possible disruptions ranging from anthropocentric to natural, from local to global. For instance, a local natural disruption would be a thunderstorm impairing road and airport operations for a few hours. Since infrastructures are not damaged, recovery is a simple matter of the weather event ending. Much more severe would be a hurricane forcing the closure of ports, airports, bridges, and transit systems for several days with damage to infrastructure such as power distribution systems. In this case, recovery is a matter of inspecting and repairing infrastructures, which may take several weeks, depending on the damage and the availability of labor and equipment. Resilience and efficiency are usually on the **opposite side of the spectrum**. An efficient transport system is commonly less resilient, even if every transportation network has a built-in level of resilience. From a transportation perspective, an efficient network is structured around high-capacity routes with a few links. A resilient network would be composed of more connections enabling alternative routes. From a supply chain perspective, efficiency is associated with lean practices (just-in-time) with limited inventory levels, distribution centers, and a few strategic suppliers. A resilient supply chain carries a **higher inventory level**, including **stock buffers** at intermediary locations and a reliance on a **larger number of suppliers**. If a part of the supply chain is disrupted, it is expected that other segments will be available to compensate. A risk for transportation systems and supply chains is that planners and operators are prioritizing efficiency with the expectation that disruptions are uncommon and random. The built-in resilience of an efficient network or supply chain is assumed to be sufficient to cope with the most anticipated disruptions. [Climate change](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9427) would increase the risk of disruptions of transportation infrastructures in manners that are difficult to predict. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/resilience-transportation-systems/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/resilience-transportation-systems/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/resilience-transportation-systems/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/resilience-transportation-systems/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes, 1918-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-fatalities/) **Published:** November 13, 2017 **Author:** John Bowen **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_transport_fatalities.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Number of Yearly Fatalities due to Air Transport Crashes 1918 2021*Source: Aircraft Crashes Record Office, Geneva.* Like all modes of transportation, air transport is subject to accidents that can be due to human (67%) or technical (20%) causes and rarely due to atmospheric conditions (6%). Since air accident statistics started to be systematically compiled, 54% of accidents occurred less than 10 km from an airport. 50% and 21% of accidents took place during the landing and takeoff phases, respectively. The evolution of the yearly number of fatalities is astonishing. Despite the incredible [growth of air traffic](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2368) over the past century, the annual number of civil aviation fatalities in the 2010s was about the same as in the 1930s. Notably, aviation safety has improved in low-income and high-income regions, though the accident rate is still higher in the former. The great strides in aviation safety are the outcome of better aircraft designs, improved pilot training, better navigation and control systems, as well as comprehensive accident management to identify the causes and possible mitigation strategies. For instance, on August 2, 1985, Delta Flight 191 from Fort Lauderdale ran into a developing thunderstorm and wind shear conditions on its final approach to Dallas / Fort Worth Airport (DFW). The strong and unstable winds forced the Lockheed L-1011 to hit the ground before the runway, resulting in 135 fatalities. An investigation of the cause of the accident led to substantial revisions in airport emergency procedures and upgrades in weather detection equipment. More recently, on June 1, 2009, Air France Flight 447, en route from Rio de Janeiro to Paris, crashed in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Brazil. Temporarily defective air sensor speed readings due to ice accumulation and pilot error caused an aerodynamic stall that crashed the plane, resulting in 228 fatalities. After the investigation, civil aviation authorities recommended better training concerning stall recovery at high altitudes and retrofitting of planes with heated airspeed sensors. A thorough systematic approach to accident investigation will improve the safety record further. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-fatalities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-fatalities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-fatalities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-fatalities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chapter 9 - Transport Planning and Policy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** Since transportation can produce significant benefits but creates many negative externalities, appropriate policies can be devised to maximize benefits and minimize inconveniences. The allocation, design, and construction of transport infrastructure and services must be subject to careful planning, both by public and private agencies. A distinction must be drawn between policy and planning since the former usually relates the strategies and goals while the latter refers to concrete actions. Policies and planning are constantly changing because they both must reflect the fundamental changes in society and contemporary issues and problems. For instance, the changing orientation of public policy led to deregulation in many transport sectors. Transport safety and security have come to the forefront among the core policy issues. Natural and anthropogenic disruptions are also challenges in transport planning. --- ## Contents ### [9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/ "9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy") ### [9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/ "9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance") ### [9.3 – Transport Safety and Security](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/ "9.3 – Transport Safety and Security") ### [9.4 – Transportation, Disruptions and Resilience](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/ "9.4 – Transportation, Disruptions and Resilience") --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Common Tools for Mitigating Urban Road Congestion](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/tools-for-mitigating-urban-road-congestion/) **Published:** November 14, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/tools_mitigating_urban_congestion.png?resize=900%2C413&ssl=1 "Tools for Mitigating Urban Road Congestion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Tools for Mitigating Urban Road Congestion### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/tools-for-mitigating-urban-road-congestion/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/tools-for-mitigating-urban-road-congestion/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/tools-for-mitigating-urban-road-congestion/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/tools-for-mitigating-urban-road-congestion/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transit and Urban Form](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-urban-form/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transit_urban_form.png?resize=900%2C318&ssl=1 "Transit and Urban Form | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transit and Urban Form*Source: Adapted from R. Cervero (1998) The Transit Metropolis, Washington, D.C.: Island Press.* Urban transit systems played an important role in shaping urban form in the late 19th up to the mid-20th century. Then, the massive diffusion of the automobile and highway systems broke this relationship, which resulted in a growing divergence in urban forms, land uses, and mobility. Depending on the density and historical conditions, different structural relationships exist between transit and the urban form: - **Adaptive cities**. Urban transit is the dominant element of mobility, and the urban landscape has been adapted to service the general needs of transit-oriented urban mobility. They have a high density and centrality where development is oriented along transit lines and stations. - **Adaptive transit**. The car is the dominant mobility element, while transit systems have adapted to service specific needs, such as dominant commuting patterns. It represents a context of low density and centrality where development is oriented along highways, with the city shaped as a grid. - **Hybrids**. Represent a level of tradeoff between the mobility requirements of transit and the automobile. The CBD and subcenters are serviced by major transit lines where subsidiary lines are converging. It represents lower-density cities with less prominent CBD and subcenters in peripheral areas. At the beginning of the 21st century, public transit is on the rise in many global cities, resulting in congestion, investments in transit infrastructure, and changing social preferences. Thus, transit will likely play a greater role in the structure and organization of cities. It remains to be seen to what extent and in which context. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-urban-form/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-urban-form/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-urban-form/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-urban-form/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World's Main Subway Systems, c2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/global-subway-systems/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Subways-1.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's Main Subway Systems, c2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Main Subway Systems c2020*Source: adapted from Metrobits.org, World Metro Database.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Subways.pdf) Approximately 194 subway (metro) systems are in operation worldwide, with several carrying more than 1 billion passengers per year. The construction and setting of subway systems have accelerated in recent years, particularly in cities in developing economies where mass transit has become a clear strategy to improve urban mobility and mitigate congestion. China and India are the most salient examples. The level of ridership is linked with several geographical and economic considerations. Some cities with high ridership, such as Moscow, Beijing, and Shanghai, have a tradition of subsidized public transportation and transit-oriented urban planning. Many high-density cities have a level of subway ridership proportional to their population (London, Hong Kong, Osaka, Paris, Seoul, and Tokyo), indicating a consistent level of ridership where public transit accounts for between 25% and 50% of commuting. Cities, where ridership is proportionally less than the population, have either a significant portion of their population living in poverty and using less formal transit systems or are wealthy enough to prefer the automobile. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/global-subway-systems/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/global-subway-systems/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/global-subway-systems/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/global-subway-systems/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Land Rent and Land Use](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-land-use/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/land_rent_land_use.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Land Rent and Land Use | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Land Rent and Land UseIn a market economy where land can be acquired or sold, the distribution of economic activities should not be random but the outcome of their respective capabilities to use land in the most productive fashion. According to land rent theory (or **bid rent theory**), land use is the outcome of the rent-paying ability of different economic activities, such as retailing, industry, and residence. The **optimal location**, where **accessibility** is at its highest, is usually the central business district (CBD). Every activity, including rural, would prefer this location, but they do not have the same capacity to afford the associated high rent. By **overlapping the** [**bid rent curves** ](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4934)of all the urban economic activities, a concentric land use pattern is created with retailing in the CBD, industry/commercial on the next ring, apartments farther on, and then single houses. This representation considers an isotropic space where features are uniform. In the real world, a set of physiographic (waterfront, hills, etc.), historical (tourism), and social (income, crime, amenities) attributes will influence bid rent curves. When a city grows, more remote locations are being used, increasing the rent of most accessible places, inducing higher densities and productivity. This generally occurs by “expulsing” some activities outside and by attracting more productive activities. The outcome of this process becomes apparent with the construction of skyscrapers that allow for more space to be available and, consequently, more rent to be generated. **Density and rent** are closely related. The above representation considers a monocentric city but can be modified to apply to a [polycentric city](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4939). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-land-use/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-land-use/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-land-use/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-land-use/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Hybrid Land Use Model: Transportation and the Formation of Urban Landscapes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/hybrid-land-use-model/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hybrid_land_use_model.png?resize=900%2C547&ssl=1 "The Hybrid Land Use Model: Transportation and the Formation of Urban Landscapes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Hybrid Land Use Model Transportation and the Formation of Urban Landscapes*Source: Adapted from Taaffe E.J., Gauthier H.L. and O’Kelly M.E. (1996) Geography of Transportation (second edition).* The evolution of the urban landscape can be considered from a hybrid perspective, where different paradigms were at play at different points in time. Since the [concentric](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4908), [sectorial, and zonal](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4920) models had problems dealing with specific conditions, hybrid representations of urban land use were developed. They try to include the strengths of each representation where some urban land uses are oriented along major transport axis (sectors), while others, notably industrial and commercial, are located in nuclei (clusters) where they reach both scale and agglomeration economies. The urban land use is thus an overlay of [different transport effects](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4767), let they be sectorial, zonal, or nuclear: - **Pre-industrial**. Concentric land use development with strong distance decay factors. Cities were compact. - **Streetcar**. Sector development along the main lines. The [expansion of cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5013) into new residential neighborhoods was shaped by streetcar lines and suburban railway stations. - **Bicycle**. Concentric development with less distance decay. This new form of mobility enabled a wider range of suburban development. - **Automobile**. Concentric development with low distance decay. The creation of a new suburban space composed of single-family homes. - **Highway**. Concentric development and the emergence of sub-centers along major road intersections. The automobile became the main mode shaping development in many urban areas. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/hybrid-land-use-model/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/hybrid-land-use-model/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/hybrid-land-use-model/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/hybrid-land-use-model/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation / Land Use Relationships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-land-use-relationships/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_land_use_system.png?resize=900%2C456&ssl=1 "Transportation / Land Use Relationships | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Land Use RelationshipsTransportation and economic systems are reciprocal, as **transport supply and demand are mutually interdependent**. For instance, the setting of a highway interchange incites the concentration of commercial and service activities, generating additional transport demand, favoring the location of new activities, and reorganizing the regional spatial structure. This interdependence can be conceptualized with three major elements: - **Transport system**. It is mainly composed of infrastructures conferring a level of transport supply, from which accessibility levels can be derived. A variety of models have been developed to measure transport supply and its enabling (or constraining) effects on mobility. For instance, traffic assignment models take an existing spatial interaction structure and infer its flows within a transportation network. Conceptual flows between origin-destination pairs consequently become a physical reality. - **Spatial interactions**. The assumption is that mobility between locations is mainly related to a function of spatial impedance, which reflects the friction of distance. Many spatial interaction models rely on distance decay parameters to estimate flows. Another dimension of spatial interactions concerns the modes involved in urban trips, particularly which mode will be used for which trip. - **Land use**. Represents the level of spatial accumulation from which transport demand is derived. There is a wide base of spatial economic models estimating transport demand, mainly through generating and attracting traffic by different land use types. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-land-use-relationships/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-land-use-relationships/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-land-use-relationships/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-land-use-relationships/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World's Largest Cities, 2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-largest-cities/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Cities-2020.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World's Largest Cities, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Largest Cities 2020*Source: United Nations Population Division.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Cities-2020.pdf) Global urbanization and the emergence of large cities has been a significant process with far-reaching economic and social impacts: - Urbanization involves a much higher **concentration** of the global population, which used to be more dispersed. Higher concentrations are easier to service from a market perspective but are also prone to congestion and diseconomies. - Several **[mega-cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4670)** (8 to 10 million inhabitants) have emerged. These cities command a large share of global wealth creation and dominate their respective national economies. Many acts as [global cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1427). - **Urban residents** have different activities, lifestyles, and consumption levels than rural residents, particularly in developing countries. Some large cities, or groups of large cities, have become [urban regions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7754). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-largest-cities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-largest-cities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-largest-cities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-largest-cities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Retail Logistics and E-commerce](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-ecommerce/) **Published:** November 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_ecommerce_logistics.png?resize=900%2C462&ssl=1 "Retail Logistics and E-commerce | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Retail Logistics and E commerceLogistics are being impacted by e-commerce, particularly by its business-to-consumer (B2C) segment. In a conventional retailing supply chain, customers are responsible for purchasing their goods at the retailer’s location. They are assuming the “last mile” in freight distribution by traveling to the store and returning with their purchases. For bulky purchases such as appliances and furniture, retailers offer local deliveries for their customers. Because locations are an important dimension of retailing, the retailer must assume significant costs to retain accessible locations, defining its market area (customer base). These costs, such as store labor and rent, are reflected in the final costs of a good, which are assumed by the consumer. The retailer maintains a level of in-store inventory (in the form of stocked shelves), replenished by regional distribution centers (RDC) where goods from a wide range of suppliers are stored. Many retailers developed advanced logistics strategies involving global procurement, inventory management, and order processing at their regional distribution centers. The most efficient retailers have an extensive network of stores and distribution centers, some operating on the cross-docking principle, ensuring a constant resupply of in-store inventory. Further, within stores, goods must be received, unpacked, and placed on store shelves, adding labor and costs. The emergence of e-commerce has changed the relationships between customers and retailers (e-retailers): - **Actors**. In some cases, entirely new e-retailers have emerged, but adopting an online strategy by conventional retailers has also been common. In the emerging distribution system, the e-retailer is simultaneously a retailer and a distribution center, a purpose served by **e-fulfillment centers** (EFC). - **Locations**. The locational choice of e-retailers is much more flexible, permitting the use of lower-cost locations that would not have been considered otherwise suitable for retail. Large e-retailers can maintain a [network of distribution centers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4545) to optimize their market coverage and service regional markets. The importance of a location is based on its accessibility to a distribution system as opposed to direct accessibility to consumers for standard retail. - **Purchasing**. Customers are virtually interfacing with a store (a platform), and the orders are shipped through parcel services, which take care of home deliveries. Figuratively, the customers are directly linked to the supply chain since their product orders interact directly with the distribution center. - **Deliveries**. The deliveries are now the responsibility of the e-retailer (B2C deliveries), a move away from standard retailing where the customer took charge of the goods as soon as they were purchased. To do so, parcel delivery services must be used. The above underlines the intensiveness of distribution-based consumption that relies on well-coordinated logistics tasks related to procurement, inventory management, order processing, and deliveries. The **backend operations** of inventory storage rely on high throughput systems, many partially or fully automated. **Frontend operations** are related to order processing and retrieval as fast-paced as well and must consider temporal demand fluctuations, as well as the available delivery capacity. Delivery options such as home delivery or deliveries to a delivery point such as a locker bank require accurate tracking for coordination along the delivery chain. Due to the time delay of home deliveries, as opposed to the immediate access in stores, there is a range of goods that are less suitable for e-commerce. Groceries and pharmaceuticals have a lower e-commerce share than apparel, cosmetics, and electronics. To capture additional market share or new market segments, online retailers are trying to establish same-day or next-day deliveries by pre-positioning high-demand goods in urban logistics depots. Implementing more efficient logistics allows e-commerce to increase its market penetration to an extensive range of goods, a notable evolution from its initial focus on products such as books, software, recorded videos, and music. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-ecommerce/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-ecommerce/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-ecommerce/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/retail-logistics-ecommerce/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Logistics Goals and Operations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-goals-operations/) **Published:** November 27, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_goals_operations.png?resize=900%2C355&ssl=1 "Logistics Goals and Operations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistics Goals and OperationsLogistics aims at the fulfillment of four basic requirements: - **Order fulfillment**. It implies that the transaction between the supplier and the customer is satisfied with the specified product provided in the agreed quantity. - **Delivery fulfillment**. The order must also be delivered at the right location and time. Both involve the scheduling of transportation and freight distribution activities. - **Quality fulfillment**. The order must be provided intact (in good condition), implying that any damage must be avoided during transport and delivery. This is particularly important for fragile, perishable products or those sensitive to temperature fluctuations. - **Cost fulfillment**. The final costs of the order, including manufacturing and distribution costs, must be competitive. Otherwise, other options will be considered. All operations related to logistics aim to ensure that demand is satisfied (fulfilling goals), irrespective if it is a part made available to a manufacturer or a good present on a store shelf. There are three major categories of logistics operations: - **Purchase orders processing**. Operations related to the transactional procurement of goods. - **Inventory management**. Operations related to the physical procurement of goods. - **Transportation**. Operations related to the physical distribution of goods. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-goals-operations/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-goals-operations/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-goals-operations/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-goals-operations/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Value Chain and its Added Value](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chains-added-value/) **Published:** November 26, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_chain_added_value-1.png?resize=900%2C418&ssl=1 "Commodity Chains and Added Value | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Commodity Chains and Added Value*Source: Adapted from the Stan Shih “Smile Curve” concept.* The setting of global value chains and their related commodity flows has led to the growing importance of the **concept** (activities behind creating a good) and **logistics** (activities making goods available on markets) segments. This leads to new forms of competition as different value chain segments require additional capabilities. Therefore, a value chain offers three main dimensions over which competition may take place: - **Competition over concepts**. In a global production and consumption market, R&D (1), branding, and design (creating a product; 2) can be a component of competitiveness and added value. This requires specific scientific, technical, and design (aesthetical) capabilities. Last, the procurement (3) of all the components and processes required to fabricate a good must be set. These are also known as pre-fabrication services. - **Competition over processes**. The manufacturing function (or fabrication; 4) of many corporations has been hollowed out by globalization, in which manufacturing accounts for one of the functions with the least added value, particularly if it takes place within an outsourcing and offshoring framework. They enable lower conventional input costs such as labor and raw materials. The entry of low-cost manufacturers led to a high level of competitiveness in fabrication, reducing profit margins, as well as its overall contribution to added value. Still, fabrication remains functionally the most important process within a value chain and is influenced by production and [location factors](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1526). - **Competition over markets**. The growing complexity of products and market imperatives have reinforced the importance of the logistics segment (making a specified product available in markets). It includes distribution (5), marketing (6), and sales / after-sales services (such as customer support; 7), activities that generate significant added value. This is also known as post-fabrication services. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chains-added-value/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chains-added-value/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chains-added-value/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chains-added-value/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Value Chain](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/sequences-value-chain/) **Published:** November 26, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/value_chain2.png?resize=900%2C448&ssl=1 "The Value Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Value ChainValue chains (also known as commodity chains) are a series of stages conditioned by the location and availability of raw materials, production costs, and the location of main consumption markets. This sequence allows for the provision of goods to markets. Value chains are also integrated by a **transport chain** routing raw materials, parts, and finished goods from extraction and transformation sites to markets and correspond to the unique geography of flows. Three major stages can be considered within a value chain: - **First Stage** (Raw materials). The availability of raw materials often imposes sourcing at the international level, a process that has accelerated with globalization. It dominantly concerns the [procurement of commodities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4360) that are stored in large stockpiles. The flows occurring at this stage are mainly supported by international transportation systems relying on bulk shipping, such as bulk carriers and tankers. Distribution involves high volumes (economies of scale) and low frequency. The containerization of several commodity markets is also impacting this system. - **Second Stage** (Manufacturing and assembly). Mainly concerns intermediate goods. Globalization has shown impressive flexibility in the sourcing of manufacturing tasks. The output of this stage is commonly stored in warehouses either near the place of production or close to customers. It will be delivered upon the specific synchronism of the concerned value chain. Flows are containerized or on pallets (unit shipping), with average volumes and rather high frequencies, notably for value chains relying on timely deliveries. - **Third Stage** (Distribution). Final goods are mainly distributed on the national market, although globally oriented distribution implies that a national market is serviced from a major gateway. Depending on the distribution scale (international, national, or regional), flows can be coordinated by distribution centers having each their [own market areas](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4545). Flows are actively managed, often in low volumes (less than truckload; LTL), but with a high frequency since they are related to retailing. Since the final consumption markets are in urban areas, a fair amount of distribution involves [city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/sequences-value-chain/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/sequences-value-chain/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/sequences-value-chain/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/sequences-value-chain/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Four Industrial Revolutions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/four-industrial-revolutions/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fourth_industrial_revolution.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "The Four Industrial Revolutions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Four Industrial RevolutionsThe current global manufacturing landscape results from successive innovation and economic development waves, including their geographical accumulation. Although the industrial revolution is often considered a single ongoing event that began in the late 18th century, it can be better understood as four sequential paradigm shifts or four industrial revolutions. Each revolution was built upon the innovations of the prior revolution and led to more advanced forms of manufacturing and more complex networks of commercial relations. - The **first industrial revolution** in the late 18th and early 19th centuries focused on the benefits of **mechanization**, where for the first time, some animal or human labor could be substituted by mechanical labor. The new machines required a large amount of labor and energy to be operated as this expanded the scale of outputs, with the majority of labor tasks performed manually. New manufacturing activities emerged, creating industrial cities of various functions and specializations (steel, textiles, tools, etc.). These cities tended to be located close to sources of energy such as coal fields and waterfalls or at locations well connected to the regional transportation network. Mechanization enabled the first industrial nations to accelerate their development, which led to a growing divergence between industrializing and non-industrial economies. - The **second industrial revolution** in the late 19th and early 20th century relied on applying the principle of **mass production** along assembly lines, which scaled up manufacturing output with higher coordination between labor, tasks, processes, and machines. This further increased specialization and interdependence in manufacturing, which led to the setting of industrial regions (or manufacturing belts). Electrification also played a significant role in supporting the emergence of modern telecommunication systems such as telegraphs, radios, telephones, and, later on, televisions. The development of massified forms of long-distance transport, such as rail and steamships, further enabled the expansion of the market reach of manufacturing. - The third industrial revolution that took place in the latter part of the 20th century benefited from the ongoing **automation** of several manufacturing processes, using machines that are able to repeat a series of tasks under relatively well-defined parameters and minimal supervision. It also relied on the development of information technologies, initially with the digital computer, and then with its convergence with information technologies by the end of the 20th century. This led to the formation of the Internet. At the same time, globalization (as an outcome of trade liberalization and lower transport costs, in part brought by containerization) enabled the minimization of input costs, particularly related to labor, and thus a new manufacturing landscape. This led to a paradoxical outcome as lower-cost labor in developing economies became a suitable alternative to mechanization. Since labor costs are not ubiquitous, this incited the setting of global production networks where manufacturing activities tried to minimize input costs. At the same time, logistics and transportation enabled the spatial differentiation of production and consumption. This process disrupted the existing manufacturing landscape, including the closure of manufacturing facilities in many advanced economies. Many developing economies, particularly in East Asia, started to quickly catch up with the level of economic development of advanced economies. - The **fourth industrial revolution** is unfolding and is mostly based on **robotization** (with supporting IT structures forming cyber-physical systems), which confers a higher level of flexibility in terms of the locations, the manufacturing processes, the scale and scope of the output, and the customization of the products. Robotization goes beyond mechanization by enabling machines to perform more complex tasks and being able to adapt to a redefinition of these tasks. Machines are therefore getting similar to the flexibility of human labor. They involve more than simple and repetitive tasks but increasingly average skilled and routine tasks. In such of context, the importance of input costs, particularly labor, is rebalanced since labor can be considered close to ubiquitous for manufacturing relying on robotization. The focus, therefore, shifts to global value chains, which are a circular process of gathering resources, transforming them into parts and products, distributing finished goods to markets, and finally making these resources available again through various recycling and reuse strategies. Manufacturing and supply chain management become closely embedded. Manufacturing is often considered a separate activity from distribution since most manufacturing activities are trying to **minimize input costs** (e.g. labor) while distribution activities are trying to **maximize market accessibility**. This is particularly the case for distribution activities related to finished goods. However, globalization, particularly the resulting international division of production, has reinforced the importance of distribution capabilities to support the geographical and functional complexity of value chains. Since a growing aspect of manufacturing becomes less dependent on basic inputs costs such as labor and land (as a total share of added value), the flexibility of manufacturing is more related to accessing suppliers and customers. Under such circumstances, areas with access to global and regional distribution systems accumulated an important advantage (or component) in the fourth industrial revolution. Flexibility relies on the concept of flow, and logistics zones (freight distribution clusters) are expected to assume a growing share of manufacturing. Further to the pressure of robotization on employment, there is likely to be pressure on profits since it would increase the supply of goods and reduce production costs. This favors the emergence of a new manufacturing landscape where production and distribution capabilities are closely embedded. Since logistics is a transport-related activity, logistics zones near large terminal facilities such as ports, airports, and intermodal rail yards offer an attractive proposition for the emerging manufacturing landscape of the fourth industrial revolution. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/four-industrial-revolutions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/four-industrial-revolutions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/four-industrial-revolutions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/four-industrial-revolutions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Share of World Goods Exports, Leading Exporters, 1950-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/leading-exporters/) **Published:** November 26, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/world_goods_exports_lead.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of World Goods Exports, Leading Exporters, 1950-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of World Goods Exports Leading Exporters 1950 2022*Source: WTO.* While the contribution of leading traders to global exports can fluctuate in time, the share of the leading exporters (United States, Japan, Germany, and China) remains relatively stable, around 32% of global exports. The relative decline of American exports has been an enduring trend, losing its status as the world’s largest exporter in 2003 to Germany and China in 2009. The post-World War II recovery of Germany (West Germany until 1991) was rapid, and by the 1970s, Germany achieved a share of global exports on par with the United States. Since then, this share has remained on par. Japan’s post-World War II recovery was similar to Germany’s and leaned on exports, with cars becoming an important component of its international trade. From a slower start, Japan’s share substantially improved up to the mid-1980s as the country reached a share similar to the United States and Germany. However, this share declined afterward, the outcome of the offshoring of its manufacturing activities and a decline in its competitiveness. From the 1990s, many American, Japanese, Korean, and European corporations started to relocate manufacturing facilities to China. Coupled with the opening of China to international trade through economic reforms, its share of exports surged in the 2000s. Still, a share of Chinese exports is embedded within supply chains in part controlled by foreign interests. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/leading-exporters/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/leading-exporters/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/leading-exporters/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/leading-exporters/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Oil Transited at Major Strategic Locations, 2016](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/oil-transit-strategic-locations/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/oil_transited_strategic_locations.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Oil Transited at Major Strategic Locations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Oil Transited at Major Strategic Locations 2016*Source: Energy Information Administration, World Oil Transit Chokepoints.* The geostrategy of maritime petroleum circulation is mainly composed of major chokepoints, with two of extremely high importance; Hormuz and Malacca. Hormuz represents the most important strategic passage in the world, solely because of its access to the oil fields of the Middle East through the Persian Gulf. At the same time, Malacca is an active commercial point of transit between the Indian and Pacific oceans. From the Persian Gulf, two major axis of oil circulation service Western Europe, the United States (westbound), and Pacific Asia (eastbound). As the eastbound and westbound pressure on oil circulation increases, so does the need to maintain the integrity of the strategic passages supporting its trade. This is particularly the case for China, as its oil imports are transiting through the Strait of Hormuz, Malacca, and the South China Sea. A significant amount of oil is also transit through the Danish Straits (e.g. Oresund) as well as Bosporus. In both cases, flows are mainly related to Russian oil exports. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/oil-transit-strategic-locations/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/oil-transit-strategic-locations/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/oil-transit-strategic-locations/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/oil-transit-strategic-locations/?share=reddit) - --- ### [International Trade, Transportation Chains and Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/trade-transport-chains-logistics/) **Published:** November 24, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/international_trade_transport_chains_logistics.png?resize=900%2C718&ssl=1 "International Trade, Transportation Chains and Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")International Trade Transportation Chains and Logistics*Source: Rodrigue, J-P (2012) “Supply Chain Management, Logistics Changes and the Concept of Friction”, in P.V. Hall and M. Hesse (eds) Cities, Regions and Flows, London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-68219-0.* International trade is based on the notion of exchange, which involves what is being traded, the partners involved as well as the transactional environment in which trade takes place, namely customs procedures (tariff and non-tariff barriers). International trade is seen as a **series of commercial transactions** between trade partners that tracks the value of what is being traded and the types of goods these transactions involve. Classification regimes, such as the [standard international trade classification](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4028), allow for well-defined trade categories to which customs rules can be applied. The extent of trade, either in value or volume, is an abstract expression of the quantity of goods being exchanged as they do not represent the actual physical flows supporting trade transactions. The physical realization of international trade requires a **transport chain**. It is a series of logistical activities that organize modes and terminals, such as railway, maritime, and road transportation systems, and thus the continuity along the supply chain through a set of stages, the [most common](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2551) being: - The first stage in the transport chain is **composition,** where loads are assembled at the origin, often on pallets and containers. Composition is an important process as it tries to achieve economies of scale over a transport chain by providing larger and easier to handle load units necessary for international trade. - The cargo being traded then moves along the transport chain using a transport mode, commonly rail or road, to reach a terminal where it is **transshipped** on an international transport mode (port or airport, depending on the nature of what is being transported). Additional economies of scale become possible as several load units can be consolidated into a single large shipment, such as a containership. - Once cargo enters another country through a **gateway** (point of entry), customs inspection takes place as the cargo is transshipped over the inland transport system. Customs procedures and delays are among the most constraining factors in global freight distribution. - The final stage of the transport chain, **decomposition** (the last mile), occurs in proximity to the final destination. Loads are broken down into units corresponding to effective demand, such as store orders. If the demand concerns retail goods, urban freight distribution strategies may be required. In the operational reality of modes and terminals, international trade is a series of **physical flows** that may not necessarily use the most direct path but the least cost path. Inland corridors where economies of scale are more effective shape the structure of freight flows and the selection of the port of exit. On the maritime side, transshipment hubs have become strategic intermediary locations helping consolidate maritime flows and connecting different maritime circulation systems. In such a setting, the container has become the fundamental element facilitating transfers between modes and supporting international trade flows. Distribution centers play an important role in physical flows since they can act as a buffer, helping reconcile the temporal and spatial requirements of demand. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/trade-transport-chains-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/trade-transport-chains-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/trade-transport-chains-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/trade-transport-chains-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chapter 7 - Trade, Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** Globalization, trade, and freight distribution are interrelated and concern a mobility scale that spans regions, nations, and often continents. This transnational mobility is subject to geopolitical considerations, such as who controls trade routes and what forms of competition and cooperation have emerged with expanded trade relations. Processes related to economic integration and the fragmentation of production systems due to outsourcing and offshoring are interdependent. They favored the setting of global commodity chains, from extracting raw materials, manufacturing, to final consumption. This requires an understanding of logistics and the growing level of integration between production, distribution, and consumption. --- ## Contents ### [7.1 – Transborder and Crossborder Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/transborder-crossborder-transportation/ "7.1 – Transborder and Crossborder Transportation") ### [7.2 – Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/ "7.2 – Globalization and International Trade") ### [7.3 – Freight Transportation and Value Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/ "7.3 – Freight Transportation and Value Chains") ### [7.4 – Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ "7.4 – Logistics and Freight Distribution") --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Impacts of COVID-19 on Airport Passenger and Freight Activity, 2019-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/covid-19-passenger-freight-activity/) **Published:** September 18, 2021 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/covid_airport_activity.png?resize=900%2C453&ssl=1 "Impacts of COVID-19 on Airport Passenger and Freight Activity, 2019-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of COVID 19 on Airport Passenger and Freight Activity 2019 2020*Source: Airport Council International. 15 largest airports by passenger and freight activity.* Disruptions often cause a divergence between more resilient and less resilient systems. The COVID-19 pandemic was associated with a 45% decline in traffic for the world’s largest airports, while it was around 65% across all airports. It forced a quick rationalization of air services, with the **largest airports retaining more connectivity than smaller airports**. While China, the origin of the pandemic, was the first to be impacted by large-scale shutdowns of its air travel system, the pandemic turned out to be less of an impact on European and North American air travel. While in 2019, 4 of the 15 largest passenger airports were Chinese, this figure climbed to 9 out of 15 in 2020. The international passenger travel segment was the most impacted, with a 2020 decline of 70% compared to 2019. Discretionary demand, particularly tourism, was deeply curtailed. **Air cargo was much less impacted** as volumes declined by 9% for the world’s airports but increased by 3% for the ten largest airports. Air cargo operations continued supporting essential supply chains as well as benefiting from the surge of online purchases. Major parcel hubs such as Memphis and Louisville saw ongoing growth, with Memphis surpassing Hong Kong, which has been, in recent years, the world’s largest air cargo hub. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/covid-19-passenger-freight-activity/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/covid-19-passenger-freight-activity/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/covid-19-passenger-freight-activity/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/covid-19-passenger-freight-activity/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/hubs-air-freight-integrators/) **Published:** July 14, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Air-Freight-Integrators.png?resize=900%2C437&ssl=1 "Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Air-Freight-Integrators.pdf) Three major air freight integrators account for the bulk of the global air cargo; DHL, FedEx, and UPS. Each integrator has a **hub-and-spoke organization** of its network, with hubs clustered around the world’s three major zones of economic activity; North America, Europe, and Pacific Asia. The choice of the primary consolidation hub is based upon an airport that is well located and has good infrastructure, but that does not necessarily serve a very large local passenger market. The integrator is thus the airport’s main customer and gets privileged access to the runways. Louisville, Kentucky, is the major UPS North American air hub, while Memphis, Tennessee, performs the same role for FedEx. There is a high concentration of hubs in the Eastern Part of the United States, which roughly corresponds to its demographic centroid. Other hubs in North America are regionally oriented (with Toronto and Hamilton servicing the Canadian market for FedEx and UPS, respectively), except Miami, which services Latin America, and the only airport with Hong Kong, where three integrators are using the facility as a hub. In Europe, DHL followed a strategy similar to its North American counterparts by selecting Leipzig, a smaller airport, as its main hub. Hubs have also been established at intermediate locations like Anchorage, Dubai, and Bahrain. Although their initial use was for refueling, they became logistical hubs in their own right. The growth of e-commerce is having a substantial impact on air cargo operations. Initially, main e-commerce firms became major customers for air freight integrators. Still, as they command larger volumes, they tend to take more control of their supply chain, including the air transport segment. The giant e-commerce firm Amazon founded Amazon Air (formerly Prime Air) in 2016 and established its main hub in Cincinnati. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/hubs-air-freight-integrators/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/hubs-air-freight-integrators/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/hubs-air-freight-integrators/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/hubs-air-freight-integrators/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Distance from CBD and Age of the World's Largest Airports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-distance-cbd/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_cbd_airports.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Distance from CBD and Age of the World's Largest Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Distance from CBD and Age of the Worlds Largest Airports*Note: Distance calculated as road distance.* Airports require a significant footprint to account for current and future operations. Some airports are now close to **one hundred years old**, and the older an airport is, the more likely it is to be located near the center of its metropolitan area. This relation is far from perfect because of the geographical differences in the spatial structure of metropolitan areas. Also, many older, close-in airports have been replaced by suburban facilities. An extreme example was the replacement of Stapleton Airport, just 8 kilometers from downtown Denver, by the new Denver International, located 37 kilometers away. Among the worst cases are Narita and Incheon airports, which respectively service Tokyo and Seoul, but are 66 and 69 kilometers away from the CBD. There were simply no other suitable sites closer. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-distance-cbd/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-distance-cbd/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-distance-cbd/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/airport-distance-cbd/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/types-rail-terminals/) **Published:** November 21, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_rail_terminals.png?resize=900%2C432&ssl=1 "Types of Rail Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Rail TerminalsRail terminals can be categorized by the passenger and freight **markets they serve**, with the **function of shunting** accounting for an intermediary form. Passenger and freight terminals can also be differentiated by their **locational setting**: - **Passengers terminals**. The intercity rail terminal, often taking the form of a central station, is the standard passenger terminal and a distinctive urban landmark since many have been present for decades and have helped define urban centrality. Commuter rail covers metropolitan areas with stations of a simpler design and function since waiting time is of short duration. Urban transit systems are also serviced by rail, namely subway and light rail, and depending on density levels, are shaping urban dynamics through their network structure. There is a whole hierarchy of rail stations depending on their size and the passenger traffic they handle, ranging from simple quay along a commuter line to large central stations that are the hub for intercity, commuter, and urban transit rail systems. A much more recent type of rail terminal involves high-speed rail stations, which have either required the adaptation of existing central stations to provide spurs connected to the high-speed rail network or the construction of new dedicated terminals in suburban areas that can act as new poles of urban development. The growth of air transportation has conferred new opportunities for rail, with the airport becoming a hub for intercity, commuter, and urban transit. Sometimes, a high-speed rail station is part of the airport terminal complex. - **Freight terminals**. For bulk, rail freight terminals tend to be [commodity-specific](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3651) with dedicated facilities for either loading or unloading (both activities rarely take place at the same terminal). Roll-on / roll-off terminals are even simpler since a [simple ramp](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3656) is required to load or unload the equipment, but a large amount of parking space is needed. Break-bulk rail terminals concern a wide variety of activities where the loading and unloading often take place at small privately owned facilities serviced by rail spurs. It is the [intermodal terminal](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3683) that has seen the most development with the setting of facilities handling international and domestic containers. The locational setting of rail freight terminals is usually centered along port terminals, fluvial terminals (less common), or inland locations providing accessibility to markets or resources. - **Shunting (switching) terminals**. While shunting yards are not necessarily a terminal since they do not handle passengers or cargo, they are a fundamental element of rail operations. The shunting of passenger rail cars is important but less frequent and often occurs at maintenance yards or yards near central stations (also known as coach yards). For freight, particularly non-intermodal cars, shunting is an important function to assemble, sort, and break down train units based on a variety of cargoes, origins, and destinations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/types-rail-terminals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/types-rail-terminals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/types-rail-terminals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/types-rail-terminals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Dimensions of Port Geography](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/main-port-dimensions/) **Published:** July 21, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/main_port_dimensions.png?resize=900%2C585&ssl=1 "The Main Port Dimensions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Dimensions of Port GeographyThe geography of seaports can be considered from four dimensions: - **Location**. The port site refers to its physical characteristics, such as a bay, access channels, and depth. The port location refers to the position of the port in relation to its hinterland and foreland, including major maritime shipping routes. A site is usually a static characteristic, while the situation can evolve according to commercial and trade developments. A port has a scale related to its size and the amount of traffic it handles, which is constrained by the site. - **Operations**. Handling traffic is the core function of a port, which has a defined capacity related to its infrastructures and storage. Some ports are more efficient than others in terms of their traffic turnover, such as how much time it takes to handle a specific amount of cargo. - **Governance**. Ports are managed and under the jurisdiction of an entity such as a port authority. Ownership is usually public, while operations are usually private. - **Function**. Ports can handle a wide variety of cargoes or can be specialized to handle only of few commodities, such as minerals and energy. Large ports tend to be polyfunctional, while smaller ports tend to be monofunctional. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/main-port-dimensions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/main-port-dimensions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/main-port-dimensions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/main-port-dimensions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Physical Separation between Modes and Passengers / Cargo at Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/physical-separation-terminals/) **Published:** November 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/physical_separation_modes_passengers_cargo.png?resize=900%2C627&ssl=1 "Physical Separation between Modes and Passengers / Cargo at Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Physical Separation between Modes and Passengers Cargo at TerminalsPassengers, cargo, and the modes carrying them are separated at terminals and interact through specific procedures and equipment. Due to technical and operational characteristics, the modal and non-modal components of a terminal have different footprints: - **Ports**. While docks and basins account for a good share of a port’s footprint, the storage function consumes the most space. This is particularly the case for container terminals with extensive land footprints for stacking purposes. The interface is commonly performed by crane equipment. - **Airports**. For airports, is it the airfield that has the most significant footprint, as extensive areas are required for runways and taxiing. Terminals and plane parking areas have a smaller footprint; in many cases, car parking areas can account for a large share of it. The interface is done through skybridges or boarding stairs for passengers or trolleys and ramps for cargo. - **Passenger rail terminals**. The passenger rail station can be substantial, with platforms accounting for over half the footprint. For smaller stations, this share can be even higher. - **Freight rail terminals**. Similar to ports, the storage function has the most significant footprint, particularly for intermodal terminals. The interface is commonly performed by crane equipment or side loaders. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/physical-separation-terminals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/physical-separation-terminals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/physical-separation-terminals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/physical-separation-terminals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Logistics Facilities Supporting E-commerce](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logstics-facilities-ecommerce/) **Published:** November 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_facilities_e_commerce.png?resize=900%2C438&ssl=1 "Logistics Facilities Supporting E-commerce | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistics Facilities Supporting E commerceThe growth of online retail sales incited the development of new logistics structures through functional specialization, particularly since e-commerce is based on parcel deliveries. This implies the setting of seven particular types of facilities, each addressing the freight distribution of parcels at a specific scale and scope. - **Inbound cross docks** are facilities usually located near major intermodal terminals such as ports and rail yards for the purpose of de-stuffing international containers containing imported goods. The inventory is stored until needed and sent to e-fulfillment facilities in full truckloads. The facilities are usually configured with bay doors on both sides and are functionally similar to transloading facilities but service exclusively e-fulfillment centers. - **E-fulfillment centers** are large facilities assembling individual online orders (half a million to one million square feet). Due to the high number of items that are held in inventory, such centers tend to have high rack storage. In recent years, many of these facilities have become partially or fully automated, with robots able to quickly retrieve orders from storage and place them into backs that will be used to assemble parcels (envelopes or boxes of different sizes). The mere size of these facilities and the number of delivery vehicles accessing them incite their setting in low land cost locations that remain accessible to highways. Since orders are shipped through parcel services, access to a major parcel hub is an important locational attribute. With a sufficient scale, an online retailer can specialize its fulfillment centers according to product category and size (if it fits in a parcel or not). - **Fast delivery hubs** are designed to service the growing requirements for fast deliveries, usually within 48 hours. To do so, these small to medium-sized facilities are located within large metropolitan areas and maintain an inventory of a limited number of high-demand items. The inventory is therefore pre-positioned ahead of the expected demand and made available immediately for delivery upon order. These facilities also include remote kitchens able to prepare and deliver meals on demand. - **Air hubs** are facilities adjacent (co-located) to airports designed to transfer parcels to and from air cargo services with regional fulfillment and sortation centers. These services are usually organized as a hub-and-spoke network linking major metropolitan areas to an intermediate hub. Major third-party logistics service providers such as FedEx, UPS, or DHL usually provide these air cargo services. Amazon Air is developing an air network as the giant online retailer generates volumes sufficient to justify investing in dedicated air cargo services. - **Parcel hubs and sortation centers** arrange shipments by their regional/local destinations and tend to be large-sized facilities (half a million square feet). They are designed to sort parcels bound to an area by smaller units, such as postal code, and also include sorting packages from different e-fulfillment centers. From the sortation center, parcels can be sent to local postal offices for last-mile delivery or to subcontracting delivery companies. Due to their sortation function, these facilities rely on the [cross-docking model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4453) where inbound flows arrive on one side and outbound flows on the other. Further, depending on the strategy of the online retailer, they call also act as e-fulfillment centers (parcel hubs), particularly for goods that are in high and regular demand. Like e-fulfillment centers, low land cost is an important locational attribute, but the facility is located to maximize accessibility to a regional distribution system. - **Parcel delivery centers (stations) and urban logistics depots** are medium-sized cross-docking facilities mostly to sort parcels to be placed on specific local delivery routes. Since the deliveries are mostly within an urban setting, the parcels are usually loaded into delivery vans or other specialized urban delivery vehicles (electric vans and even cargo bicycles). These facilities are usually in the immediate periphery of a metropolitan area, but several are in more central locations granting access to delivery areas. - **Pickup locations and local freight stations** are used when deliveries are not made directly to the customers’ residences. These small-scale facilities, located at accessible high-density locations, are serviced with urban-adapted vehicles. In most cases, a store-like facility is used, but an emerging trend has been the usage of freight stations composed of [locker banks](https://globalcitylogistics.org/?page_id=276) where customers can pick up their parcels by using a code (e.g. credit card, QR code). In standard e-commerce distribution chains, e-fulfillment facilities are usually owned by the online retailer while parcel hubs, sortation centers, and parcel delivery centers are usually owned by third-party logistics providers. However, consolidation (vertical integration) trends are emerging as large online retailers open their own sortation centers. Some are also getting involved in the transportation segment of their distribution with urban delivery vehicles and trailers to move cargo between e-fulfillment and sortation centers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logstics-facilities-ecommerce/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logstics-facilities-ecommerce/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logstics-facilities-ecommerce/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logstics-facilities-ecommerce/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chapter 6 - Transportation Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/) **Published:** October 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** All spatial flows, except for personal vehicular and pedestrian trips, involve movements between terminals. Transport modes require the assembly and distribution of their traffic for passengers and freight. Passengers must go to bus terminals and airports first to reach their final destinations, and freight must be consolidated at a port or rail yard before shipment. Terminals are essential links in transportation chains, with many representing substantial infrastructure and capital investments. This chapter aims to examine the spatial and functional characteristics of transport terminals. They occupy specific locations and exert a strong influence over their surroundings. At the same time, they perform specific economic functions and serve as clusters of specialized activities. --- ## Contents ### [6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/ "6.1 – The Function of Transport Terminals") ### [6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/transport-terminals-hinterlands/ "6.2 – Transport Terminals and Hinterlands") ### [6.3 – Port Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/ "6.3 – Port Terminals") ### [6.4 – Rail Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/ "6.4 – Rail Terminals") ### [6.5 – Airport Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/ "6.5 – Airport Terminals") --- ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Intermodal Transport Chain](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transport-chain/) **Published:** November 14, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/intermodal_transport_chain.png?resize=900%2C512&ssl=1 "Intermodal Transport Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Intermodal Transport ChainFour major functions define an intermodal transport chain: - **Composition**. The process of assembling and consolidating freight at a terminal offering an intermodal interface between a local/regional distribution system and a national/international distribution system. It is commonly referred to as the “first mile”. Ideally, freight loads coming from different suppliers can be assembled at distribution centers or intermodal terminals to be loaded into high-capacity modes such as rail and maritime shipping. Trucking is the dominant mode for such a process, as it offers flexibility and door-to-door services. Activities such as packaging and warehousing are also included in the composition process, which is closely linked with the **function of production**. - **Connection (transfer)**. Involves a consolidated modal flow, such as a freight train or a containership (or even fleets of trucks), between at least two terminals, which takes place over national or international freight distribution systems. The efficiency of a connection is mainly derived from economies of scale, such as rail doublestacking or post-Panamax containerships, coupled with an adequate frequency of service. - **Interchange**. The major intermodal function takes place at terminals whose purpose is to provide an efficient continuity within a transport chain. Those terminals are dominantly within the realm of national or international freight distribution systems, with ports (transshipment hubs) being the most notable example allowing for deepsea services to connect with regional feeder services or with other deepsea services. - **Decomposition**. Once a load of freight has reached a terminal close to its destination, it must be fragmented and transferred to the local/regional freight distribution system. Commonly referred to as the “last mile” and often represents one of the most difficult segments of distribution. This function, which is linked with the **function of consumption**, dominantly occurs within metropolitan areas and involves unique distribution problems, also known as urban logistics. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transport-chain/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transport-chain/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transport-chain/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/intermodal-transport-chain/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Rail Freight Traffic, 2018](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-freight/) **Published:** November 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Freight-Ton-km-1.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World Rail Freight Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Rail Freight Traffic 2018[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Freight-Ton-km.pdf) *Source: International Union of Railways.* The quantity of freight carried by rail is related to the **size and composition of the national economy**. Large countries imply longer national distances over which rail freight is carried, which results in more ton-km for an equivalent quantity of freight. Countries endowed with **natural resources** usually involve more rail tonnage. The United States, the Russian Federation, China, Canada, Australia, and South Africa are large countries with a substantial amount of natural resources being carried by their rail system. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-freight/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-freight/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-freight/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-freight/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Rail Passenger Traffic, 2017](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-passenger-traffic/) **Published:** August 12, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Passenger-km-1.png?resize=768%2C473&ssl=1 "World Rail Passenger Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Rail Passenger Traffic 2017*Source: International Union of Railways.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Rail-Passenger-km.pdf) Passenger rail transportation is particularly effective in **countries with multiple interconnected cities**, which is the case for India, China, and Japan. They account for the largest passenger rail use, with population density as the main driver. The Russian Federation has a much lower population density, but the extent of the territory and the lack of roads is the main driver of rail passenger-km. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-passenger-traffic/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-passenger-traffic/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-passenger-traffic/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/world-rail-passenger-traffic/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Interstate Highway System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/interstate-highway-system/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Interstate-System-1.png?resize=900%2C612&ssl=1 "The Interstate Highway System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Interstate Highway System[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Interstate-System-1.pdf) In 1919, a convoy of army trucks was sent on a journey across the United States, from Washington to San Francisco, to test the efficiency of the roadway system in case of an emergency. It took 62 days for the convoy to cross the nation, underlining the need for better road infrastructures. 1940 marked the opening of the first limited-access divided highway in the United States, the Pennsylvania Turnpike. Once completed, it had a total length of 360 miles and set design and construction standards for future highway developments. The origins of the Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, commonly known as the Interstate System, can be traced back to 1941 when President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed a National Interregional Highway Committee to evaluate the need and potential for a national highway system. A system of 33,900 miles of rural routes, plus an additional 5,000 miles of auxiliary urban routes, was recommended. Funding for the system was first authorized in 1952, but the construction of such a massive public and freely accessible infrastructure was beyond the means of the state and federal governments. The first highway segments were thus toll roads. Under President Eisenhower, the question of how to fund the Interstate System was resolved with the enactment of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, which also provided design standards for the system. Construction [proceeded rapidly](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1869), and by 1991 the system was considered officially completed. As of 2010, the Interstate system totaled more than 47,100 miles. Major Interstate routes are designated by one or two-digit numbers. Routes running north and south are assigned odd numbers, while east-west routes are assigned even numbers. For north-south routes, the lowest numbers begin in the west, while the lowest numbered east-west routes are in the south. Thus, Interstate Route 5 (I-5) runs along the West Coast, while I-10 lies along the Mexican border. Interstate I-95 runs along the East Coast, and Interstate I-94 runs parallel to the Canadian border. Several segments of the Interstate are toll roads, particularly in high-density corridors of circulation, and this excludes numerous toll bridges and tunnels in operation. About 8.5% of the Interstate system (3,959 miles) is either privatized or managed by state-sponsored trusts (e.g. Pennsylvania Turnpike, New York State Thruway). Most of these toll roads were built in the early 1950s by private or state initiatives and were then incorporated into the Interstate Highway System. The impacts of the Interstate Highway System on the American society (and on others who built comparable structures) were numerous and far-reaching: - **Mobile and motorized society**. The Interstate grew in conjunction with the rapid diffusion of the automobile in the 1950s and 1960s, multiplying the mobility of individuals. People were able to exchange greater distances for a similar amount of time spent traveling. This mobility gradually permeated ways of life, and for the first time in history, a large share of the population was able to privately travel over long distances. As such, the automobile and the Interstate quickly became the symbol of individuality, freedom, and opportunities. New activities spurred to service this motorized mobility. A wide range of “drive-in” and “drive-through” activities were created, such as shopping malls, restaurants (e.g. McDonald’s was one of the first restaurant chains to be built to specifically service motorized customers), movie theaters, and even vacationing (e.g. motor inns; road trips). - **Suburbanization**. Linking the Interstate with suburbanization must be done carefully since the system was designed to service inter-metropolitan transportation first. However, many Interstate highways bypassed or surrounded (ring roads) major metropolitan areas, giving the impetus to a new form of urban development. Road segments built to service interurban transportation became dominantly used for urban transportation. The emergence of suburbia represents a new landscape with its own economic, social and cultural identity. It illustrates a radical transformation from the traditional urban landscape characterized by collective property (multifamily dwellings) and public transportation. Suburbia is the epitome of private property where each individual was able to own his private “estate” (lot) as a single-family home. For many, suburbanization represented a liberation, since prior to the Interstate, most of the American population rented their housing, mainly as apartment buildings owned by a relatively small group of landlords (the classic movie “It’s a Wonderful Life” underlines this contradiction). Once the Interstate became firmly established, about 65-70% of Americans owned their residence, the largest share of private ownership in the world. This permitted a significant accumulation of wealth in the form of individually and privately owned equity; the pillar of America’s middle class. - **Corridors of circulation**. The Interstate favored the creation of large corridors of circulation linking metropolitan areas and permitting the emergence of urban regions, such as Boston-Washington (BosWash). About eight longitudinal and five latitudinal corridors have emerged in the United States, corresponding to the Interstate axis (e.g. I-5, I-15, I-40, I-55, I-70, I-95). More recently, several north-south “NAFTA” corridors have emerged as an axis of long-distance trade in North America, linking more effectively the Canadian and Mexican economies to the American market. - **National comparative advantages**. Although prior transport infrastructures, mainly railways, enabled to take advantage of the comparative advantages of the American economy, the Interstate permitted a multiplication of the regional advantages in terms of resources, labor, and markets. In its early stages of development in the 1960s, the Interstate was achieving a rate of return of 35% in terms of economic growth. By the 1990s, this rate had dropped to 10%. The movement of commodities, from raw materials to finished goods, became faster, much cheaper, and flexible (in terms of origin, destination, and scheduling). A whole range of industries emerged to take advantage of the mobility provided by the Interstate, particularly long-distance trucking. New manufacturing regions (e.g. California and several Southern States) emerged outside the traditional industrial belt (Midwest). Freight distribution became a wide-scale activity relying on distribution centers located at accessible (next to an Interstate) locations. This permitted to effectively (in real-time) supply vast consumption markets with a staggering variety of goods coming from all parts of the United States and the World. The big-box store (e.g. Walmart) would not exist in its current form without the Interstate. A significant caveat related to the Interstate concerns a society that came to rely heavily on the road to satisfy its mobility. The Interstate, for all its advantages and positive impacts, may have geared America on a path of dependency. Despite congestion and a growing reliance on imported oil, few other alternatives are available. Passenger rail, which was a dominant mode of interurban transportation half a century ago, has virtually disappeared. Its market share is taken away on one side by the convenience of the Interstate and on the other by air transportation. Passenger rail remains a significant and available alternative, particularly with high-speed rail systems in other parts of the world, such as Europe, Japan, and China. As the Interstate system ages (about 75% of the system is more than a quarter of a century old), requiring repairs (particularly the 55,000 bridges), the capacity of public agencies to finance them is seriously compromised. It is thus likely that more segments of the system will be privatized, in several cases, to foreign interests. For instance, in 2006, a Spanish-Australian conglomerate paid $3.8 billion to lease the Indiana Toll Road (157 miles of highway) for 75 years. An Australian company bought a 99-year lease on Virginia’s Pocahontas Parkway. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/interstate-highway-system/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/interstate-highway-system/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/interstate-highway-system/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/interstate-highway-system/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Length of the Interstate Highway System and of the Chinese Expressway System, 1959-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/highway-length-china-united-states/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lenght_interstate_chinese_expressway.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Length of the Interstate Highway System and of the Chinese Expressway System, 1959-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Length of the Interstate Highway System and of the Chinese Expressway System 1959 2021*Source: Federal Highway Administration & National Bureau of Statistics of China.* An overview of the growth of the American and Chinese highway systems underlines different growth sequences and rates. From its inception, the American Interstate highway system expanded substantially, but at a declining rate as it neared its planned size (46,000 miles; 74,000 km). By 1991, after more than three decades of construction, the system was considered completed, with a total cost of about 129 billion dollars. Between 1954 and 2001, 370 billion dollars were invested by the federal government in the construction and maintenance of the system. Close to three-quarters of the financing came from fuel taxes, which created a positive feedback loop as the more interstate roads were available, the more fuel consumption and tax collection. However, the Interstate faces diminishing returns due to high construction and maintenance costs, forcing many state governments to consider privatizing several highway segments. Construction costs went from four million dollars per mile in 1959 to 20 million dollars in 1979. Still, the system has returned more than six dollars in economic productivity for each dollar it costs, placing it at the core of American economic productivity gains in the second half of the 20th century. The Chinese expressway system was developed later but at a much faster rate. Before 1989, there were no highways in China, but as the economy opened up, developing a national expressways system was considered a priority. To facilitate the fast construction of the system, almost all expressways are toll roads financed by private companies under contract from provincial governments, commonly as public-private partnerships. The debt contracted for expressway construction is expected to be recovered through toll collection. China did not implement a national fuel tax road financing mechanism, unlike the United States. This mode of financing thus differs from the publicly funded highway systems built in Europe and North America. A significant landmark was achieved in 2011 when the length of the Chinese expressway system surpassed that of the American interstate system. The planned length of the expressway system was set at 85,000 km but was exceeded since the system surpassed 100,000 km in 2013 and 169,000 km in 2021. The construction of new expressways will likely slow down afterward, underlining that at this point, China will have achieved an important step in its motorization transition. It remains to be assessed in light of the significant urban population, rising national production and consumption levels, and the fast growth of car ownership to what extent the national expressway network will be sufficient to support China’s mobility needs. Further, rapid growth will incur high maintenance costs as the highway infrastructure ages. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/highway-length-china-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/highway-length-china-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/highway-length-china-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/highway-length-china-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Distribution of Freight Demand by Mode](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distribution-demand-mode/) **Published:** March 7, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distribution_freight_demand_mode.png?resize=900%2C727&ssl=1 "Distribution of Freight Demand by Mode | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Distribution of Freight Demand by Mode*Source: Adapted from Tioga Group (2004).* The selection of a transportation mode is the outcome of several factors, cost being important, but also the level of service, frequency, and the general value of time attributed to the cargo being transported. Thus, it is a general trade-off between cost and value of time, which illustrates the attractiveness of a specific mode in relation to others. The above graph represents the distribution of unit transport time across modes connecting two markets. All modal options are assumed to be available (air, truck, rail, and maritime). Trip time varies from short for air cargo to long for maritime shipping. Inversely, the value of time is high for air cargo and low for maritime shipping. Each mode has a range of unit transport costs for which it is considered competitive and services this transport volume. However, the cargo volumes associated with a specific value of time vary. For instance, the high unit transport costs of air cargo correspond to the fastest trip time, which is linked with low volumes of goods being serviced. On the opposite side of the spectrum, goods with a low value of time generate larger volumes serviced by maritime transportation and rail. Therefore, a range of market shares is associated with the value of time of freight, leading to a range of modal (and intermodal) options. Any change in the cost (or time) effectiveness of a transportation mode is expected to impact its modal share of the goods it carries. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distribution-demand-mode/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distribution-demand-mode/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distribution-demand-mode/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distribution-demand-mode/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Distance, Modal Choice and Transport Cost](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distance-modal-choice-transport-cost/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_modal_choice_transport_costs2.png?resize=900%2C513&ssl=1 "Distance, Modal Choice and Transport Cost | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Distance Modal Choice and Transport CostTransportation modes have **different cost functions** according to the serviced distance. Using a simple linear distance effect, road, rail, and maritime transport have C1, C2, and C3 cost functions. While road transport has a lower cost for short distances, it increases faster than rail and maritime costs. It becomes more profitable at a distance of D1 to use rail transport than road transport, while maritime transport becomes more advantageous from a distance of D2. These are referred to as break-even distances. Point D1 is generally located between 500 and 750 km from the departure point, while D2 is near 1,500 km. Although the above relation is rather straightforward, it does not fit reality well, mainly for the following reasons: - It assumes that modal options are **interchangeable**. For many origins and destinations, modal options such as rail or maritime may not be present and cannot be considered an option. Therefore, a modal option with a higher cost will be used. - Since rail and maritime transportation are discrete networks **only accessible through terminals**, most locations will involve a road transportation segment, which changes the cost structure. There are also regional differences impacting the break-even distance. For Europe, due to higher market densities, the break-even distance is in the range of 650 miles (1050 km), while in the [United States](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2735), it is around 750 miles (1,200 km). For the United States, only around 5% of the intermodal rail traffic concerns distances of less than 750 miles underlining the apparent dominance of trucking for such a service range. The average rail haul length is about 1,900 miles (3,050 km), with around 65% involving distances of more than 2,000 miles (3,200 km). Evidence from [passenger transport](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7330) also underlines a similar distance-based behavior. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distance-modal-choice-transport-cost/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distance-modal-choice-transport-cost/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distance-modal-choice-transport-cost/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/distance-modal-choice-transport-cost/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Freight Modal Options](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-modal-options/) **Published:** November 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_options_freight2.png?resize=768%2C561&ssl=1 "Main Freight Modal Options | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Freight Modal Options*Source: adapted from W.J. DeWitt. Freight Transport & Modes in Global Logistics & Supply Chains.* Several modal options are available to support the mobility of freight depending on what is being transported, the concerned distance, and modal availability. Freight modal options are more diversified than passengers considering the variety of cargoes, including raw materials, parts, finished goods, and food (perishable) products. Unlike passengers, different types of cargo often require different conveyances, which precludes uniformity. - **[Air](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1765)**. Air freight has seen a growth similar to that of passengers, which has been [significant](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2368). Air packages are generally carried in [unit load devices](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2396), on dedicated freight planes (freighters), or in the bellyhold of scheduled passenger flights. Heavy loads, such as vehicles, require specialized cargo planes and are commonly used by the military and for emergency deliveries. - **[Truck](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1756)**. Trucks are highly flexible vehicles that carry almost every type of cargo over short to medium distances. Package trucks are commonly used in urban freight distribution since they carry various cargo (in boxes or pallets), servicing a fluctuating demand. Less-than-truckload (LTL) carriers usually consolidate and deconsolidate loads coming from different customers, which is common in the parcel carrying business. Truckload (TL) transportation carries large volumes broken down into the largest possible truckload unit; several truckloads are required to fulfill orders. The variety of modal options is related to the technical requirements to carry specific cargoes such as bulk, liquids, or containers. Trucks using chassis are able to carry domestic (usually 53 feet in North America) and ISO containers (20 and 40 feet). - **[Rail](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1759)**. A unit train carries the same cargo between one origin and one destination, with several carload configurations possible depending on what is being carried. There can be unit trains for coal, grain, cars, or containers; they carry a single commodity. Trains can also be assembled with different carloads servicing different customers, origins, and destinations. However, this is more costly and time-consuming. Containerization significantly impacted rail transportation and spurred the development of intermodal rail services. The first concerns [trailers on flatcars](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2575) (TOFC), where a complete truckload is loaded on purposely designed flatcars (“[RoadRailers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3708)” are an adaptation of this principle). Such modal use has declined substantially. The second involves carrying [domestic containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2624) on well cars that are also designed to carry [ISO containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1960). Unit trains are common for the transport of containers between large gateways and inland centers. - **Maritime**. Through applying the principle of economies of scale, maritime shipping has developed specialized ships to carry breakbulk, dry bulk, liquids, vehicles (RoRo), and even [liquid natural gas](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2226). [Container shipping](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7320) has also become a dominant maritime modal option supporting commercial transactions with multiple origins, destinations, and cargo owners. The standard ISO containers of 20 and 40 feet are the main unit sizes, which have been adapted to carry refrigerated goods ([reefers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3515)) and even liquids ([tank containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2654)). Still, the dry maritime container is the most dominant container cargo unit. - **Inland / Coastal**. Inland (fluvial) or coastal maritime services are prevalent where major river systems are reaching deep inside a continent (e.g. Mississippi, Rhine/Danube, Changjiang, Amazon), where a country is an archipelago (e.g. Japan, Indonesia, Philippines) or with long coastlines (e.g. Northern Europe / Baltic, Mediterranean, American East, Gulf and West coasts). In some cases, river/sea ships have been designed to link fluvial ports separated by an oceanic mass, such as in Western Europe (e.g. Germany / England). Barges designed to carry specific commodities (e.g. grain or coal) can be towed along rivers or coasts. Containerization has also incited the design of specialized [container barges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2190) that carry containers between major coastal ports and inland destinations. - **Pipelines**. Represent a separate freight distribution system where liquids (particularly [oil](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1777)) and gases can be pumped over long distances. Pipelines can also be used to carry small quantities of freight, namely through pneumatic tubes (e.g. documents). A few systems using pneumatic tubes to collect wastes have also been implemented. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-modal-options/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-modal-options/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-modal-options/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/freight-modal-options/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Economic Impacts of Transportation Infrastructure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-economic-impacts/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_infrastructure_economic_impacts.png?resize=900%2C740&ssl=1 "Economic Impacts of Transportation Infrastructure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Economic Impacts of Transportation InfrastructureThe economic impacts of transportation infrastructure can be categorized as **core** (fundamental), **operational**, and **geographical**: - **Capacity (core)**. Improving intermodal (terminals) and modal capacity through infrastructure investments is a core strategy to promote economic opportunities. An economy has a greater capacity to move passengers and freight, which conveys [economies of scale](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1530) and higher economic output levels. - **Costs (core)**. Transport developments are commonly associated with lower unit transport costs, implying that mobility becomes more affordable. Alternatively, additional volumes can be carried at a similar cost. Overall, the share of transportation costs in the final costs of goods declines. - **Time (operational)**. The economic benefits of time improvements are multi-dimensional. First, passengers and freight will arrive at their destinations faster, which is convenient and has economic value. Second, time gains result in better inventory management levels and better utilization of transport assets (infrastructure, terminals, vehicles, containers, etc.). - **Reliability (operational)**. Commonly involves a higher probability that a passenger or cargo unit will reach its intended destination within a scheduled timeframe and without loss, spoilage, or damage (for cargo). Reliability enables economic systems to synchronize their activities better, which, like time benefits, enables better utilization of transport assets. - **Accessibility (geographical)**. The capability to access a wider market base is a common economic benefit for firms. Inputs such as raw materials, parts, energy, or labor become more readily available for an economy. At the same time, outputs such as finished goods have access to a wider market base. Greater accessibility to regional and global passenger markets also has economic impacts linked with commercial transactions and tourism. - **Location (geographical)**. An important impact of transportation concerns influencing the location of economic activities. Specific sites in proximity to modal or intermodal infrastructure are likely to generate higher value than less accessible sites. This is often referred to as the clustering effect. Thus, through [location decisions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1526) involving commercial, residential, or manufacturing activities, the economic landscape is modified. Improvements in one or more of these characteristics usually result in improvements in the competitiveness level of an area, such as a region. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-economic-impacts/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-economic-impacts/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-economic-impacts/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-economic-impacts/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Logistics Performance Index, 2023](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-performance-index/) **Published:** November 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-LPI-2023.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Logistics Performance Index, 2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistics Performance Index 2023*Source: adapted from World Bank, Logistics Performance Index. Memedovic, O., L. Ojala, J-P Rodrigue and T. Naula (2008) “Fuelling the Global Value Chains: What Role for Logistics Capabilities?”, International Journal of Technological Learning, Innovation and Development, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 353-374.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-LPI-2023.pdf) The development and provision of logistics services vary from country to country. In most developing economies, the market for these services is small, which can be a major deterrent for companies wishing to establish a market presence. Logistics performance is closely associated with economic development levels. It can be argued that logistics can be a more effective measure of development than standard measures of GDP per capita because it is reflective of concrete transport and commercial conditions. The World Bank developed the first worldwide **Logistics Performance Index** (LPI) in 2007 to assess better how respective countries rank in the managerial and physical effectiveness of their logistic. The LPI is a **composite index** based on proxy measures for transport and information infrastructure, supply chain management (SCM), and trade facilitation capabilities, which are calculated based on a world survey of international freight forwarders and express carriers. The LPI is based on six underlying factors of logistics performance: (1) efficiency of the clearance process by customs and other border agencies; (2) quality of transport and information technology infrastructure for logistics; (3) ease and affordability of arranging international shipments; (4) competence and quality of logistics services; (5) ability to track and trace international shipments; and (6) timeliness of shipments in reaching a destination. LPI values range from 1 (worst) to 5 (best) and show that building the capacity to connect firms, suppliers, and consumers, is a key in a context where predictability and reliability are becoming as important as costs in sourcing decisions. A value of less than 3.0 usually reflects an array of problems within a nation’s freight distribution system, causing undue delays and additional costs. For instance, a difference of one point lower in the LPI is related to two to four additional days of port hinterland access and a 25% higher physical inspection rate at customs. At the global level, some divergence of the LPI is observed. This implies more pronounced national differences in logistic performance. It is mostly the outcome of the unequal diffusion of transport infrastructures and services, a process favored by the growing presence of global freight carriers, such as maritime shipping companies, global terminal operators, air freight, and even third-party logistics providers. These providers structure their networks and allocate their assets to maximize their revenue. High-income economies lead in logistics performances, but many developing economies are showing gradual and continuous improvements. They benefit from economies of scale and scope, innovation, and technological change in logistics services. Still, reforms and investments in the logistics sector are difficult to implement even if supply chain performance is a readily acknowledged factor of economic development. The LPI is a **proxy for the involvement of each country in global value chains** and the friction of freight flows. According to the LPI, Germany, and Singapore rank among the top tier. Germany is a major manufacturer and exporter of high added-value goods, while Singapore is a major hub in global trade. At the other extreme are low-income economies, particularly those landlocked in Africa, Central Asia, and Latin America. There are significant differences among developing countries with similar incomes. Developing economies with higher involvement in international trade performed better than those with similar incomes but with lower participation in international trade. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-performance-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-performance-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-performance-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/logistics-performance-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Probability of Automation by Occupation Group, United States, 2018-2030](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/probability-automation-occupation-group-united-states/) **Published:** September 4, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/probability_automation_occupation.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Probability of Automation by Occupation Group, United States, 2018-2030 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Probability of Automation by Occupation Group United States 2018 2030*Source: Adapted from Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.* Technological innovations have historically been a positive factor in economic development as they create new economic opportunities and improvements in productivity. While many sources of employment were rendered obsolete by new technologies, employment opportunities were created in other economic sectors (such as services), which at the aggregate level implied more employment. This conventional relationship is being undermined by automation, which is taking place in a wide array of sectors that were beforehand less prone to disruptions by technological innovations, such as services. The probability of an occupation being automated can be inferred from its level of dependency on three factors of human expertise; perception and manipulation, creative intelligence, and social intelligence. These tasks are usually complex and difficult to automate, so occupations with a high reliance level are less likely to be automated. Manufacturing, transportation, and logistics employment are among the occupational groups with the highest probability for automation since many tasks are repetitive. For instance, truck drivers are a significant source of employment, but self-driving vehicles could curtail this employment in the coming years. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/probability-automation-occupation-group-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/probability-automation-occupation-group-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/probability-automation-occupation-group-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/probability-automation-occupation-group-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Strategies of Low-Cost Carriers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/low-cost-carriers/) **Published:** November 13, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/strategies_low_cost_carriers.png?resize=900%2C644&ssl=1 "Strategies of Low-Cost Carriers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Strategies of Low Cost Carriers*Source: adapted from Graham, B. and T. Vowles (2006) “Carriers within carriers: a strategic response to low-cost airline competition”, Transport Reviews, Vol. 26, pp. 105-126.* ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/low-cost-carriers/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/low-cost-carriers/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/low-cost-carriers/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/low-cost-carriers/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Environmental Costs Hierarchy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/environmental-costs-hierarchy/) **Published:** December 7, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/environmental_costs_hierarchy.png?resize=900%2C533&ssl=1 "Environmental Costs Hierarchy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Environmental Costs Hierarchy*Source: adapted from US Environmental Protection Agency (2000) The Lean and Green Supply Chain: A Practical Guide for Materials Managers and Supply Chain Managers to Reduce Costs and Improve Environmental Performance, Environmental Accounting Project, EPA 742-R-00-001.* To produce and make goods available on the market, a hierarchy of environmental costs is concerned, from internal costs that are easy to quantify to external costs that remain vague and complex to assess and even more to quantify. Although managers are keenly aware of the costs involved in managing supply chains, they commonly lack formal methodologies to assess them. This makes environmental accounting a challenging process far from being an exact science since it can be influenced by changing concerns, priorities, and even ideology. Still, this endeavor involves five cost categories: - **Internal costs** are well understood as they concern the inputs costs (materials, labor) related to what has been produced. Most firms have a good level of control over these costs as they directly disburse them. It usually involves an inventory of the processes related to operations, such as energy consumption, materials and other inputs used, and wastes discarded. - **Compliance costs** concern an array of expenses that do not contribute to the output but are related to the regulatory framework. Environmental issues, such as emission standards, are common and come with costs assumed by firms to ensure compliance. Compliance can also have some benefits, particularly if it implies subsidies, market access, lower levels of taxation, or lower insurance premiums. - **Contingent costs**. Depending on the sector of activity and the part of the supply chain, there is always a risk of accidents or hazardous materials releases. Although it can almost be certain that such an event will eventually happen, its moment and intensity remain only a probability. Contingent costs thus imply a form of risk management where a low level or a lack of compliance can be weighted in terms of the involved risks, such as being fined. - **Image and relationship costs**. A firm or a product that is perceived negatively from an environmental standpoint can incur significant costs in terms of lower sales, litigation and even market valuation. Public relations on environmental matters are a complex and commonly costly endeavor. If skillfully done, it can also positively impact better sales of products perceived as “environmentally friendly”. - **External costs** relate to an array of costs that are externalized, implying that they are assumed by society and not by the firm. Growth often results in a higher level of usage of transport infrastructures, more pollutant emissions, and a higher risk for accidents. All these costs are commonly assumed by the wider economy and can therefore be considered to be outside the firm. They are referred to as environmental externalities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/environmental-costs-hierarchy/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/environmental-costs-hierarchy/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/environmental-costs-hierarchy/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/environmental-costs-hierarchy/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Electric Vehicles Sales, 2010-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/global-electric-vehicles-sales/) **Published:** June 3, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_ev_sales.png?resize=880%2C412&ssl=1 "Global Electric Vehicles Sales, 2010-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Electric Vehicles Sales 2010 2021*Source: IEA.* Before 2010, electric vehicles were marginal products almost used as prototypes. From 2010 sales increased rapidly, with electric vehicles becoming mainstream to reach 10.2 million units in 2022, accounting for 14% of global sales. The exponential growth pattern may be indicative that a paradigm shift is underway. Electrification remains **highly focused** within China, Europe, and the United States as the supply of electric vehicles requires an electric distribution grid as well as sufficient electric generation capabilities. Each new electric vehicle represents an entirely new demand on the power grid as it is an equivalent shift from gasoline to electric demand. China represents the largest market share, with 57.8% of sales in 2022, an outcome of tax incentives and the exemption for electric vehicles from local vehicle sales quotas. Europe represents the second largest market with 25.4% of sales, but there are significant variations in market share. Electricity-rich Norway has the largest sales share in the world, with 72% of all new vehicle sales being electric. This figure is around 25% for Germany and 15% for France and the United Kingdom. Sales in Japan are very low, mainly attributed to its enduring electricity shortages in the aftermath of the Fukushima nuclear incident in 2011. Many advanced economies expect at least 50% market share of electric vehicles by 2030. Manufacturing electric vehicles remains a challenge in terms of the procurement of components, particularly batteries. Further, an electric vehicle consumes twice as many microchips as a regular car for its manufacturing. Thus, The market is more driven by supply than demand, making electric vehicles comparatively more expensive. Tesla (USA; 936,000 vehicles in 2021), VW (Germany; 763,000), and BYD (China; 598,000) are the world’s leading manufacturers. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/global-electric-vehicles-sales/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/global-electric-vehicles-sales/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/global-electric-vehicles-sales/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/global-electric-vehicles-sales/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Inventory in Transit at Freight Terminals](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/inventory-in-transit-freight-terminals/) **Published:** May 29, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/inventory_transit_freight_terminals.png?resize=900%2C493&ssl=1 "Inventory in Transit at Freight Terminals | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Inventory in Transit at Freight TerminalsSince freight terminals act as buffers between different systems of circulation, a notable amount of inventory can be found at terminals at any given time. Occasionally, the inventory remains for a short duration (a few days of dwell time for high turnover terminals). Still, terminals can perform a storage function for several weeks and longer for bulk cargo. Irrespective, the inventory is considered to be in transit, but stored at the terminal. Six major categories of inventory in transit can be considered according to the type of freight and load unit: - **Containers (stacked)**. Most container terminal facilities store containers as piles that are handled using specialized equipment such as reach stackers, straddle carriers, and gantries. This is particularly the case for ports where container yards act as a buffer between maritime and inland systems of circulation. It is possible for cargo owners to use container yards as a temporary warehouse, particularly if the terminal offers free or low-cost dwell time. - **Containers (chassis)**. Several rail terminal facilities and occasionally ports, store their container inventories on chassis. This allows for a quick drop-off and retrieval for drayage but has a much lower density than a stacked container yard. The advantage of chassis is that containers can be stored at a variety of facilities, including rail yards and distribution centers. - **Vehicles**. Trading vehicles, mostly internationally, requires a substantial terminal footprint as vehicles need to be parked as they are rolled on and rolled off from a vehicle carrier. On the import side, once the vehicle has been readied and, at times, customized, it can be delivered to dealerships directly by truck or through rail. - **Dry bulk**. Due to their ponderous nature, raw materials such as iron ore, coal, and fertilizers are stocked in piles adjacent to terminal facilities. This inventory can be traded and shipped to points of demand. - **Liquid bulk**. Similar to dry bulk, the storage of liquid bulk is ponderous and requires storage tanks for different products and grades (crude oil. chemicals, vegetable oils, fertilizers). - **Neo bulk**. Various types of cargo such as construction materials and project cargo (e.g. windmills), that need to be handled with specialized gears. While waiting to be sent to the point of use, terminal facilities can be used for storage, repair, and assembly. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/inventory-in-transit-freight-terminals/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/inventory-in-transit-freight-terminals/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/inventory-in-transit-freight-terminals/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/function-of-transport-terminals/inventory-in-transit-freight-terminals/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Environmental Vicious Circle of Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/environmental-vicious-circle-logistics/) **Published:** December 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vicious_circle_logistics.png?resize=900%2C717&ssl=1 "Environmental Vicious Circle of Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Environmental Vicious Circle of LogisticsAdded value, efficiency, and control are the main drivers of supply chain management. The search for added value enables capturing economic opportunities along the supply chain with activities related to consolidation, deconsolidation, transshipment, and transloading. Efficiency drives the improvement of cost and performance attributes of the supply chain through better modal and intermodal options. Control ensures reliability in terms of performance and costs along the supply chain through mergers and information technologies. The application of logistics involves a **paradigm** on freight distribution systems that results in two specific **externalities**: - The first externality relates to **spatial constraints**. The more physical distribution is efficient, the less production, distribution, and retailing activities are constrained by distance. This results in changes in the configuration of distribution networks and a higher level of space consumption by logistical activities. - The second externality relates to the **usage level of transportation**. A less spatially constrained supply chain involves more ton-km of freight transported, both in terms of the number of trips and the average haul length. This is associated with higher energy consumption levels and correspondingly with more emissions. The above paradigm relies on an externalization of costs where the full costs of the distribution system are not entirely assumed by the users. It also leads to a concentration, both spatial and functional, of logistical activities and their level of control. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/environmental-vicious-circle-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/environmental-vicious-circle-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/environmental-vicious-circle-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/environmental-vicious-circle-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Paradoxes of Green Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/paradoxes-green-logistics/) **Published:** May 28, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/paradoxes_green_logistics.png?resize=900%2C526&ssl=1 "The Paradoxes of Green Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Paradoxes of Green Logistics### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/paradoxes-green-logistics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/paradoxes-green-logistics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/paradoxes-green-logistics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/paradoxes-green-logistics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Material Flow Cycle](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/material-flows-cycle/) **Published:** December 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/material_flows_cycle.png?resize=900%2C531&ssl=1 "Material Flows Cycle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Material Flows Cycle*Source: adapted from USGS Fact Sheet FS-068-98, June 1998.* Supply chains are part of complex material flow cycles that start with extracting renewable and nonrenewable resources, becoming part of the resource supply system. Through a forward logistics process, these resources are transformed by the manufacturing sector to become final consumption goods. All forward logistics processes generate wastes and discards that enter the reverse logistics cycle. What can be recycled will reenter the resource supply cycle, while what remains will be put into a sink, most commonly a landfill. The [circular economy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-sustainability-decarbonization/circular-economy-supply-chains/ "The Circular Economy and Supply Chains") concept tries to establish sourcing, manufacturing, and distribution strategies that limit discarded goods and parts. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/material-flows-cycle/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/material-flows-cycle/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/material-flows-cycle/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/material-flows-cycle/?share=reddit) - --- ### [B.10 - Transportation and Blockchains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/) **Published:** July 14, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Blockchains, which are distributed electronic ledgers, can help support the transactional complexity of logistics and intermodal transportation. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. The Emergence of Blockchains](#1_The_Emergence_of_Blockchains) - [2. Value Creation Through Blockchains](#2_Value_Creation_Through_Blockchains) - [3. Blockchains and Intermodal Transportation](#3_Blockchains_and_Intermodal_Transportation) # 1. The Emergence of Blockchains The digitalization of transportation through the integration of information technologies into the processes of transport management and operations is well underway. While many aspects of introducing information technologies focused on issues such as vehicle performance and navigation, the transactional aspects remained mired in complex procedures, particularly when international transactions were concerned. Many attempts were made to improve transactional performance, such as Electronic Data Interchange, but remained partially effective in terms of reach and barriers to entry. Firms were able to digitize and automate several of the management processes, but transactions between firms and the increasing amount of information required for their successful conclusion remained a challenge. The emergence of blockchain technology in the 2010s provided a new impetus to address the growing transactional complexity of transportation, particularly as it concerns logistics. > A blockchain is a **distributed electronic ledger** shared across a network of servers that records transactions in cryptographic units that are called blocks in a permanent and verifiable manner. They are often referred as digital ledger technologies (DLT). Each block is a **unique digital object** which is stored on multiple servers (nodes) in a peer-to-peer network that verifies if each block copy matches its equivalent on all nodes. Once a record on a block has been changed, it is excessively difficult to alter. The [uses of blockchain technologies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11596) can fall into the general categories of record-keeping and facilitating transactions. This helps establish issues such as ownership and rights over any physical or information objects, such as a unit of currency, a ticket, a good, or an asset. It also includes the capability to use (or transfer) such an object in a secure fashion. The novelty of the blockchain is that because of its distributed nature, it does not require a central clearing house (e.g. a bank) to approve and record the transactions. Thus, intermediaries can be removed from the transactional system without compromising its integrity. The conventional concept of trust (compliance to expected norms) leaning on an intermediary can be bypassed since trust is embedded in the network. Blockchains can thus conceptually provide better support for: - The replacement of processes that tend to be slow and manual with automation. - The origin and characteristics of passengers and cargo (raw materials, parts, and final goods). - Information about passengers and cargoes to ensure a continuity of payments, insurance, and customs duties. - Information about the conditions of the passengers and cargo to ensure their integrity it terms of the mode and their locations in transit. - Information for regulatory authorities about the passengers and cargo, the actors involved (importer, exporter) and the carriers. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/core_principles_blockchains.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "The Core Principles of Digital Ledgers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/the-core-principles-of-blockchains/core_principles_blockchains/)The Core Principles of Blockchains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/blockchain_uses.png?resize=900%2C305&ssl=1 "Main Types of Blockchain Uses | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/main-types-of-blockchain-uses/blockchain_uses/)Main Types of Blockchain Uses[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/blockchains_value_creation.png?resize=900%2C336&ssl=1 "Blockchains and Value Creation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-value-creation/blockchains_value_creation/)Blockchains and Value Creation# 2. Value Creation Through Blockchains The main purpose of a Blockchain is to provide value to the domain of its application. The following elements help articulate its value proposition: - **Principles**. The [core principles of blockchains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10724) involve information blocks that are stored and encrypted on a distributed network. Smart contracts improve the flexibility of blockchain with the capability to automatically verify and execute predefined terms of a contract. - **Functions**. By its principles, a blockchain fulfills several functions related to the information stored in its distributed database. This information is verifiable, which means that data and transactions can be tracked. Further, the information cannot be changed without the approval of the involved stakeholders (immutability), all of which can see the information and the transactions (transparency or visibility). This means that ledgers can be public, where all the information is visible, or private with information is visible through permission among involved actors. - **Information use**. The main use of the information in blockchains is for transactions (sharing) that are able to take place because of the functions and principles identified earlier. This improves the visibility of the assets subject to transactions since both the users and the providers can see attributes such as quantity, price, and availability. Another important use is the ability to trace back all the transactions involved in a specific blockchain with an audit. - **Processes**. Contract management is one of the processes supported by blockchains since contracts are now visible, traceable and shareable among the involved parties while the information is immutable and verifiable. Smart contracts enable an automated resolution mechanism. This further enables better coordination of the supply and the demand, as well as the possibility of disintermediation as centralized information ‘clearinghouses’ is not necessary. - **Outcome**. Among the possible outcomes, it is expected that the efficiency (cost), effectiveness (reliability) and resilience (errors) of the processes supported by blockchains will improve. For the transportation sector, this value proposition is particularly important considering its asset intensiveness, the mobility of these assets and the intensity of transactions. # 3. Blockchains and Intermodal Transportation In spite of the [benefits of intermodalism](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2638), processing and managing international trade documents can account for up to 20% of the transportation costs and one-third of the transport time (e.g. waiting for documentation). Therefore, an important component in improving the efficiency of intermodal transportation resides in its transactional dimensions. It can be implemented in the transportation processes and the products being transported and transformed. In the first case, the focus is on [digital intermodalism](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8517), while in the second case, the focus is on [digital supply chains](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10651). Blockchains are particularly relevant to supply chains since they share many similarities. Supply chains are transaction-intensive entities where multiple actors and stakeholders are interacting where each physical flow is related to supporting information flows. They are organized as sequences where the integrity of the orders must be maintained, enabling supply chains to fulfill their function (right product, quantity, condition, location, and time). A similar issue applies to intermodal transportation since there are organized as sequences of modes and terminals. The **bill of lading** is a fundamental element to intermodal transportation since it involves the booking of carriers along a sequence of modes to carry freight (containers) on behalf of their customers. It is a key component of the integrity of an intermodal transport chain as it sets the responsibilities and liabilities of carriers and terminal operators (and other actors such as warehousing) for the cargoes under their care. Conventionally, bills of lading were transferred to different actors (manufacturers, shippers, insurers, banks, brokers, terminal operators) in paper format, a process subject to costs, delays, errors, and potential tampering. Electronic bills of lading have been introduced since the late 1980s to improve the situation but required a central repository managed by a trusted third party. Parties who wish to be involved in these transactions must be registered members. When a non-member is involved, an electronic bill of lading needs to be replaced by a paper bill of lading. The management of bill of ladings thus remained a cumbersome endeavor. Blockchain technology involves the integration of the bill of lading and the letter of credit into a continuous electronic chain of verifiable information and transactions. For the bill of lading, it enables a consistent document that cannot be effectively tampered with and can thus perform more effectively its legal function (a document of title, a contract of carriage, and a receipt for goods). For the letter of credit, blockchains enable the automatic settlement of contracts once stated terms have been met (right time, quantity, location, and condition) and depending on the Incoterms of the transaction. This is particularly relevant since many firms pay additional demurrage costs because containers exceed free dwell time at terminals due to delays in the issuance of documentation or proof of payment. Thus, electronic proof of delivery enables faster transactions and to reduce the cost of capital. Since a product is handled and transformed many times along a supply chain, traceability can become important to identify quality and integrity issues. This is particularly relevant to cold chain transportation of perishables such as fruits and vegetables, as well as pharmaceuticals. Large retailers such as Walmart are implementing blockchains in order to be able to quickly identify the contamination source of a tainted product and act accordingly, instead of discarding a whole product range. A similar potential applies to **insurance**, where a blockchain could contain cargo insurance validation and the liabilities related to the cargo type and the intermodal transport chain. Although Blockchains remain, at this point, a relatively experimental and unproven technology, it is part of a digitalization wave that is transforming the transportation sector, particularly through a more effective synchronization of its assets with the related information and transactions. Thus, the propensity of blockchains to by applied to segments of the transport sector is related to their transactional intensiveness. Blockchain technology is likely to be implemented in stages depending on the needs of the respective transportation sectors. The tracking of assets through the transport.chain such as containers, pallets, individual items, or passengers is an approach that is likely to be implemented first. Blockchain in Transport Alliance (BiTA). [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_chain_blockchains.png?resize=900%2C495&ssl=1 "Supply Chains and Blockchains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/supply-chains-and-blockchains/supply_chain_blockchains/)Supply Chains and Blockchains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/benefits_blockchains_supply_chains.png?resize=900%2C657&ssl=1 "Expected Benefits of Blockchains on Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/expected-benefits-of-blockchains-on-supply-chains/benefits_blockchains_supply_chains/)Expected Benefits of Blockchains on Supply Chains[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/letters_of_credit.png?resize=900%2C662&ssl=1 "Letters of Credit and Bills of Lading in Commercial Transactions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/letters-credit-bill-lading/letters_of_credit/)Letters of Credit and Bills of Lading in Commercial Transactions[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/incoterms2.png?resize=900%2C494&ssl=1 "Selected International Commercial Terms (Incoterms) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/incoterms-commercial/incoterms2/)Selected International Commercial Terms Incoterms--- ## Related Topics - [Information Technologies and Mobility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1685) - [Globalization and International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3919) - [Logistics and Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3928) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Share of Employed Females by Profession, United States, 2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/share-employed-females-profession-united-states/) **Published:** May 13, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/share_employed_transport.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Employed Females by Profession, United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of Employed Females by Profession United States 2022*Source: US Bureau of Labor Statistics.* Employment in the transport sector tends to have a lower female representation than the average. This is particularly the case for trucking and rail employment, where females account for less than 15% of the workforce. The composition of gender share in employment indicates substantial differences in preferences as employment leaning on interpersonal skills (e.g. education and health) has very high female representation. In contrast, employment involving operational skills over machinery (e.g. construction and mining) has a very low female representation. Accordingly, transport employment having a higher service composition, such as air transport, urban transit, and warehousing, have a higher level of female representation; close to one-third of the labor force. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/share-employed-females-profession-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/share-employed-females-profession-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/share-employed-females-profession-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/share-employed-females-profession-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Supply Chain Pressure Index and Major Supply Chain Disruptions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-supply-chain-pressure-index/) **Published:** August 4, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gscpi_federal_reserve.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Supply Chain Pressure Index and Major Supply Chain Disruptions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Supply Chain Pressure Index and Major Supply Chain Disruptions*Source: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Global Supply Chain Pressure Index (GSCPI).* Assessing the severity of a supply chain disruption is challenging. It can involve a wide range of events, such as raw materials price changes due to shortages, a disturbance in port operations due to a strike, or a natural disaster disrupting a manufacturing cluster. Most disruptions have a local effect, are barely noticed elsewhere, and affect a specific supply chain, while other events can have global ramifications. The Global Supply Chain Pressure Index (GSCPI) was developed by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and includes 27 monthly variables reflecting events within supply chains and transportation costs in the maritime and air cargo sectors. The index is normalized so that zero indicates an average value. Any deviation is related to a stress level, with the extent of the deviation indicative of the severity. Positive values represent how many standard deviations the index is above the average, implying that supply chains are under pressure. Negative values are shown when supply chains are functioning well and experiencing limited disruptions or pressure. In its normal state, the GSCPI is expected to be below zero. Some events, particularly the onset of a recession, such as the financial crisis of 2008-2009, can remove substantial pressure on supply chains as demand declines. Therefore, low values are not necessarily reflective of good economic prospects. Positive variations of the GSCPI are usually associated with goods and producer price inflation in major consumer markets in North America and Europe. The variability of the GSCPI can therefore be associated with specific inflationary events. For instance, the index surged in 2011 following the Sendai earthquake and resulting tsunami. Japanese car manufacturing and its exports to foreign markets were severely impacted. The same year, flooding around Bangkok, Thailand, disrupted global supply chains in the automotive and electronics sectors, particularly hard drives, leading to shortages among global computer manufacturers. The index rose again in 2018 and 2019 following [United States-China trade disputes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/us-china-tariffs/ "US-China Tariffs, 2018-2022"), inciting several large manufacturers and retailers to revise their manufacturing and procurement strategies, but mostly absorbing higher costs. The onset of the Covid-19 pandemic resulted in record-level disruptions as the event affected entire global supply chains. The GSCPI surged in early 2020 and fell back in the Autumn of the same year as China resumed its manufacturing in the second semester of 2020. A divergence emerged as the shipping and port industry could not cope with the surge across several trade lanes. An important driver was a shift in consumption patterns in key import markets, particularly in the United States and Europe. While consumers usually spend about 69% of their personal consumption expenditures on services, the pandemic resulted in a drop to around 65% by the second half of 2020, with the extra spending going on goods consumption, notably durable goods. This shift was substantial enough to put significant pressure on supply chains. By late 2020, increasing port congestion resulted in the GSCPI surging again, particularly for Los Angeles/Long Beach. This was aggravated by the blockage of the Suez Canal in March 2021. Container shipping rates along major trade routes surged four or five times above their long-term trend. By late 2021 and early 2022, the index was on the decline, but the War in Ukraine created additional disruptions, particularly in the energy and agricultural sectors. Then, the index resumed its downward trend as the prior significant inflationary cycle was having a dampening effect on the demand. By 2023, the index went negative to levels not seen since the financial crisis of 2008-09. Further, container shipping rates declined substantially with lessening demand. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-supply-chain-pressure-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-supply-chain-pressure-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-supply-chain-pressure-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/global-supply-chain-pressure-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Diffusion of Personal Computing Devices, 1977-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/personal-computing-devices/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/diffusion_personal_computing_devices.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Diffusion of Personal Computing Devices, 1977-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Diffusion of Personal Computing Devices 1977 2020*Source: Pre 2000 data compiled by H. Dediu and J. Reiner. Recent data from Gartner, Inc.* Personal computing devices, enabling users to execute customizable programs, became available in the late 1970s and mass-market products by the mid-1980s. By 2021, more than 341.1 million PC platform devices were being sold around the world, a decline from the 352.7 million units sold in 2012 (peak year). The diffusion of personal computing undertook three distinct phases: - **The setting of standards**. By the late 1970s, several different platforms using different standards and operating systems were being introduced. Interoperability was nearly nonexistent, implying that each platform required its own hardware and software. The main contenders were Apple (Apple II), Commodore (64 and Amiga), Atari (400/800), and Tandy (TRS-80). The introduction of the IBM PC in 1981 marked the downfall of competing standards with the adoption of the MSDOS operating system from which the PC platform would evolve. In 1984 MacOS, the first graphical user interface available for a home computer, would carve a niche on which the Macintosh platform would evolve. By the late 1980s, non-PC and MacOS devices had disappeared from the market. - **Performance, interface, and interconnectivity**. From 1985, the two prevailing platforms, with the PC dominating (selling 8 to 10 times more platforms than Macintosh), undertook a massive diffusion in the consumer and corporate markets. Performance in processing, memory, and storage capacity grew exponentially (Moore’s law) while costs declined. Graphical user interfaces became the standard (e.g. Windows), enabling users to operate complex applications quickly. By the late 1990s, the development of the Internet opened an entirely new range of services to personal computing devices, such as telecommunications (e.g. email), e-commerce, information access, and entertainment. Portable computing devices (laptops) also became widely available. - **Mobile computing**. By 2005, cellular phones, which emerged as mass-market products in the mid-1990s, saw their integration with features that were previously only available to desktop and laptop computers or specialized devices such as digital cameras or global positioning system receivers. The cellular phone evolved from being solely a telecommunication device (with basic features such as an address book, a clock, and a calendar) to a true mobile personal computing device offering a wide range of customizable features (apps). Symbian (Nokia), Blackberry, iPhone, and Android were the most salient platforms. Their massive diffusion was helped by the ubiquity of wireless networks in developed and developing countries alike. Similar to what happened in the early stages of commercial computing, two mobile telephone platforms dominated (Android and iPhone), while Symbian and Blackberry were discontinued as platforms in 2014 and 2015, respectively. In 2013, Android device sales exceeded 1 billion units, making this platform the most dominant personal computing device in the world. With the introduction of the iPad in 2010, tablet personal portable computing devices became available, which created new niches (e.g. ebooks) that are more complementing than competing with conventional personal computing devices such as the PC. The latter reached peak market diffusion with sales stabilizing and new competitors introducing tablet products. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/personal-computing-devices/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/personal-computing-devices/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/personal-computing-devices/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/personal-computing-devices/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Container Identification System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-identification-system/) **Published:** November 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/container_identification_system2.png?resize=900%2C494&ssl=1 "Container Identification System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Container Identification SystemThe container identification system is an ISO standard (ISO 6346) composed of a sequence of letters and numbers. In the above photo, this identification is displayed on the top right part of the container: - **Owner code**. Consisting of three capital letters that identify the owner of the container. An international agency (Bureau International des Containers et du Transport Intermodal) issues owner codes on behalf of ISO so that no single code is assigned to more than one owner. In the above case, the container belongs to the American company Textainer, the world’s largest container leasing company with a fleet of 3.5 million units. For the purpose of brand identity, shipping, and container leasing companies usually advertise their logo on the container, which is often painted with distinct colors. - **Product group code**. Appears right after the owner code and consists of one capital letter, either **U**, **J**, or **Z**; U refers to a container, J refers to equipment that can be attached to a container, such as a power unit, and Z refers to a trailer or chassis used to carry a container. Therefore, each mobile intermodal equipment has its own identification code. - **Registration Number (or Serial Number)**. A sequence of 6 digits where each container belonging to an owner has a unique value. Therefore, each owner code can have up to 1 million containers. - **Check digit**. This single digit is used to cross-verify if the identification sequence is accurate. By convention, it is boxed to ensure it is separated and stands out from the registration number. Since terminal gates handle a large number of containers, there is always a risk that the identification sequence was not correctly inputted. The standard procedure involves the sequence being remotely inputted by a video camera, with the operator entering the sequence manually into the information system. Increasingly, that sequence is inputted automatically through optical character recognition software. A numerical operation is performed on the container identification sequence (owner code, product group code, and registration number), which results in a single-digit number, which is then compared with the check digit. If they match, then the identification sequence is accurate (there is still a probability of error, but it is very low). - **Size and type code**. A sequence of 4 letters or digits commonly appears right under the container identification sequence. Its purpose is to provide information about the dimensions and the type of container; the first character is related to the length of the container, while the second character is relative to its height. In the above photo, the first two numbers 45 indicate that the container is a 40-footer (4; commonly the length of the container) of 9 feet 6 inches in height (5; high cube). The remaining two elements of the sequence (G1) indicate that it is a general-purpose container. The operational characteristics of the container are also commonly displayed. They include the maximum gross weight, which is the maximum weight the loaded container can have, which is commonly around 30 metric tons across container sizes. So a standard 40-foot container has the same maximum weight as a 40-foot high cube container, even if the high cube container weighs more. The container weight (Tare) is also provided, a number which should be between 4 to 10 metric tons. The payload is simply the gross minus the tare weight, which is the maximum weight that can be loaded into the container. Maximum cargo volume information is also provided since cargo carried by container tends to “cube out” before it “weights out”. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-identification-system/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-identification-system/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-identification-system/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-identification-system/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Carrying Capacity of Containers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-carrying-capacity/) **Published:** November 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/carrying_capacity_containers.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Carrying Capacity of Containers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Carrying Capacity of Containers*Note: Sequences such as 22G1 refer to [ISO container size and type codes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-iso-codes/ "Common ISO Container Size and Type Codes").* The initial container sizes were the 20-footer (22G1) and the 40-footer (42G1), dimensions that were agreed upon in the 1960s and became an ISO standard. Initially, the 20-footer was the most widely used container. However, as containerization became widely adopted in the 1990s, shippers switched to larger container sizes, notably the 40-foot container. Larger sizes confer economies of scale in loading, handling, and unloading, which are preferred for long-distance shipping as well as by customers shipping large batches of containerized commodities. The same ship capacity would take, in theory, twice as much time to load or unload if 20-footers were used instead of 40-footers. There is thus an evident rationale to use the largest container size possible. “Hi-cube” containers (45G1) have also been put in use since they do not require different handling equipment or road clearance. They are one foot higher (9’6″) than the standard 8’6″ height, and a 40-footer hi-cube container provides about 12% more carrying capacity than its standard counterpart. Most North American double-stack rail corridors can handle two stacked hi-cube containers, creating an additional multiplying effect in terms of total capacity per rail car. The 53-foot hi-cube container (P5G1), which is the maximum length permitted on the American Interstate highway system, is a load unit that would enable carrying even more low weight cargo (42% more volume than a 40-foot high cube container). However, it is not commonly used since it can only be stacked in the upper section of containerships and does not fit into their bellyhold designed to accommodate 40-foot containers. The European Union is trying to implement a new container labeled the European Intermodal Load Unit (EILU), which would have a length of 45 feet and a width of 8.5 feet (LEG1). The rationale behind this initiative is that it would allow two of the standard European pallets to be loaded in containers side by side as existing containers are based on North American pallet dimensions. While the new dimensions would still meet clearances for road and rail transport in Europe as well as abroad, the EILU is not being adopted internationally. Shipping lines have huge accumulated investments in current equipment, and new ships under construction are optimized for existing ISO container sizes. Because containers have a useful life of about 12 to 15 years, intermodal carriers are reluctant to adopt any new standard because of prior commitments in capital investment in modal and intermodal infrastructures. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-carrying-capacity/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-carrying-capacity/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-carrying-capacity/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/intermodal-transportation-containerization/container-carrying-capacity/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The p-Median Problem](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/p-median-problem/) **Published:** May 1, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/p_median_problem.png?resize=900%2C770&ssl=1 "The p-Median Problem | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The p Median ProblemThe standard p-median problem seeks to find an optimal location for a number of *p* facilities considering a distribution of demand points. On the above representation of an isometric landscape, the p-median problem can be considered by: - **Number of facilities**. The minimum is one facility (p=1). The higher the number of facilities, the less the average transport cost or distance a user travels to be serviced. - **Weighted or unweighted**. In an unweighted scenario, each demand point is of similar importance, while a weighted scenario considers that demand points can be of different importance. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/p-median-problem/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/p-median-problem/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/p-median-problem/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/p-median-problem/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Location-Allocation Principle](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/location-allocation-principle/) **Published:** April 30, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/location_allocation_principle.png?resize=900%2C771&ssl=1 "The Location-Allocation Principle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/location-allocation-principle/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/location-allocation-principle/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/location-allocation-principle/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/location-allocation-principle/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Weighted Median Location of Amazon Distribution Facilities, 2023](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/weighted-median-location-amazon-distribution-facilities/) **Published:** April 30, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Amazon-Density-and-Median-1.png?resize=880%2C541&ssl=1 "Weighted Median Location of Amazon Distribution Facilities, 2023 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Weighted Median Location of Amazon Distribution Facilities 2023The map depicts the location and square footage of all the distribution facilities operated by the online retailer Amazon in the United States. From these locations, the weighted median location was determined by the type of facility, which corresponds approximately to the demographic center of the United States. This implies that Amazon has allocated its distribution resources to cover the American market comprehensively. The inbound cross-docking facilities have a more western orientation due to the importance of transpacific container imports. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/weighted-median-location-amazon-distribution-facilities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/weighted-median-location-amazon-distribution-facilities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/weighted-median-location-amazon-distribution-facilities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/location-allocation-models/weighted-median-location-amazon-distribution-facilities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Implementation of an Environmental Management System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-environmental-management/the-implementation-of-an-environmental-management-system/) **Published:** January 30, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/implementation_ems.png?resize=900%2C522&ssl=1 "The Implementation of an Environmental Management System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Implementation of an Environmental Management System*Source: Adapted from European Union, EMAS III Standard.* The implementation of an environmental management system (EMS) within a transportation or logistics service provider requires several steps: - **Environmental review**. In this phase, the corporation reviews comprehensively the direct (what it can control) and indirect (what it does not control but can influence) environmental aspects of its operations. This can include the generation of air and water pollution as well as wastes resulting from its operations. The total material use in terms of resources, energy, and raw materials must be calculated since they are at the core of the environmental impacts. - **Environmental management system**. The information gathered in the environmental review serves as input to articulate the environmental requirements to abide by environmental policy. With these objectives, the planning and implementation of such a policy can be formulated, and the environmental goals set. This is undertaken to abide by the guidelines established by environmental standards, such as EMAS or ISO 14001. An internal audit will be performed to validate the environmental review and the proposed EMS. At this point, the EMS has been endorsed by the corporation. - **Environmental statement**. The corporation issues a comprehensive report underlining the environmental review and the proposed EMS to the certifying authority. Part of the environmental statement can also be issued to the public for promotional and relation purposes since it states goals and intended actions. - **Verification and validation**. The certifying agency undertakes a review of the environmental statement, including site visits and specific queries. Its main goal is to ensure the environmental statement meets the certification standards. - **Registration**. Compliance is officially recognized, and the corporation is issued a certificate, which is valid for all the authorities recognizing the certification (e.g. customs, environment). Based upon a pre-determined schedule, the corporation will be audited to ensure ongoing compliance and a potential review of its EMS. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-environmental-management/the-implementation-of-an-environmental-management-system/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-environmental-management/the-implementation-of-an-environmental-management-system/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-environmental-management/the-implementation-of-an-environmental-management-system/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-environmental-management/the-implementation-of-an-environmental-management-system/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Calculation of the Index of Dissimilarity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/dissimilarity-index-calculation/) **Published:** February 7, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/calculation_index_dissimilarity.png?resize=900%2C1049&ssl=1 "Calculation of the Index of Dissimilarity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Calculation of the Index of DissimilarityThis example considers 10 airports and their respective share of the total number of airports (X) and traffic (Y). In this case, traffic distribution is unequal, with the three largest airports accounting for 60% of the market. The largest airport accounts for 25% of the market, while the smallest accounts for only 2%. This distribution is fairly unequal, with an index of dissimilarity (ID; the sum of all differences from the line of perfect equality, X-Y) of 0.325. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/dissimilarity-index-calculation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/dissimilarity-index-calculation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/dissimilarity-index-calculation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/dissimilarity-index-calculation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World’s Largest Container Ports, Passenger Airports and Freight Airports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/gini-coefficient-container-airports/) **Published:** February 7, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Gini-Container-Ports-Airports-2018.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World’s Largest Container Ports, Passenger Airports and Freight Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds 50 Largest Container Ports Passenger Airports and Freight Airports*Sources: Airport Council International & Containerization International* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Gini_Container_Ports-Airports-1.pdf) The world’s 50 largest container ports and airport terminals have a concentration level in their distribution, with container ports having the highest level, as depicted on its Lorenz curve. The 10 largest terminals account for about 49.7% of the traffic handled by the world’s largest 50 container ports. Air passenger traffic has a much lower concentration level (the 10 largest airports handle 30.8% of the traffic of the world’s 50 largest airports), which is reflective of its widespread use as a mode of long-distance transportation. Geographical concentration is also significant, with most of the activity taking place around East Asia, Western Europe, and North America. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/gini-coefficient-container-airports/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/gini-coefficient-container-airports/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/gini-coefficient-container-airports/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/gini-coefficient-container-airports/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Lorenz Curve](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve/) **Published:** February 7, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/lorenz_curve2.png?resize=900%2C705&ssl=1 "The Lorenz Curve | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Lorenz CurveThe **Lorenz curve** is a graphical representation of the proportionality of a distribution; the cumulative percentage of the values. To construct a Lorenz curve, all the observations of a distribution must be ordered from the most important to the least important. Then, each observation is plotted according to their cumulative percentage of X and Y; X being the cumulative percentage of observations and Y being their cumulative importance. For instance, out of a distribution of 10 observations (N), the first observation would represent 10% of X and whatever percentage of Y it represents (this percentage must be the highest in the distribution). The second observation would cumulatively represent 20% of X (its 10% plus the 10% of the first observation) and its percentage of Y plus the percentage of Y of the first observation. The Lorenz curve is compared with the **perfect equality line**, a linear relationship that plots a distribution where each observation has an equal value in its shares of X and Y. For instance, if there is perfect equality in a distribution of 10 observations, the 5th observation would have a cumulative percentage of 50% for X and Y. The **perfect inequality line** represents a distribution where one observation has the total cumulative percentage of Y while the others have none. The Gini coefficient is defined graphically as a ratio of two surfaces involving the summation of all vertical deviations between the Lorenz curve and the perfect equality line (A) divided by the difference between the perfect equality and perfect inequality lines (A+B). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/gini-coefficient/lorenz-curve/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Huff's Law](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/huff-law-retail/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/huff_law.png?resize=900%2C522&ssl=1 "Huff's Law | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Huffs LawHuff’s retail model (1963) assumes that customers have a choice to patronize a location in view of other alternatives. Thus, a market area is expressed as a continuous probabilities line, unless there are no other alternative locations. The indifference point becomes the point of equal probability that a customer will patronize one location or another. In the above figure, a customer has a greater chance (0.71) to patronize location A at the midpoint than location B (0.29). The advantage of Huff’s retail model is that it leaves room for customer choice. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/huff-law-retail/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/huff-law-retail/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/huff-law-retail/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/huff-law-retail/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Reilly's Law](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/reilly-law-retail/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/reilly_law.png?resize=900%2C519&ssl=1 "Reillys' Law | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Reillys LawReilly’s law of retail gravitation (1931) aims to find a point of indifference between two locations, so that the trading area of each can be determined. This point is assumed to be a function of the distance between two locations pondered by their respective size (population often used for this purpose). A location can thus be more attractive than the other. In the above figure, two locations are 75 km apart. According to the Hotelling principle, the point of indifference should be halfway in between (37.5 km). However, since location A has a larger population (more weight), it is assumed to draw more customers. Under such circumstances, the point of indifference is 45.9 km away from location A. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/reilly-law-retail/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/reilly-law-retail/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/reilly-law-retail/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/reilly-law-retail/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Hotelling's Principle of Market Competition](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/hotelling-market-competition/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hotelling_principle_market.png?resize=900%2C508&ssl=1 "Hotelling's Principle of Market Competition | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Hotellings Principle of Market CompetitionHotelling was one of the first to introduce the principle of spatial competition (1929) by investigating how sellers would choose locations along a linear market. He assumed that the product was uniform so customers would buy from the most convenient location (nearest seller) and that the friction of distance was linear and isotropic. The total price for the customer is thus the market price plus the transport price (time or effort spent to go to the market). Under such circumstances, two competitors will select locations A and B for optimal market coverage. With P1 being the market price, the market boundary would be F1 (point of cost indifference) since on the right of F1, customers would get a lower price at location B instead of at location A and left of F1, customers would get a lower price at location A. If, for any reason, location A is able to lower the market price from P1 to P2, then its market area would expand at the expense of location B, from F1 to F2. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/hotelling-market-competition/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/hotelling-market-competition/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/hotelling-market-competition/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/hotelling-market-competition/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Supply, Demand and Equilibrium Price](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/supply-demand-equilibrium-price/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_demand_equilibrium.png?resize=900%2C630&ssl=1 "Supply, Demand and Equilibrium Price | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Supply Demand and Equilibrium PriceAccording to conventional economic theory market price is fixed by the following mechanism: - **Demand**. The **demand curve** D illustrates the variation of a demand Q in relation to the variation of a price P. This function is often characterized by an inversely proportional curve where demand drops when the price increases (and vice-versa). If the price of a good or service is too high (P1), the demand drops (Q1), while in the opposite situation (low price; P2), the demand grows (Q2). - **Supply**. The supply curve S illustrates a supply variation according to a variation of price P. This function is characterized by a directly proportional curve where supply increases as the price increases. Supply grows (Q1 to Q2) when the price increases (P1 to P2) since profits would be higher. - **Equilibrium Price**. The intersection of the demand curve D and the supply curve S represents the equilibrium price Pe where a quantity Qe of goods will be sold. Changes in the market regarding demand or supply (moving curves D or S to the left or the right) will change the equilibrium price. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/supply-demand-equilibrium-price/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/supply-demand-equilibrium-price/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/supply-demand-equilibrium-price/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/supply-demand-equilibrium-price/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Non-Isotropic Conditions and the Shape of Market Areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-area-non-isotropic-conditions/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/non_isotropic_shape_market_areas.png?resize=900%2C319&ssl=1 "Non-Isotropic Conditions and the Shape of Market Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Non Isotropic Conditions and the Shape of Market AreasUnder **isotropic conditions**, each market has the same polygonal evenly spaced area. This theoretical condition is rarely found in reality. The two most important **non-isotropic conditions** impacting the shape of market areas are differences in density (depicted here as concentric circles) and accessibility (depicted here as the presence of a road). The **modified market areas** are the possible outcome of non-isotropic conditions. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-area-non-isotropic-conditions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-area-non-isotropic-conditions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-area-non-isotropic-conditions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-area-non-isotropic-conditions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Optimal Shape of a Market Area](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/optimal-market-area-shape/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/optimal_market_area_shape.png?resize=900%2C614&ssl=1 "The Optimal Shape of a Market Area | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Optimal Shape of a Market AreaThe above example considers an **isotropic plain** with commercial activity having a range of 10 km. If the activity is alone (A), it will simply offer services to an area corresponding to its range, while the rest of the territory will not be serviced. The situation remains similar if a limited number of activities are present (B). However, the purpose of commercial activities is to service the entire demand, if possible, as any additional demand represents a market opportunity to be captured. This requires the whole territory to be serviced by a set of evenly spaced markets (in a territorial isotropy condition). However, solutions C and D are unacceptable since, in the first case, some areas are left non-serviced, and in the second case, ranges are overlapping. The optimal solution to this spatial coverage problem is developing hexagonal market areas (E), representing the optimal shape for market areas with full spatial coverage. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/optimal-market-area-shape/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/optimal-market-area-shape/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/optimal-market-area-shape/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/optimal-market-area-shape/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Market Profitability](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-profitability/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/market_profitability.png?resize=900%2C448&ssl=1 "Market Profitability | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Market ProfitabilityA market area has a range and a threshold that determine the **profitability of the economic activity that is generating it**. The threshold is the minimal market area an activity must have to stay in operation. It represents the spatial threshold of profitability where spatial attributes such as population density and income have an important influence in its assessment. The range is the effective market area of an activity from which it draws its customer base. On graph A, activity p will be profitable since its threshold is inferior to its range *R(A)*. On graph B, activity p is not profitable because its range is inferior to its threshold. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-profitability/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-profitability/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-profitability/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-profitability/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Market Size and Threshold](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-size-threshold/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/market_size_threshold.png?resize=900%2C525&ssl=1 "Market Size and Threshold | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Market Size and ThresholdThere is a direct relationship between market size and threshold, which impacts the geography of retail. Each urban center needs a threshold population that varies according to its size to support its activities. Large cities have an important threshold, so there may be few on a specific territory, while many small villages exist. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-size-threshold/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-size-threshold/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-size-threshold/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-size-threshold/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Market Threshold and Range](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-threshold-range/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/market_threshold_range2.png?resize=900%2C695&ssl=1 "Market Threshold and Range | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Market Threshold and RangeThe above figure considers a fairly uniform distribution of customers on an isotropic plain and a single market where goods and services may be purchased. If each customer is willing to purchase one unit per day and the market needs to sell 11 units per day to cover its costs (production or acquisition), then the market threshold would be the yellow circle of distance D(T) from the market. However, 29 customers per day, including customers 1 and 2, patronize the market, of which an extra 18 are beyond the threshold distance D(T). They contribute directly to the profitability of the market. The market range of all these customers is below distance D(R). Beyond this range, customers are unwilling to go to this market, such as customer 3. There are different thresholds according to the variety of products or services that can be offered on the market. A threshold may be as low as 250 people for a convenience store or as high as 150,000 people for a theater. If the demand falls below the threshold level, the activity will run at a loss and eventually fail. If the demand increases above the minimum, the activity will increase its profits, which may also lead to the entry of competitors. The frequency of use of goods or services is important in assessing the extent of the market threshold, which is often linked to income level. A movie theater needing 500 visitors per night will require a threshold population of around 150,000 if the average number of visits is one yearly. But, if the average number of visits is three per year, the population threshold drops to 50,000. The same population can support three movie theaters instead of one. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-threshold-range/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-threshold-range/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-threshold-range/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/market-area-analysis/market-threshold-range/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Supply Chain Analysis](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chain-analysis/) **Published:** February 2, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_chain_analysis2.png?resize=900%2C405&ssl=1 "Supply Chain Analysis | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Supply Chain AnalysisThe analysis of supply chains considers several factors: - **Stages**: There are [four functional stages](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4260) involving a wide variety of activities, from the production of commodities through the extraction of raw materials, the manufacturing and assembly of parts and finished goods, to their distribution to markets. - **Locations**. A primary freight supply and demand issue reveals comparative advantages, locational preferences, and market size. A supply chain is commonly organized as a sequence of locations, from the extraction of raw materials taking place in resource regions to the locations of final consumption, forming a [network](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4293). For complex products, a multitude of origins, intermediary stages, and destinations imply the setting of global supply chains—intermediary locations where activities such as warehousing take place also need to be considered. - **Distribution channels**. Supply chains are articulated through channels supported by logistical service providers interfacing with manufacturers and retailers. It also considers the nature and the level of control shipping companies have over the supply chains they use through agreements, mergers, and alliances. In many cases, distribution activities are subcontracted to third-party logistics service providers. Channels are regulated by national regulations and transnational agreements, including compliance with regulations and standards. - **Modes**. The nature of the transport chains is used to accommodate the supply chains in terms of modes, terminals, and freight forwarders. The goal is to improve the connectivity of the supply chain. - **Load units**. Considers how the material flows in the supply chain are circulating, often related to how fragile, perishable, or valuable a product is. While raw materials tend to be distributed using bulk shipping, intermediate goods are more reliant on container shipping, and city logistics is reliant on less than truckload shipments using vans. - **Cost function**. Evaluates the costs incurred for the activities taking place along the supply chain, such as procurement costs, manufacturing costs, distribution costs (e.g. inventory carrying), and retailing costs. The whole is commonly expressed as total logistics costs. - **Added value**. The consideration of which parts of the supply chain contribute the most to added value. This is an important strategic goal, as added value is linked with profit margins. The organization of supply chains thus seeks to increase added value through locational and organizational strategies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chain-analysis/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chain-analysis/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chain-analysis/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/commodity-chain-analysis/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Causes of Road Transportation Bottlenecks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/causes-road-transportation-bottlenecks/) **Published:** April 24, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/causes_road_transport_bottlenecks.png?resize=880%2C815&ssl=1 "Causes of Road Transportation Bottlenecks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Causes of Road Transportation BottlenecksBottlenecks are major impediments to the free flow of traffic and occur under specific circumstances, mostly when nearing capacity. Under such circumstances, a small bottleneck can have important consequences, leading to an accumulation of delays. Four major causes can be identified: - **Traffic interruption**. The most common cause includes traffic lights, stop signs, tolls, and railway crossings. When traffic lights are not well synchronized with the direction and flow of traffic, significant delays may occur while traffic accumulates in one direction. Tolls can also be a major bottleneck, especially in urban areas, as significant time can be spent waiting to pay if the fare is manually collected. The emergence of electronic toll systems has alleviated this issue. - **Lane reduction**. The merging required when the number of lanes is reduced can easily become a bottleneck, especially if the capacity in the segment becomes lower than the traffic in the previous segment. The unmet demand thus becomes traffic delays. - **Merging**. Although highways are designed to provide an uninterrupted flow of traffic, merging can cause bottlenecks as cars slow down and change lanes. This is notably the case at the intersection of two major highways, where a large amount of traffic shifts from one highway to another. - **Distraction**. This type of bottleneck is created by a psychological reaction of drivers to an unusual event that, although it does not directly influence the capacity, is distracting the traffic and causing a slowdown. This is often known as “rubbernecking”. Distractions can often be as trivial as a car that was pulled over by the police. Accidents on a highway often result in a bottleneck on the opposite lane as drivers slow down out of curiosity. Glare during sunrises and sunsets is also known to create bottlenecks over specific highway segments. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/causes-road-transportation-bottlenecks/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/causes-road-transportation-bottlenecks/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/causes-road-transportation-bottlenecks/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/causes-road-transportation-bottlenecks/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Critical Density and Critical Speed](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/critical-density-critical-speed/) **Published:** November 13, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/critical_density_critical_speed.png?resize=900%2C451&ssl=1 "Critical Density and Critical Speed | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Critical Density and Critical SpeedThe capacity of a road segment is commonly defined by the number of vehicles it can handle over a unit of time, such as 1,000 vehicles per hour per lane. This volume can only be achieved under specific (optimal) conditions of traffic speed and density: - **Critical Density (or optimal)**. The volume generally increases with traffic density, since there are more vehicles per unit of surface. However, the density reaches a critical level eventually, and congestion impacts volume negatively. This is around 1,800 to 2,400 vehicles per lane per hour. - **Critical Speed (or optimal)**. The volume generally increases with the speed of the traffic. There is, however, a speed at which the volume is optimal. On a regular highway, the optimal speed is around 90 km/hr, while other figures place it at around 70 km/hr. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/critical-density-critical-speed/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/critical-density-critical-speed/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/critical-density-critical-speed/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/critical-density-critical-speed/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Levels of Service for Road Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/levels-of-service-road-transportation/) **Published:** November 13, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/level_of_service_road2.png?resize=900%2C578&ssl=1 "Levels of Service for Road Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Levels of Service for Road Transportation*Source: Transportation Research Board (1994) Highway Capacity Manual, 3rd Edition. sf = free flow speed, v = volume, c = capacity, a = 0.15 and b=4.* There is a relationship between traffic speed, volume and density for a highway, and how these factors relate to Level of Service ratings. Traffic speed and flow on urban streets are determined primarily by intersection capacity, which is affected by traffic volumes on cross streets and left turn signal phases. As these tables indicate, traffic congestion is a non-linear function, meaning that a small reduction in urban-peak traffic volume can cause a proportionally larger reduction in delay. For example, a 5% reduction in traffic volumes on a congested highway (for example, from 2,000 to 1,900 vehicles per hour) may cause a 10-30% increase in average vehicle speeds (for example, increasing traffic speeds from 35 to 45 miles per hour). As a result, even relatively small changes in traffic volume or capacity on congested roads can provide relatively large reductions in traffic delays. LOSSpeed Range (mph)Flow Range (veh./hour/lane)Density Range (veh./mile)AOver 60Under 700Under 12B57-60700-1,10020-DecC54-571,100-1,55020-30D46-541,550-1,85030-42E30-461,850-2,00042-67FUnder 30Unstable67LOSABCDE4-lane Freeway7001,1001,5501,8502,0002-lane Highway2103756009001,4004-lane Highway7201,2001,6501,9402,200- **(A) Free Flow Traffic**. Users are practically unaffected by the presence of other vehicles on a road section. The choice of speed and the maneuverability are free. The level of comfort is excellent, as drivers need minimal attention. The volume-to-capacity ratio is usually below 0.2. - **(B) Steady Traffic**. The presence of other vehicles begins to affect the behavior of individual drivers. The choice of the speed is free, but the maneuverability has somewhat decreased. The comfort is excellent, as drivers simply need to keep an eye on nearby vehicles. - **(C) Steady Traffic but Limited**. The presence of other vehicles affects drivers. The choice of the speed is affected and maneuvering requires vigilance. The level of comfort decreases quickly at this level, because drivers have a growing impression of being caught between other vehicles. - **(D) Steady Traffic at High Density**. The speed and the maneuverability are severely reduced. Low level of comfort for drivers, as collisions with other vehicles, must constantly be avoided. A slight increase in the traffic risks causing some operational problems and saturating the network. - **(E) Traffic at Saturation**. Low but uniform speed. Maneuverability is possible only under constraint for another vehicle. Users are in a state of frustration. - **(F) Congestion**. Unstable speed with the formation of waiting lines at several points. Cycles of stop and departure with no apparent pattern because created by the behavior of other drivers. A high level of vigilance is required for the user with practically no comfort. At this level, the volume-to-capacity ratio exceeds 1, implying that the road segment is used above design capacity. The **rate of traffic service** is the maximal hourly rate that can cross a point or a road section according to road, traffic, and control conditions. Therefore, each road infrastructure has five traffic rates of service (level F is not used because unstable). Traffic reports also use color codes to illustrate traffic conditions, such as green (levels A and B), yellow (levels C and D), and red (levels E and F). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/levels-of-service-road-transportation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/levels-of-service-road-transportation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/levels-of-service-road-transportation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/levels-of-service-road-transportation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Continuous and Discontinuous Traffic](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/continuous-discontinuous-traffic/) **Published:** November 13, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/continuous_discontinuous_traffic.png?resize=900%2C571&ssl=1 "Continuous and Discontinuous Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Continuous and Discontinuous Traffic- **Continuous traffic routes**, mainly highways, secondary roads, and access ramps. On this system, traffic is uninterrupted, meaning that the traffic can flow at a regular speed. A vehicle can access this system only by free-flow merging in at specific access points (green circles). - **Discontinuous traffic routes**, such as streets with intersections (traffic lights and stop signs), transit systems (bus stops and metro stations), pedestrians, and bicycle paths. Traffic is interrupted at every intersection (blue circles). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/continuous-discontinuous-traffic/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/continuous-discontinuous-traffic/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/continuous-discontinuous-traffic/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-technical-economic-performance-indicators/continuous-discontinuous-traffic/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Heuristic Method for Cost Minimization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-cost-minimization/) **Published:** April 23, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/heuristic_cost_minimization.png?resize=900%2C475&ssl=1 "Heuristic Method for Cost Minimization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Heuristic Method for Cost MinimizationA category of traffic assignment problems seeks to find the lowest possible costs for a fixed amount of traffic. The above example illustrates the assignment of 35 units between locations A and F at a minimum cost. - Step 1. Identify all possible paths between locations with a transport demand (between A and F). Order these paths by their cost, from the lowest to the highest. - Step 2. Take the lowest cost path and assign all the traffic the link with the lowest capacity can support (A-B-E-F). Subtract this number from the capacity of every link on the path. This subtraction cannot be lower than the remaining capacity of each path link. - Step 3. Repeat by increasing the order of path cost until all the demand is assigned. If all the demand can not be assigned, the problem cannot be solved. - Step 4. Once all the demand has been assigned, calculate the total cost by multiplying the traffic on each link by its unit cost. In this case, the minimum cost to assign 35 units of traffic between A and F is 130, which is on average 3.7 per unit. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-cost-minimization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-cost-minimization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-cost-minimization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-cost-minimization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Heuristic Method for Traffic Maximization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-traffic-maximization/) **Published:** April 23, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/heuristic_traffic_maximization.png?resize=900%2C477&ssl=1 "Heuristic Method for Traffic Maximization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Heuristic Method for Traffic MaximizationAssigning the maximum possible amount of traffic between two locations (A and F) can be solved heuristically: - Step 1. Identify all possible paths between two locations. In the above example, there are 3 possible paths between A and F. - Step 2. Select a path and assign the maximum traffic that the link having the weakest capacity can support. In this case, the maximum amount of traffic that path A-B-D-F can support is 20 units. Subtract this number from the capacity of every link on this path. This subtraction cannot be lower than 0. The result of this subtraction is the remaining traffic capacity of each path link. - Step 3. Repeat the same procedure for all possible paths until there is no more capacity left. - Step 4. Once there is no more capacity left, the number at the destination node is the maximum traffic the network can support, which in this case is 50 units. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-traffic-maximization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-traffic-maximization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-traffic-maximization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/heuristic-method-traffic-maximization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Two Perspectives for Considering Traffic](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/perspectives-considering-traffic/) **Published:** April 22, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/perspectives_traffic.png?resize=880%2C342&ssl=1 "Two Perspectives for Considering Traffic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Two Perspectives for Considering Traffic**Traffic Maximization**. The purpose is to assess the maximal demand that a network can support considering its transport supply. Traffic maximization estimates the operational capacity of networks, that is, what amount of traffic they can handle under ideal conditions. The above graph (1) is the estimated optimal demand a network can support since once that level of demand is exceeded, travel time increases exponentially due to congestion. Traffic maximization usually concerns engineers, especially for the simulation of the optimal capacity of a transport system. It is also important to the planning of new transport systems. **Costs Minimization**. The purpose is to assign on a network a known demand in order to convey minimal costs. On the above graph (2) represents a traffic assignment (paths between origins and destinations) that minimizes transportation costs. Cost minimization is particularly of concern to operators of transport assets (e.g. fleets of vehicles), since they are concerned about how a service can be offered to satisfy demand, and this at a minimal cost. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/perspectives-considering-traffic/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/perspectives-considering-traffic/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/perspectives-considering-traffic/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/perspectives-considering-traffic/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Traffic Assignment Problem](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traffic-assignment-problem/) **Published:** April 22, 2023 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/traffic_assignment_problem.png?resize=900%2C370&ssl=1 "Traffic Assignment Problem | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Traffic Assignment ProblemTraffic assignment problems usually consider two dimensions. - **Generation and attraction**. A place of origin generates movements that are bound (attracted) to a place of destination. The relationship between traffic generation and attraction is commonly labeled as spatial interaction. The above example considers one origin/generation and destination/attraction, but the majority of traffic assignment problems consider several origins and destinations. - **Path selection**. Traffic assignment considers which paths are to be selected and the amount of traffic using these paths (if more than one unit). For simple problems, a single path will be selected, while for complex problems, several paths could be used. Factors behind the choice of traffic assignment may include cost, time, or the number of connections. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traffic-assignment-problem/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traffic-assignment-problem/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traffic-assignment-problem/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traffic-assignment-problem/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Cost Minimization and Efficiency Maximization in Route Selection](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/cost-minimization-efficiency-maximization-route-selection/) **Published:** November 28, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cost_minimization_efficiency_maximization.png?resize=900%2C388&ssl=1 "Cost Minimization and Efficiency Maximization in Route Selection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Cost Minimization and Efficiency Maximization in Route SelectionRoute selection can rely on a variety of criteria, with the most common being the minimization of costs and the maximization of economic efficiency. The above figure depicts three route selection scenarios where a path must be selected on a grid by linking its bottom left and top right corners. - The first grid represents **road construction costs**, ranging from low to high. The selected route is an attempt to minimize such costs, so it follows a path composed of low-cost cells. - The second grid represents the level of **economic efficiency** derived if a road crosses a cell, such as population density. The selected road tries to maximize efficiency by servicing as many high-efficiency cells as possible. It is worth noting that the low-cost route and the high-efficiency route follow different paths, which raises the question of which route should be selected. More than often, a compromise is sought. - The third grid represents a **compromise** where the selected route tries to satisfy both criteria, so the path crosses cells concomitantly with low cost and high efficiency. The compromise is a sub-optimal solution since it is neither the most cost-effective nor the most efficient solution. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/cost-minimization-efficiency-maximization-route-selection/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/cost-minimization-efficiency-maximization-route-selection/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/cost-minimization-efficiency-maximization-route-selection/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/cost-minimization-efficiency-maximization-route-selection/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Effect of Transport Costs on Route Selection](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/effect-transport-costs-route-selection/) **Published:** November 28, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/effect_transport_costs_route_selection.png?resize=900%2C461&ssl=1 "Effect of Transport Costs on Route Selection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Effect of Transport Costs on Route SelectionFor routes involving different transportation modes, modal cost differences will influence routing options. The above figure presents a route selection problem between two locations (origin a and destination b) and involving two modes; land and sea. It requires selecting one port out of a choice of four (p1 to p4) and assumes that there is a direct land connection between a and each port. The choice of the route is the outcome of comparative operating costs. - The first route selection (1) assumes **equal transport costs** over land and over sea; R{C(sea) = C(land)}. In this case, the costs of moving from the origin to port p3 are equal to the costs of moving from port p3 to the destination. The direct route is not the best solution because it does not consider transport cost differences between land and sea. - The second route selection (2) assumes two scenarios. In the first, sea transport costs are higher than land transport costs; R{C(sea > C(land)}. Under such an assumption, route R1 **minimizes sea transport costs**. For the second scenario, land transport costs are higher than sea transport costs; R{C(sea) < C(land)}. Route R2 consequently **minimizes land transport costs**. Obviously, R2 is much more plausible than R1. - The third route selection (3) is the **optimal solution**, which is more plausible. It considers that land transport costs increase at a higher rate than sea transport costs, but that land transportation costs are initially lower. Land transport can thus be more advantageous than sea transport for a short distance, enabling to use port p2 instead of port p1. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/effect-transport-costs-route-selection/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/effect-transport-costs-route-selection/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/effect-transport-costs-route-selection/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/effect-transport-costs-route-selection/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Traveling Salesperson Problem](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traveling-salesperson-problem/) **Published:** November 28, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/traveling_salesperson_problem.png?resize=900%2C446&ssl=1 "The Traveling Salesperson Problem | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Traveling Salesperson ProblemThe “traveling salesperson” problem is a classic route selection problem where a sequence of locations has to be traveled to, and a return must be made to the starting location. Each location can only be traveled once. In the above example, a salesperson, starting at point 1, must visit six locations (1 to 6) and return to the starting point. The first route (1-4-2-5-6-3-1), with a total length of 62 km, is an acceptable solution but not the best. The second route (1-2-5-4-6-3-1) represents a much better solution as the total distance, 48 km, is less than the first route. This example assumes Euclidean distances and an isotropic space, but in reality, the solution may be different considering the configuration of transport infrastructures, making some locations more accessible than others. These types of problems are usually solved through combinational optimization, which is a branch of operations research. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traveling-salesperson-problem/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traveling-salesperson-problem/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traveling-salesperson-problem/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/route-selection-process/traveling-salesperson-problem/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Object-Oriented Network Model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/object-oriented-network-model/) **Published:** December 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/object_oriented_network_model.png?resize=900%2C522&ssl=1 "Object-Oriented Network Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Object Oriented Network ModelA transport network can be represented by two object classes, defined as Link and Node, which are inherited. Because of the topological attributes of a network, a connection relationship has to be established between the link and node classes. It defines and nature and extent of the geometric connectivity supporting the network’s topology. Object-oriented network models are stored in relational databases, such as a geodatabase. The above representation would require four relational tables; one labeled Transport Network, which could be a simple identifier for the network; a Node and a Link table containing their respective properties; and a Connection table where connectivity information is stored (which links connect which nodes). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/object-oriented-network-model/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/object-oriented-network-model/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/object-oriented-network-model/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/object-oriented-network-model/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Topological Representation of a Simple Network in a Relational Database](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/relational-database-simple-network/) **Published:** December 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relational_database_simple_network.png?resize=900%2C548&ssl=1 "Relational Database Representation of a Simple Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Relational Database Representation of a Simple NetworkA network can be represented using two tables, one defining nodes and the other defining links. The three core elements (fields) of a **nodes table** are unique identifiers and locational attributes in a coordinate system, such as latitude and longitude values. In the above example, coordinates are in decimal degrees, meaning that the location of these nodes can directly be imported into a GIS. Additional attributes can also be included in this table. The **links table** has four core elements (fields). The first is a unique identifier for each link, the next two are the nodes of origin and destination of the link, and the fourth is a directional tag indicating if the link is unidirectional. Another alternative would be to assume that all links are unidirectional and define each implicitly. This would require the addition of 3 new records if the directional tag field is not used (C-D, E-D, and E-C). However, this would involve severe redundancies on a complex network. As for the nodes table, additional attributes can be included, such as name, number of lanes, maximum speed, etc. Both the nodes and links tables have little value if they are considered individually, as a network is the combination of the information contained on both tables. A way to combine these tables is by building a **relational join** between them. In the above example, a relational join can be established between the \[From\] and \[To\] fields of the links table with the \[ID\] field of the nodes table. The resulting relational database contains the basic topological elements of the network. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/relational-database-simple-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/relational-database-simple-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/relational-database-simple-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/relational-database-simple-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Estimated Air Pollutants Emitted by Highway Transportation in the United States, 1970-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/air-pollutants-highway-united-states/) **Published:** December 9, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/highway_air_pollutants_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Estimated Air Pollutants Emitted by Highway Transportation in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Estimated Air Pollutants Emitted by Highway Transportation in the United States 1970 2021*Source: EPA.* The most important transport emissions are related to carbon monoxide (CO), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Still, transportation plays a marginal role in particulates and sulfur oxide emissions. Due to better engine technology and more stringent standards, the amount of pollutants released on highways has declined substantially. Contributions patterns are fairly consistent among advanced economies, but differences exist. They are attributed to modal choice, the composition of industrial activities, commercial energy sources, and general climatic conditions (colder temperatures are linked with more NOx emissions). The environmental profile of transportation, particularly regarding the emission of harmful pollutants, has improved substantially even if the number of vehicles circulating has increased. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/air-pollutants-highway-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/air-pollutants-highway-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/air-pollutants-highway-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/air-pollutants-highway-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The ESRI Shapefile Model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/esri-shapefile-model/) **Published:** December 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/esri_shapefile_model.png?resize=900%2C638&ssl=1 "The ESRI Shapefile Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The ESRI Shapefile ModelIntroduced in the early 1990s, the shapefile format is one of the most common GIS vector data formats compatible with the majority of software platforms. It was designed as a compromise based on the most widely used database format of the time by indexing it with a feature file. It is used to create and disseminate vector data such as points, polylines, polygons, and associated attributes. Although a shapefile is functionally one element, it is composed of at least three files with the same name but with a different extension: - \*.shp: The binary file containing the geometry of the features. Only one type of geometry can be stored per shapefile. This information is stored using a Cartesian reference system compatible with various spatial referencing models, including longitudes and latitudes. Three-dimensional data can also be stored, such as altitude information related to each feature component. The shapefile is limited to 2 gigabytes and cannot have more than 4,000 point features or 2,000 polyline or polygon features. - \*.shx: Index file; a positional index that links features with the corresponding record in the attribute table. - \*.dbf: Attribute table where each feature corresponds to a record. This information is stored in dBase IV format, which is a legacy format with several limitations. There cannot be more than 255 fields in the database, and each field’s name is limited to 10 characters. There are other associated files, with the \*.prj extension the most common, since it stores the georeferencing system related to the features and the \*.xml extension, which stores metadata. Files must be stored in the same folder. Otherwise, they will not be accessible. Topological information cannot be stored in a shapefile, but the GIS can create a topology based on the information contained in shapefiles. Still, shapefiles are less computing-intensive to display since there is no topology, which was an important factor when processing speed was slower but has become less relevant. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/esri-shapefile-model/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/esri-shapefile-model/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/esri-shapefile-model/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/esri-shapefile-model/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Routing in a Network Data Model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-routing/) **Published:** December 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/routing_network_data_model.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "Routing in a Network Data Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Routing in a Network Data ModelRouting in a network data model can be simulated if the impedance is available to links and nodes. For links, impedance is often characterized by travel time, while **turn penalties** are often used to characterize impedance at nodes; how difficult (if possible) it is to turn in one direction, as opposed to another. The above network represents a typical routing “traveling salesperson” problem. Starting and ending at a warehouse, a delivery truck has a set of deliveries and pickups to perform. The locations of those pickup and delivery points could have been derived from address matching (geocoding). Considering link and node (turn penalties) impedance attributes that are encoded in the network data model, it is possible to plot an optimal route minimizing travel time that would satisfy basic constraints related to the start and end points, pickup and delivery points, as well as link and turn penalty impedance. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-routing/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-routing/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-routing/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-routing/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Geocoding in a Network Data Model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-geocoding/) **Published:** December 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/geocoding_network_data_model.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "Geocoding in a Network Data Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Geocoding in a Network Data ModelGeocoding is possible if a linear referencing system is embedded in a network data model. One of the most common linear referencing systems is the address system, where each link has a corresponding street name and address range. The above address range illustrates even (right side) and odd (left side) addresses, very common attributes in most network data models such as TIGER (developed by the US Census Bureau). For instance, finding the approximate location of the address “197 East Ave.” would first imply querying the network data model to find all the links with “East Ave.” as a name attribute. Then, the appropriate address range is found, and the location is interpolated. “197” corresponds to the 191-209 address range, located on the left side of East Ave. Its approximate location would be at 1/3 \[1 – (209-197) / (209-191)\] of the length of the link that has the 191-209 address range. The same procedure can be applied to the “188 East Ave.” address, which in this case would be located at 1/4 of the length of the link with the 172-210 address range. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-geocoding/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-geocoding/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-geocoding/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-geocoding/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Cartography of a Network Data Model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-cartography/) **Published:** December 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cartography_network_data_model.png?resize=900%2C624&ssl=1 "Cartography of a Network Data Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Cartography of a Network Data ModelBy using attributes encoded in the network data model, such as road type, each segment can be displayed to reflect its importance. For instance, the above cartographic representation of a network data model displays three road classes (highway, main street, and street) differently. Descriptive labels for the most important elements and directional signs for one-ways have also been added. To enrich the cartographic message, additional layers of information have been added, namely landmarks. Nodal attributes can also have a cartographic utility, such as displaying if an intersection has traffic lights. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-cartography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-cartography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-cartography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-cartography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Topology of a Network Data Model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-topology/) **Published:** December 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/topology_network_data_model.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "Topology of a Network Data Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Topology of a Network Data ModelThe above graph represents the basic topology of an urban transport network composed of linked nodes. It has been encoded into a network data model to represent reality as closely as possible, both topologically and geographically. Topologically, each node has been encoded with the connectivity it permits, such as whether a left turn is possible (although this attribute is not displayed here). Further, a direction has been encoded in each link (directional or bi-directional) to represent one-ways. Geographically, each node is located at a coordinate that matches the actual intersection it represents. In addition, the links between each node have been decomposed into several segments (not implicitly shown) to respect the positional accuracy of the road they represent. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-topology/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-topology/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-topology/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/network-data-model-topology/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Chicago's beta Values for Air Transportation, 1949-1989](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/chicago-beta-graph-air/) **Published:** January 19, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/chicago_beta_values.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Chicago's beta Values for Air Transportation, 1949-1989 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Chicagos beta Values for Air Transportation 1949 1989*Source: adapted from E.J. Taaffe, H.L. Gauthier and M.E. O’Kelly (1995) Geography of Transportation, Second Edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, p. 223.* Technological innovations impacted the friction of distance, which is reflected in the reduction of the beta exponent used on spatial interaction models. Lower beta values imply a reduction of the friction of distance. The introduction of jet planes significantly impacted the reduction of the beta exponent in the 1960s. Improved speed and capacities made air transportation more affordable and substantially increased air travel (interactions). Therefore, keeping all other factors constant, the same city pairs generate more air traffic flows simply because it is [more affordable to fly](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2331). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/chicago-beta-graph-air/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/chicago-beta-graph-air/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/chicago-beta-graph-air/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/chicago-beta-graph-air/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Effects of beta, alpha and lambda on Spatial Interactions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-beta-alpha-lambda/) **Published:** January 19, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/beta_alpha_pamba_spatial_interactions.png?resize=900%2C373&ssl=1 "Effects of beta, alpha and lambda on Spatial Interactions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Effects of beta alpha and lambda on Spatial InteractionsVariations of the beta, alpha, and lambda exponents have different impacts on the level of spatial interactions. For instance, the relationship between distance and spatial interactions will change according to the beta exponent. If the value of beta is high (higher than 0.5), the friction of distance will be much more important (steep decline of spatial interactions) than with a low value of beta (e.g. 0.25). A beta of 0 means that distance has no effects and that interactions remain the same, whatever the concerned distance. Alpha and lambda exponents have the same effect on the interaction level. For a value of 1, there is a linear relationship between population (or any attribute of weight) and the level of interactions. Any value higher than 1 implies exponential growth of the interaction level as the population increases. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-beta-alpha-lambda/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-beta-alpha-lambda/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-beta-alpha-lambda/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-beta-alpha-lambda/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Relationship between Distance and Interactions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-distance-decay/) **Published:** January 19, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_decay.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Relationship between Distance and Interactions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Relationship between Distance and InteractionsThe effect of distance over spatial interactions (distance decay) can be represented as a classic [non-linear (exponential) relationship](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8605) where location A has interactions with other locations (B, C, and D), each at a different distance. The relationship assumes that each location has the same size, level of complementarity, and that no intervening opportunities are present. The closest location, B, has the highest level of interaction with location A, while locations C and D have lower levels of interaction since they are located further away. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-distance-decay/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-distance-decay/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-distance-decay/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-distance-decay/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Four Stages Transportation / Land Use Model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/transportation-land-use-four-stages-model/) **Published:** January 19, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/four_stages_tlu_model.png?resize=900%2C404&ssl=1 "Four Stages Transportation / Land Use Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Four Stages Transportation Land Use Model*Source: adapted from EPA420-R-97-007.* The four stages (or four steps) transportation/land use model follows a sequential procedure: - **Trip Generation**. For each discrete spatial unit, it is estimated the extent to which it is an origin and destination for movements. The output is usually the number of trips generated and attracted by a given spatial unit. - **Trip Distribution**. Commonly a spatial interaction model estimates movements (flows) between origins and destinations and which can consider constraints such as distance. The output is a flow matrix between spatial units. - **Modal Split**. Movements between origins and destinations are then disaggregated by modes. This function depends on the availability of each mode, their respective costs, and social preferences. - **Traffic Assignment**. All the estimated trips by origin, destination, and mode are then “loaded” on the transportation network, mainly considering that users want to minimize their travel time or have to flow through existing transit networks. If the traffic exceeds the capacity of specific transport segments (which is often the case), congestion occurs and negatively affects travel time. This in turn, through a feedback process, may influence trip generation and distribution. This procedure is consequently iterative and converges towards a solution, often measured as the minimal transportation cost considering a given travel demand and the characteristics of the existing transportation network. It relies on extensive data that can be obtained through census information, surveys, and estimates. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/transportation-land-use-four-stages-model/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/transportation-land-use-four-stages-model/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/transportation-land-use-four-stages-model/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/transportation-land-use-four-stages-model/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Constructing an O/D Matrix](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/od-matrix-construction/) **Published:** January 18, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/constructing_od_matrix.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Constructing an O/D Matrix | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Constructing an OD MatrixConstructing an origin/destination matrix requires directional flow information between a series of locations. The above figure represents movements (O/D pairs) between five locations (A, B, C, D, and E). From this graph, an O/D matrix can be built where each O/D pair becomes a cell. A value of 0 is assigned for each O/D pair that does not have an observed flow. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/od-matrix-construction/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/od-matrix-construction/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/od-matrix-construction/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/od-matrix-construction/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Representation of a Movement as a Spatial Interaction](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-movement/) **Published:** January 18, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/movement_spatial_interaction.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "Representation of a Movement as a Spatial Interaction | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Representation of a Movement as a Spatial InteractionRepresenting mobility as a spatial interaction involves several considerations: - **Locations**. A movement is occurring between a **location of origin** and a **location of destination**. *i* generally denotes an origin while *j* is a destination. The representation of origins and destinations commonly involves centroids. - **Centroid**. An abstraction of the attributes of a zone at a point. This is particularly relevant when the attributes generating mobility are zonal (e.g. ZIP codes, cities, states, etc.) while the graphic representation requires specific origins and destinations. For instance, showing flows between ZIP codes would implicitly require the generation of one centroid for each ZIP code. - **Flows**. Flows are generally expressed by a valued vector *Tij* representing an interaction between locations *i* and *j*. - **Vectors**. In the above figure, two areas, *zone i* and *zone j*, are represented as two centroids, *i* and *j*. A vector *Tij* links two centroids and has a value assigned to it (50) which can represent movements such as tons of freight, number of passengers per day, or number of phone calls. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-movement/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-movement/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-movement/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/spatial-interactions-movement/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Conditions for the Realization of a Spatial Interaction](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/conditions-spatial-interaction/) **Published:** January 18, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/realization_spatial_interaction.png?resize=900%2C417&ssl=1 "Conditions for the Realization of a Spatial Interaction | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Conditions for the Realization of a Spatial InteractionA spatial interaction between location A and B can occur only if three fundamental conditions are met: - **Complementarity**. If location A produces/generates something that location B requires, then an interaction is possible because a supply/demand relationship has been established between those two locations; they have become complementary. The same applies in the other direction (B to A), which creates a **reciprocity** common in commuting or international trade. - **Intervening opportunity**. If location C offers similar characteristics (namely complementarity) to location B and is closer to location A, an interaction between A and B will not occur, as an interaction between A and C will replace it. An intervening opportunity can also be **partial**, as only a part of the interaction is captured. - **Transferability**. Transport infrastructures (modes and terminals) must be present to support an interaction between A and B. Also, these infrastructures must have a capacity and availability compatible with the requirements of such an interaction. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/conditions-spatial-interaction/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/conditions-spatial-interaction/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/conditions-spatial-interaction/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gravity-model/conditions-spatial-interaction/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Ownership of Major North American Rail Lines, 2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-ownership-north-america/) **Published:** November 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Map Rail North America](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Network_Ownership_2021.png?resize=768%2C576&ssl=1 "Ownership of Major North American Rail Lines, 2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Ownership of Major North American Rail Lines 2021*Source: adapted from Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Note: Several rail carriers have track use rights on segments owned by other carriers. Also, carriers have parent companies that may own specific segments and are therefore indirectly owning them.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Network_Ownership.pdf) The North American rail transport system is characterized by a high level of geographical specialization, with large private rail carriers servicing large regional markets. The system is privately owned and operated, and each carrier has its facilities and, thus, its markets along the segments it controls. The rail system is the outcome of substantial capital investments occurring over several decades with the accumulation of impressive infrastructure and equipment assets. However, such a characteristic created issues about continuity within the North American rail network, particularly in the United States. Mergers have improved this continuity, but a limit has been reached in the network size of most rail operators. Attempts have been made to synchronize the interactions between rail operators for long-distance trade with the setting of intermodal unit trains. Often bilateral, trilateral, or even quadrilateral arrangements are made between rail carriers and shipping companies to improve the intermodal interface at the major gateways or at points of interlining between major networks. Chicago is the largest interlining center in North America, handling around 10 million TEUs per year, a location at the junction of the Eastern, Western, and Canadian rail systems. Starting with the setting of NAFTA in 1994, rail mergers resulted in the involvement of Canadian and American operators offering cross-border services. Canadian National and Canadian Pacific acquired lines in the United States, enabling better connections with the Chicago hub as well as with New Orleans when CN purchased the Illinois Central Railroad in 1998. This made CN the only rail carrier in North America with a tri-coastal strategy (Pacific, Atlantic, Gulf). In 1998 Kansas City Southern purchased Transportación Ferroviaria Mexicana to form Kansas City Southern de México, which links the port of Lazaro Cardenas to Kansas City and passes through the leading economic centers of Mexico (Mexico City, Monterrey). In 2021, Canadian Pacific acquired KCS, including its Mexican assets, forming the second North American railway having access to three maritime ranges. This merger was ratified by the Surface Transportation Board in 2023 with an oversight period. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-ownership-north-america/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-ownership-north-america/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-ownership-north-america/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/rail-ownership-north-america/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Burgess Urban Land Use Model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/burgess-land-use/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/burgess_urban_land_use_model.png?resize=900%2C530&ssl=1 "The Burgess Urban Land Use Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Burgess Urban Land Use ModelIn 1925, Burgess proposed a descriptive urban land use model that divided cities into **concentric circles** expanding from downtown to the suburbs. This representation was built from Burgess’s observations of several American cities, notably Chicago, for which he provided empirical evidence. The model assumes a relationship between the socio-economic status (mainly income) of households and the distance from the Central Business District (CBD). The further from the CBD, the better the quality of housing, but the longer the commuting time. Thus, accessing better housing is done at the expense of longer commuting times (and costs). According to this monocentric model, a large city is divided into six concentric zones: - **Zone I**: Central Business District (called the “loop” in Chicago), where most of the tertiary employment is located and where the urban transport infrastructure converges, making this zone the most accessible. - **Zone II**: Immediately adjacent to the CBD, a zone where many industrial activities locate to take advantage of nearby labor and markets. Further, most transport terminals, namely port sites, and railyards, are located adjacent to the central area. - **Zone III**: This zone is gradually being reconverted to other uses by expanding manufacturing / industrial activities. It contains the poorest segment of the urban population, notably first-generation immigrants living in low-cost housing. - **Zone IV**: Residential zone dominated by the working class and those who could move away from the previous zone (often second-generation immigrants). This zone has the advantage of being located near the major zones of employment (I and II) and thus represents a low-cost location for the working class. - **Zone V**: Represents higher quality housing linked with longer commuting costs. - **Zone VI**: Mainly high-class and expensive housing in rural, suburbanized settings, with the highest commuting costs. Before the mass diffusion of the automobile (in the 1930s), most of these settlements were located next to rail stations. According to Burgess, urban growth is a process of **expansion and reconversion of land uses**, with a tendency for each inner zone to expand towards the outer zone. In the above figure, zone II (Factory zone) is expanding towards zone IV (Working class zone), creating a transition zone with the reconversion of land use. Although the Burgess model is simple and elegant, it has drawn criticisms: - The model is too simple and limited in a historical and cultural urban context that prevailed until the 1950s. It is a product of its time. - The model was developed when American cities were growing very fast in demographic terms, and when motorized transportation was still uncommon, most people used public transit. The expansion thus involved the reconversion of existing land uses. This concept cannot be applied effectively in a contemporary (from the second half to the 20th century) context where highways have enabled urban development to escape the reconversion process and occur directly in the suburbs. - The model was developed for American cities and had limited applicability elsewhere. It has been demonstrated that pre-industrial cities, notably in Europe, did not follow the concentric circles model. For instance, in most pre-industrial European cities, the center was much more important than the periphery, notably regarding social status. The Burgess concentric model is consequently partially inverted. - There were many spatial differences in ethnic, social, and occupational status, while there was a low occurrence of functional differences in land use patterns. The concentric model assumed a spatial separation of workplace and place of residence, which was not generalized until later in the twentieth century. However, the Burgess model remains useful as a concept explaining concentric urban development, as a way to introduce the complexity of urban land use, and to explain urban growth in American cities in the early-mid 20th century. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/burgess-land-use/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/burgess-land-use/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/burgess-land-use/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/burgess-land-use/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Coronavirus (COVID-19) Reported Daily New Cases, 2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/coronavirus-covid-19-reported-daily-new-cases/) **Published:** May 19, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/covid_19_daily_new_cases.png?resize=900%2C414&ssl=1 "Coronavirus (COVID-19) Reported Daily New Cases, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Coronavirus COVID 19 Reported Daily New Cases 2020*Source: Data from European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Note: 7 days moving average.* The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 can be represented as four major waves, all of which are illustrative of the [diffusion cycle of a pandemic](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8886). - **First wave** (supply shocks). Credible evidence underlines that the COVID-19 pandemic emerged in Wuhan, China, in late 2019. By early 2020, it has diffused throughout the city and spread across several major Chinese cities. It also started to be recognized as a threat to global health, particularly after national shutdowns measures were initiated in late January, with cities such as Wuhan completely quarantined. This had substantial impacts on Chinese manufacturing capabilities and the related supply chains. By late February, it was looking like the situation was improving as lockdown measures were lifted and manufacturing activities gradually resumed. During this period (late February to mid-March 2020), even if it was realized afterward that the coronavirus was undertaking a phase of translocation from China to Europe and the United States (which in the next wave became the most impacted regions). The United States and many other countries instituted travel bans on China in early February. Still, bans between the United States and Europe were implemented in mid-March after it was realized that Europe (particularly Italy and Spain) was becoming the main source of translocation. The lack of testing capabilities undermined the realization that a pandemic was quickly unfolding, with its scale and extent not yet apparent. Adjacent countries to China, namely South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, SAR, and Japan, reported a surge in cases and quickly implemented quarantine measures. Outbreaks were reported on several cruise ships that called Chinese ports (or had a large number of Chinese passengers), such as the Diamond Princess (712 cases reported out of a manifest of 3,700 passengers and crew, including 13 deaths). This resulted in the shutdown of the global cruise industry by mid-march, as global air travel collapsed. - **Second wave** (demand shocks). By early March 2020, a surge in the number of cases was reported in Italy and Spain, quickly followed by the United States. It became apparent that during the “stealth phase”, the coronavirus had translocated in almost all advanced economies and that the virus was now diffusing among local populations. The source of contamination could no longer be traced to an external event such as traveling abroad, as was the case for most early infections. On March 11, 2020, COVID-19 was officially declared a pandemic. Lockdowns were instituted with the bulk of the population ordered to remain home, creating a surge in unemployment, the collapse of travel and tourism, and most aspects of manufacturing and retailing. The demand for non-essential goods, including energy, declined substantially. Demand surges for groceries, personal items, home furniture, and medical equipment stressed the related supply chains through demand shocks. From mid-April 2020, the number of reported cases in advanced economies gradually declined, partly attributed to lockdown and quarantine measures. With the decline of reported new cases, several economies began to resume normal economic activities. However, the pandemic shifted to previously relatively unimpacted areas, likely because of the lack of testing. Russia, Brazil, and India experienced by early May 2020 a surge of reported cases, in line with what happened in Europe and the United States in early March 2020. Due to the lack of testing and reporting, little is known about the extent of the pandemic in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. - **Third wave** (adaption). From June 2020, most advanced economies were back to operations under social distancing measures. Several major developing economies were at their peak level of diffusion. For instance, in early July 2020, Latin American countries, including Brazil, surpassed the United States in the number of reported cases. Further, the United States saw a significant second wave of infections in part because of social unrest placed millions in close proximity and inappropriate social distancing once activities were reopened. Demand patterns began to shift as demand deferred during the lockdowns resumed and stimulus packages were implemented. - **Fourth wave** (resurgence). By the summer of 2020, while the social and economic adaptation to the pandemic was underway, the pandemic continued its diffusion, with reported cases rising. Global supply chains resumed, and traffic along shipping lanes and ports picked up. This process continued in the later part of 2020 and was the precursor to the supply chain crisis that unfolded in 2021 and 2022. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/coronavirus-covid-19-reported-daily-new-cases/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/coronavirus-covid-19-reported-daily-new-cases/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/coronavirus-covid-19-reported-daily-new-cases/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/coronavirus-covid-19-reported-daily-new-cases/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Impacts of Pandemics on Supply Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/impacts-pandemics-supply-chains/) **Published:** March 14, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/impacts_pandemics_supply_chains2.png?resize=900%2C352&ssl=1 "Impacts of Pandemics on Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of Pandemics on Supply Chains*Source: Adapted from Notteboom, T., A. Pallis and J-P Rodrigue (2021) “Disruptions and Resilience in Global Container Shipping and Ports: The COVID-19 Pandemic vs the 2008-2009 Financial Crisis”, Maritime Economics and Logistics, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-020-00180-5.* Supply chains can be very complex and composed of a [series of stages](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4260), from the provision of commodities to the consumption of final goods in consumer markets. A pandemic can impact the components of supply chains through three fundamental aspects: - **Supply shocks**. They represent an unexpected sudden change in the availability of raw materials, parts, and manufacturing capabilities. It is not just that prices may surge. Still, the availability of essential components can vanish because of a lack of raw materials, parts, or the lack of labor necessary for their procurement. Depending on the existing buffer, such as stockpiles of energy, grain, or raw materials, the supply shock can take some time to be felt across a supply chain. - **Demand shocks**. Similar to supply shocks, demand shocks imply a sudden change in demand due to unforeseen circumstances. For several items, such as food, hoarding may trigger a temporary surge in demand, with several items becoming unavailable. However, the fundamental impact of pandemics on market demand is deflationary. The consumption of discretionary items such as cars, clothing, furniture, or appliances is deferred, and the demand for energy declines with less commuting. The only notable exception concerns medical equipment and pharmaceuticals that see a surge during a pandemic. Consumers substitute their consumption patterns towards essential goods and shift their consumption depending on the scarcity and price of items. Restaurants and caterers may be inclined to substitute their services with new forms, such as takeouts and home deliveries. - **Distribution constraints**. During a pandemic, distribution capabilities can be impaired by restrictions on trade, the lack of a workforce, or the closing of key distribution facilities such as airports, ports, or distribution centers. This implies that existing inventory could be mainly unavailable because of the lack of distribution capabilities. So, even if production capabilities could be present, the lack of distribution capabilities can create shortages irrespective of the demand. As last-mile distribution relies much more on labor than prior stages, there is a much higher risk of disruptions through labor absenteeism due to illness. Due to substantial changes in demand, major distributors, such as e-commerce retailers, will modify their procurement strategies to focus on high-demand items while discontinuing the procurement of discretionary items. Shocks can **propagate** or **backpropagate** within supply chains, depending on where they occur. A single propagation is usually common such as when a weather event or a strike takes place. Such events are well documented since they involve a readily identifiable component or segment of a supply chain. However, during a pandemic, propagation and backpropagation mechanisms are simultaneously taking place, creating several concurrent shocks. For instance, the hoarding of food and cleaning supplies transfer the inventory from distribution centers to the final market (e.g. consumer homes) in such a short amount of time, that the manufacturing and distribution capabilities cannot cope. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/impacts-pandemics-supply-chains/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/impacts-pandemics-supply-chains/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/impacts-pandemics-supply-chains/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/impacts-pandemics-supply-chains/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Logistics Stronghold Concept](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/the-logistics-stronghold-concept/) **Published:** February 28, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_stronghold2.png?resize=900%2C356&ssl=1 "The Logistics Stronghold Concept | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Logistics Stronghold ConceptA logistics stronghold is a key facility or group of facilities and its surrounding area secured during an emergency (pandemic, natural disaster) to ensure the continuity of supply chains and the availability of freight distribution capabilities. It includes four core aspects: - **Strategic asset**. Important transportation facilities, such as a port, airport, intermodal terminal, and logistics zone (a cluster of distribution centers), providing access and distribution capabilities to global and national markets. This also includes power generation facilities, essential to maintain electric power supply. Ports and airports are particularly important because of the connectivity they provide, as well as their storage capabilities. - **Secure facility area**. The areas surrounding the strategic asset must be secured to prevent additional contagion (pandemic) or theft, which involves setting a perimeter and checkpoints. The core purpose is to minimize contagion and maintain the operational capabilities of the facility, which requires the presence of key personnel. - **Inventory management**. Strategic transport facilities commonly have co-located logistical facilities that should be included within the secure perimeter. This buffer is used to maintain critical supply chains by ensuring the procurement of energy, parts, goods, food, and medical supplies, depending on the function of the facility. During a pandemic, logistics strongholds are expected to assume a larger share in the storage of critical inventory because of the declining availability of resources, safety and security considerations, and the lack of labor. - **Secure corridors**. The logistical stronghold must allow access to local production and consumption areas through high-priority corridors. Convoys can be organized from the facility to securely bring supplies to local distribution points or important facilities (e.g. hospitals). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/the-logistics-stronghold-concept/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/the-logistics-stronghold-concept/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/the-logistics-stronghold-concept/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/the-logistics-stronghold-concept/?share=reddit) - --- ### [West Texas Intermediate, Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price (1970-2022)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/west-texas-intermediate-spot-price/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/wti_spot_oil_price.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "West Texas Intermediate, Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price (1970-2022) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")West Texas Intermediate Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price 1970 2022*Source: Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.* Oil price changes tend to be sudden, a shift commonly labeled as an **oil shock**. There are also **counter shocks** where for various reasons, such as an oversupply or a recession, the price of oil experiences a sudden decline. Under the gold standard (US dollars redeemable for gold) that prevailed until 1971, oil prices were remarkably stable. The first two oil shocks, as well as the First Gulf War (1), were linked with short-lived geopolitical events but with an enduring effect on the price of oil. For instance, it took about six years after the Second Oil Shock to have an oversupply-based countershock (A). A third oil shock began in late 2003, resulting in four-fold price increases when oil prices peaked in June 2008. Unlike the two previous oil shocks, geopolitics played a more limited role as the surge in oil prices corresponded to growing demand from emerging economies and a decline in the output of several mature oil fields, namely in the North Sea and Mexico (Cantarell). Yet, the Third Oil Shock was immediately followed by a strong countershock that led to a price retrenchment of 69% in the following months (D). The main reason for the sharp decline was a global recession, cutting existing demand and expectations of additional demand. Between 2009 and 2014, oil prices converged to a new price level hovering between 80 and 100 dollars per barrel. This new price level incited substantial investments in alternative sources of energy as well as in non-conventional sources such as oil sands and shale oil. Producers that were in decline, such as the [United States](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6812), even saw a growth in domestic oil production. This additional capacity and a slowing demand induced another countershock from late 2014 to early 2016 (E). In 2020, the coronavirus pandemic resulted in a countershock. The global demand for oil declined substantially because of less economic activity, initially in China and then in all the major oil consumption markets. Concerns about declining oil revenues incited many large exporters, such as Saudi Arabia and Russia, to try to export large quantities of oil on global markets, inciting further price declines. However, this counter-shock was short-lived. By late 2020, prices began to surge partly because of a rapid bounce in demand but mostly because of massive fiscal stimulus (quantitative easing). The onset of the War in Ukraine in March 2022 further exacerbated the situation since Russia accounts for about 11% of global oil exports. The supply of petroleum remains an issue of concern where at times, supply has difficulties keeping up with the demand, and on other occasions, supply exceeds demand. There are also long-term concerns about [peak oil](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5944) which is a physical inability to provide a higher level of oil supply due to less recoverable reserves as well as greater technical difficulties in extracting existing reserves. Further, energy transition policies can create disruptions and shortages as alternative energy sources may offer less stability and resilience than oil. The table below underlines the events that had the most significant impacts on oil prices. **Price Change Event****Price Change Time Frame****Main Factors****Nominal Price Change**First Oil Shock (2)October 1973 to March 1974Yom Kippur War / OPEC oil embargo / Devaluation of the US dollarFrom $4.31 to $10.11 (+134.5%)Second Oil Shock (2)April 1979 to July 1980Iranian revolution (1978) / Iran-Iraq war (1980)From $15.85 to $39.50 (+149.2%)First oil counter shock (A)November 1985 to July 1986OPEC oversupply / Lower demand / New producersFrom $30.81 to $11.57 (-62.4%)First Gulf War (3)July 1990 to November 1990Iraqi invasion of KuwaitFrom $18.63 to $32.30 (+73.4%)Asian Financial Crisis (B)January 1997 to December 1998Debt defaults / Non-USD currency devaluations / Reduced demandFrom $25.17 to $11.28 (-55.1%)“Asian Demand Contagion” (4)January 1999 to September 2000Rising demand / OPEC output cutbacksFrom $11.28 to $33.88 (+200.3%)“September 11 Effect” (C)August 2001 to December 2001Oversupply / American recessionFrom $27.47 to $19.33 (-29.6%)Third Oil Shock (5)December 2003 to June 2008Rising demand (China) / Monetary debasement / SpeculationFrom $32.15 to $133.95 (+316.6%)Financial Crisis of 2008-2009 (D)July 2008 to February 2009Collapse of asset bubbles / Demand destruction / Global recessionFrom $133.95 to $39.09 (-70.7%)Crisis recovery (6)February 2009 to April 2011Recovering demand / Low interest ratesFrom $39.09 to $109.53 (+190.2%)Fifth oil counter shock (E)September 2014 to February 2016Oversupply (oil shale and tar sands) / Global recessionFrom $109.9 to $44 (-58.4%)Sixth Oil counter shock (F)February 2020 to June 2020Coronavirus (COVID-19) PandemicFrom $59.88 to $20.3 (-66.1%)Fourth OIl Shock (7)October 2020 – Stimulus-derived inflation / War in Ukraine.From $39.40 to $108.5 (+175.3%)### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/west-texas-intermediate-spot-price/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/west-texas-intermediate-spot-price/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/west-texas-intermediate-spot-price/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/west-texas-intermediate-spot-price/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Empty Drugstore Shelves from Hoarding Behavior](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/empty-drugstore-shelves-hoarding-behavior/) **Published:** March 19, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/walgreens_nj_2020.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Empty Drugstore Shelves from Hoarding Behavior, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Empty Drugstore Shelves from Hoarding Behavior*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, March 2020.* Hoarding is a **common consumer response** when facing uncertainties concerning the **future availability of essential goods**. During a natural disaster such as a hurricane or flooding, local stores can be emptied of goods such as bottled water, food, batteries, and construction materials. The concern is that distribution infrastructures will be disrupted and damaged (or even destroyed), making goods unavailable for an unknown duration. Therefore, hoarding transfers a share of the inventory from retail stores and distribution centers to consumers’ homes, where it can be available. The major difference between a natural disaster and a pandemic is that natural disasters tend to be local or regional events, implying that supplies can be redistributed from markets outside the impacted area. During a pandemic, almost **every market is impacted at once** by hoarding behavior, even if the **distribution system remains intact**. The demand shock the distribution system is facing, therefore, overwhelms its distribution capabilities. Producers are challenged to significantly increase their production because manufacturing systems for the supply of many goods are designed to provide a continuous and stable output. In the above photo, in-store inventory of household goods such as towel paper, tissues, and toilet paper has been completely sold out because of a hoarding-derived surge in demand at the onset of the Covid-19 lockdowns. Since all stores are impacted simultaneously by this demand surge, including all the retail stores selling similar goods, re-supply cannot occur in a timely manner. The outcome of the hoarding is a shortage of essential goods for a large share of the population and an overwhelming surplus for those who hoarded while the inventory was available. However, hoarding is of short duration. The shortages occurring afterward tend to be more related to changes in demand patterns, such as less commercial and more consumer demand. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/empty-drugstore-shelves-hoarding-behavior/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/empty-drugstore-shelves-hoarding-behavior/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/empty-drugstore-shelves-hoarding-behavior/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/empty-drugstore-shelves-hoarding-behavior/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Diffusion of a Pandemic through a Global Transportation Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/diffusion-pandemic-transport-network/) **Published:** January 28, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pandemic_diffusion_global_transport_network.png?resize=900%2C429&ssl=1 "Diffusion of a Pandemic through a Global Transportation Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Diffusion of a Pandemic through a Global Transportation NetworkThe above map provides a synthetic representation of how an (influenza) pandemic could spread through a global transportation network. This scenario assumes a virulent strain of influenza in the line of the Spanish Flu (H1N1) with an incubation phase of about 3 to 4 days, which can easily be anthropogenically transmitted (R0 of 2 or above). The risk can be even higher if the incubation phase is longer and asymptomatic. A pandemic can be divided into four succinct phases: - **A. Emergence**. Concerns the area where the contagion first emerged and the epidemiology involved before the virus is noticed by public authorities. The location and connectivity of the area of emergence are very important. There are several ecological regions where new strains of influenza can emerge, particularly in Southeast Asia and Southern China. In the current transportation and economic context, China is prone to risks. It has become one of the largest manufacturing centers in the world, notably around the Pearl River Delta. This implies intense trade and business transactions, significant migrations of people from different regions of China, and networks of people living in different countries that have kept roots (relatives) in the countryside. Additionally, large international transport terminals, including the largest airports in the world, are in proximity. If the infection jumps immediately at a gateway, the diffusion could be rapid and extensive before being acknowledged as a significant health threat. - **B. Translocation**. This phase involves a group of infected individuals, many still in the incubation phase without showing symptoms, entering the global air transport system over a period of a few days. The virus will be transmitted to several other individuals while in transit (in planes and at intermediary terminals) and at the destinations. The pandemic is translocated not necessarily by geographical proximity, but according to the international and regional air transport network structure. It becomes a matter of flight scheduling and the destination served from the gateway the pandemic is translocated from. The pattern of this translocation will initially be shaped by social and commercial interactions, implying that the translocation will be different depending on the connectivity of where the virus has emerged. Clusters of infection appear, often in unrelated locations from a proximity standpoint. Several health authorities begin to issue warnings and try to assess the scale and scope of the infection. At this point, several segments of the air transport system would likely be voluntarily shut down or seriously curtailed by flight cancellations and the unwillingness to travel to high-risk areas. If identified early and not affecting too many individuals, it is possible to stop the diffusion of the pandemic or seriously curtail its advance. - **C. Diffusion**. At this point, translocation has brought influenza-like infections in almost every major transport hub of the world. From multiple hubs, the pandemic diffuses in a more standard fashion linked through proximity and slower land transport systems (rail, road, public transit); often referred to as community spread. From a pandemic control standpoint, it is essentially too late to do anything since its extent is global, and many individuals have already been infected. The pandemic becomes apparent to the general public, emergency measures are put into action, and most transport (from airlines to public transit) and economic systems (beginning with non-essential services such as leisure) are starting to shut down, either through decree or voluntarily (more likely). The main goal is to impose measures that slow the spread of the disease so that medical systems are not overwhelmed, and that supply chains can continue to operate. - **D. Pandemic**. At this point, a pandemic is a reality with few locations unaffected, either by chance, quarantine, isolation, or containment. The matter is no longer mitigating the pandemic, but providing medical relief as well as maintaining essential supply chains, namely food, energy, and medical supplies. Passenger transportation (transit and air travel) slows down to a trickle, and essential freight distributions function more or less successfully depending on the level of preparedness and the resilience of contingency plans of specific countries. It is very difficult to assess what the world would look like at such a stage as it would depend on the virulence and lethality of the pandemic and how the public and private sectors have responded. The outcome could range from benign to serious; from a slowdown followed by a relatively quick recovery to social collapse in large areas caused by food, energy, and medical supply shortages. While the Spanish Flux pandemic (1918-1920) occurred in a world with much lower interdependencies, the Covid-19 (2019-22) pandemic occurred in a globalized economy. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/diffusion-pandemic-transport-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/diffusion-pandemic-transport-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/diffusion-pandemic-transport-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/diffusion-pandemic-transport-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Impacts of Transportation on the Velocity and Extent of a Pandemic](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/transport-velocity-pandemic/) **Published:** January 28, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_velocity_pandemic.png?resize=900%2C358&ssl=1 "Impacts of Transportation on the Velocity and Extent of a Pandemic | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of Transportation on the Velocity and Extent of a PandemicPrior to the second half of the 20th century (curve A), international transportation systems were remarkably slow since they were limited to sailship or steamship speeds. Even with rail, North America could not be crossed in less than a week. In such a setting, a pandemic could emerge in a matter of months. The setting of modern transportation systems (curve B), particularly air transportation, had two significant impacts on pandemics: - **Velocity**. Transportation reduces the time at which a pandemic has run half its course; T(mid). Additionally, the diffusion rate is accelerated implying that a large population can be infected in a lesser amount of time. The pandemic diffusion curve, therefore, **shifts from A to B**. - **Extent**. Because transportation is almost ubiquitous, very few regions of the world do not have close access to air services, a larger population can be impacted; P(max). Another important aspect is the issue of critical time, T(C), which is when the translocation phase begins. It implies that after a certain amount of time, the potential lethality of disease is realized, and governments and individuals start to react with a variety of mitigating measures (quarantines, travel restrictions, institutional closures, absenteeism, etc.), which aim at lessening the growth rate of new infections. Due to its velocity, transportation has the potential to diffuse a pandemic to a large geographical area and an extensive population before its true nature is realized. At this point, it could be essentially too late to prevent the diffusion of a pandemic. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/transport-velocity-pandemic/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/transport-velocity-pandemic/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/transport-velocity-pandemic/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/transport-velocity-pandemic/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Basic Reproduction Number (R0) of Major Infectious Diseases](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/basic-reproduction-number-r0-of-major-infectious-diseases/) **Published:** January 27, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/r0_infectuous_diseases.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Basic Reproduction Number (R0) of Major Infectious Diseases | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Basic Reproduction Number R0 of Major Infectious Diseases*Source: CDC and WHO.* The basic reproduction number of a contagious disease, known as R0, is the number of people per infected individual that will be generated throughout its infectious period in a susceptible population. The higher the value of R0, the higher the risk of an epidemic or a pandemic since each individual can potentially infect a larger number of people with the risk of exponential growth. Contagion potential should not, however, be associated with the lethality of a disease. For instance, influenza in its regular form is highly contagious (R0 between 2 and 4) but has low lethality. On the opposite range, Ebola has a lower contagion (R0 between 1.5 and 2.5) but is much more lethal. The most contagious diseases known, measles and Pertussis (whooping cough), have a very high R0 but are easily preventable through vaccination. For COVID-19, although there are several variants with different contagion levels, its R0 is between 1.4 and 3.9. Thus, a disease with a high R0 is likely to be more susceptible to being spread through transportation systems. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/basic-reproduction-number-r0-of-major-infectious-diseases/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/basic-reproduction-number-r0-of-major-infectious-diseases/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/basic-reproduction-number-r0-of-major-infectious-diseases/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/basic-reproduction-number-r0-of-major-infectious-diseases/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Influenza-Like Illnesses per 100,000 Population, Selected Countries, 2003-2015](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/influenza-symptoms-selected-countries/) **Published:** January 28, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/influenza_illnesses_google.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Influenza-Like Illnesses per 100,000 Population, Selected Countries, 2003-2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Influenza Like Illnesses per 100000 Population Selected Countries 2003 2015*Source: http://www.google.org/flutrends/* The flu is an endemic disease, but its prevalence increases substantially during what is commonly called the “flu season”, roughly between October and March in the United States (Northern hemisphere) and between March and October in Australia (Southern hemisphere). The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses a network of doctors that report influenza-like illnesses (ILI) as a share of their patients. This data is collected and provides a good indicator of flu activity in the United States. However, this data takes one to two weeks to be collected and aggregated, implying a lapse in reporting. Since most of the population of the United States has access to the Internet and Google is the most used search engine, there is a high probability that once someone (or someone close such as a family member) develops flu-like symptoms, the information will be sought on the internet using a search engine. Thus, monitoring and aggregating revealing search queries in Google (about 45 terms such as “cold remedy”) and comparing them with total searches makes it possible to monitor almost in real-time influenza prevalence. The above graph displays such searches between 2003 and 2015. The evidence so far underlines a close match between Google searches and ILI, so search engine prevalence and influenza prevalence are similar. Comparing the United States and Australia, in addition to revealing a counter-seasonality, also underlines a level of “over-concern” within the American population, which may be related to how the media covers the flu season. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/influenza-symptoms-selected-countries/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/influenza-symptoms-selected-countries/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/influenza-symptoms-selected-countries/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/influenza-symptoms-selected-countries/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Factors behind the Global Spread of Diseases](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/main-factors-global-spread-diseases/) **Published:** March 15, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/factors_global_spread_diseases.png?resize=900%2C420&ssl=1 "Main Factors behind the Global Spread of Diseases | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Factors behind the Global Spread of DiseasesThe transmission of communicative diseases has not changed over time since linked to biological and physiological attributes. A disease has a level of virulence, and populations have levels of vulnerability. What has evolved with globalization is their epidemiology; the circumstances related to their spread among populations. The most significant factors include: - **Global travel**. The speed and connectivity offered by air travel have become the most important factors in the global spread of diseases. The large number of people traveling for touristic and business purposes increases exponentially the risk of spreading flu-like diseases (viruses) rapidly and over long distances. The underlying connectivity, business, and social interactions behind global air travel are associated with the initial epidemiology of an epidemic or a pandemic. - **Wars and conflicts**. While the number and intensity of conflicts have substantially decreased in recent decades, they can be enduring and pervasive in several areas of the world. The related collapse of public infrastructures such as hospitals and public utilities (water and sewage systems) increases the vulnerability of the concerned populations. Further, conflicts are often associated with the internal and external displacements of populations (refugees), which may spread diseases. - **Global trade**. A less prevalent factor, but the risks associated with the unintended transport of pests or contaminated food, where bacteria are the vector. Otherwise, there are limited risks of the spread of diseases through trade. - **Migration**. Large-scale migration conveys the risk of migrants transplanting endemic diseases to new locations. This is particularly the case of migrants clustered within specific areas of their host countries. - **Poverty**. While global poverty rates have plummeted, poverty is associated with malnutrition and unsanitary living conditions, making poor populations more susceptible. - **Medical practices**. The large diffusion of antibiotics had the unintended consequence of enforcing a pathogenic natural selection, implying that viruses and microbes have greater resistance. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/main-factors-global-spread-diseases/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/main-factors-global-spread-diseases/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/main-factors-global-spread-diseases/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-pandemics/main-factors-global-spread-diseases/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transitivity in a Graph](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/transitivity-graph/) **Published:** December 13, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transitivity_graph.png?resize=900%2C552&ssl=1 "Transitivity in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transitivity in a GraphTransitivity is the overall probability for the network to have adjacent nodes interconnected, thus revealing the existence of tightly connected communities (or clusters, subgroups, cliques). It is calculated by the ratio between the observed number of closed triplets and the maximum possible number of closed triplets in the graph. Complex networks and notably small-world networks often have a high transitivity and a low diameter. Because triplets are not the only way to look at neighborhood density among nodes, this measure can be extended to cycles of lengths 4 and 5. The above figure depicts graphs of growing transitivity levels. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/transitivity-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/transitivity-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/transitivity-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/transitivity-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Hierarchy in a Graph (h)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/hierarchy-graph-h/) **Published:** December 13, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/hierarchy_graph.png?resize=900%2C316&ssl=1 "Hierarchy in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Hierarchy in a Graph hThe exponent of the slope for the power-law line drawn in a bi-log plot of node frequency over degree distribution. Networks characterized by strong hierarchical configurations, such as scale-free networks (few large degree nodes and many small degree nodes), often have values over 1 or 2. A value lower than 1 indicates the absence of scale-free properties and a limited hierarchy among nodes. The above graph reveals a hierarchy of 1.338, which is fairly pronounced. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/hierarchy-graph-h/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/hierarchy-graph-h/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/hierarchy-graph-h/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/hierarchy-graph-h/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Gamma Index in a Graph](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/gamma-index-graph/) **Published:** December 13, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gamma_index.png?resize=900%2C483&ssl=1 "Gamma Index in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Gamma Index in a GraphA measure of connectivity that considers the relationship between the number of observed links and the number of possible links. The value of gamma is between 0 and 1, where a value of 1 indicates a completely connected network and would be extremely unlikely in reality. Gamma is an efficient value to measure the progression of a network in time. The above graphs have a growing level of connectivity, with graph D having the maximum number of links (9) and a gamma index of 1.0. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/gamma-index-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/gamma-index-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/gamma-index-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/gamma-index-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Alpha Index in a Graph](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/alpha-index-graph/) **Published:** December 13, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/alpha_index.png?resize=900%2C473&ssl=1 "Alpha Index in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Alpha Index in a GraphA measure of connectivity that evaluates the number of cycles in a graph compared to the maximum number of cycles. The higher the alpha index, the more a network is connected. Trees and simple networks will have a value of 0. A value of 1 indicates a completely connected network. Measures the level of connectivity independently of the number of nodes. A network rarely has an alpha value of 1 because this would imply serious redundancies. This index is also called Meshedness Coefficient in the literature on planar networks. The above graphs have a growing level of connectivity. While graph A has no cycles, graph D has the maximum possible number of cycles for a planar graph. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/alpha-index-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/alpha-index-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/alpha-index-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/alpha-index-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Beta Index in Graph](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/beta-index-graph/) **Published:** December 13, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/beta_index.png?resize=900%2C490&ssl=1 "Beta Index in Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Beta Index in GraphThe Beta Index measures the level of connectivity in a graph and is expressed by the relationship between the number of links (e) over the number of nodes (v). Trees and simple networks have a Beta value of less than one. A connected network with one cycle has a value of 1. More complex networks have a value greater than 1. In a network with a fixed number of nodes, the higher the number of links, the higher the number of paths possible in the network. Complex networks have a high Beta value. The rich-club coefficient is the Beta index applied to relations among larger order (degree) nodes; it verifies whether the connectivity is higher among larger degree nodes than the whole network. The above four graphs are of growing connectivity. Graphs A and B are not fully connected, and their Beta value is lower than 1. Graph C is connected and has a Beta value of 1. Graph D is even more connected with a Beta value of 1.25 ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/beta-index-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/beta-index-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/beta-index-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/beta-index-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Theta Index in Graph](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/theta-index-graph/) **Published:** December 13, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/theta_index.png?resize=900%2C522&ssl=1 "Theta Index in Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Theta Index in GraphThe Theta index measures the function of a node, that is, the average amount of traffic per intersection. The higher the index is, the greater the load of the network. The measure can also be applied to the number of links (edges). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/theta-index-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/theta-index-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/theta-index-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/theta-index-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Eta Index in a Graph](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/eta-index-graph/) **Published:** December 12, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/eta_index.png?resize=900%2C522&ssl=1 "Eta Index in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Eta Index in a GraphEta is the average length per link. Adding new nodes will cause a decrease in Eta as the average length per link declines. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/eta-index-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/eta-index-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/eta-index-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/eta-index-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Pi Index and the Shape of Transportation Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/pi-index-shape-transport-network/) **Published:** December 12, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pi_index_transport_networks.png?resize=900%2C472&ssl=1 "Pi Index and the Shape of Transportation Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Pi Index and the Shape of Transportation Networks*Source: Adapted from Kansky (1963), p. 23.* The Pi index is the ratio between the diameter (d; vertical axis) and length of the network (horizontal axis). A low Pi index is linked with a low level of network development (such as simple corridors), and a high value of Pi is linked with a more extensively developed network (a system of linked cities). *L(G)*D(d)*Pi*130 km75 km1.733245 km75 km3.266### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/pi-index-shape-transport-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/pi-index-shape-transport-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/pi-index-shape-transport-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/pi-index-shape-transport-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Effects of Topography on Route Selection](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/topography-route-selection/) **Published:** December 12, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/topography_route_selection2.png?resize=900%2C562&ssl=1 "The Effects of Topography on Route Selection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Effects of Topography on Route SelectionThe physical attributes of space, such as the topography, influence the route selection process since they impose a variable friction on movements. Consequently, a route between two locations (1 and 3, but also using intermediate location 2) may use a path that is not necessarily the most direct, but less costly to build and operate. The detour index (direct distance divided by transport distance) illustrates the importance of physical constraints on route selection. RouteDirect Distance (1-2-3)Transport DistanceDetour Indexa20 km20 km1.0b20 km25 km0.8c20 km30 km0.666Route (a) is the shortest in terms of distance, but not necessarily the least expensive in terms of construction and operating costs. Route (b) represents an attempt to reduce costs, and this is **at the expense of a direct path**. From a rational viewpoint, route (c) will be the one used to link locations 1 and 3. It offers a compromise between the lost distance (a higher detour) and the supplementary construction costs imposed by higher elevations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/topography-route-selection/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/topography-route-selection/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/topography-route-selection/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/topography-route-selection/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Cost in a Graph](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/cost-graph/) **Published:** December 12, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cost_in_graph.png?resize=900%2C500&ssl=1 "Cost in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Cost in a GraphThe cost in a graph represents the total length of the network measured in real transport distances where *aij* is the presence (1) or absence (0) of a link between *i* and *j* and *lij* is the length of the link. This measure can also be calculated based on two other dimensions of the network: the Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) and the Greedy Triangulation (GT). The MST represents the shortest and/or lowest cost subtree of the network; it can be obtained by applying, among other shortest path algorithms, the Kruskal algorithm, which allows finding the lowest cost route connecting all nodes in the network. The GT refers to the maximally connected planar graph keeping the same number of nodes as in the original network but adding all possible links without breaking its planarity. Such operations consider both the topology and the geography of the network while comparing the latter with its optimal configurations. More efficient networks have relative costs near 1, while less efficient networks are closer to 0. The Kruskal algorithm extracts the optimal cost route (B) from the original network (A). It is defined by one single line joining all nodes at minimum cost (Minimum Spanning Tree). The Greedy Triangulation (GT) adds missing links between all nodes so as to make it complete (maximal) without breaking its planarity (C). Values of 10 at each newly created link were attributed artificially due to the absence of distance units, but would, in reality, be less evenly distributed. In its current form, the network (A) is more efficient in terms of weight (CostRel = 0.642) than in terms of links (CostRel = 0.389) with reference to the optimal situations B and C. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/cost-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/cost-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/cost-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/cost-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Potential Services Offered by a Logistics Zone](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/table_logistics_services/) **Published:** January 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_services_logistics_zone.png?resize=900%2C384&ssl=1 "Freight Services Offered by a Logistics Zone | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Freight Services Offered by a Logistics Zone![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/corporate_services_logistics_zone.png?resize=900%2C347&ssl=1 "Corporate Services Offered by a Logistics Zone | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Corporate Services Offered by a Logistics Zone![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/personal_services_logistics_zone.png?resize=900%2C114&ssl=1 "Personal Services Offered by a Logistics Zone | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Personal Services Offered by a Logistics Zone*Source: adapted from CPCS, DAMF Consulting and J-P Rodrigue (2010) Aménagement d’un pôle logistique au Québec, Volet 4.2 : Évaluation des services requis par un pôle logistique.* Services to freight, corporations, and people are fundamental elements of a value proposition of a logistic zone. The above table provides an extensive list of services found in a logistic zone. The more complex and extensive the logistic zone, particularly if co-located with a port, rail, or barge terminal, the more extensive the services that can be found. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/table_logistics_services/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/table_logistics_services/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/table_logistics_services/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/table_logistics_services/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Economic Benefits and Costs of Logistic Zones](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/economic-benefits-logistics-zones/) **Published:** January 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economic_benefits_costs_logistics_zones.png?resize=900%2C331&ssl=1 "Economic Benefits and Costs of Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Economic Benefits and Costs of Logistic Zones- **Benefits**. Job creation is one of the most common expected economic benefits from the setting or expansion of a logistic zone, either direct (employment in the zone), indirect (such as service employment), or induced (employment derived from greater flows along the supply chain). The development of a logistic zone is also prone to attract additional capital investment in infrastructure, expanding the quantity and quality of regional transport infrastructures. Improvements in freight distribution are associated with a better level of inventory management and lower costs to customers. New logistics firms bring innovative and best practices, namely with technology such as information systems. Trade, both exports and imports, is promoted, inciting comparative advantages. A better rationalization of distribution is also associated with reduced congestion and lower environmental emissions. - **Costs**. Since many logistic zone projects are financed in whole or in part by public funding, there is an opportunity cost since the funds allocated to the project will not be available for other projects. Therefore, the public capital provided is a burden to the taxpayers. As a logistic zone often incites the rationalization of the regional freight distribution system, some corporations may take this opportunity to close down less efficient facilities and supply chains that are less performing. The site of the logistic zone is also likely to have negative community impacts with more traffic on local roads and noise. However, these impacts can be mitigated with proper planning. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/economic-benefits-logistics-zones/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/economic-benefits-logistics-zones/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/economic-benefits-logistics-zones/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/economic-benefits-logistics-zones/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Functions Performed at Logistic Zones](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistics-zones-functions/) **Published:** December 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/functions_logistics_zones.png?resize=900%2C544&ssl=1 "Functions Performed at Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Functions Performed at Logistic Zones*Source: adapted from M. Rahimi, A. Asef-Vaziri and R. Harrison (2008) Integrating Inland Ports into the Intermodal Goods Movement System for the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, Metrans Transportation Center, Project 07-01.* Among the functions that provide added value for freight: - **Processing**. An array of transformations performed on the goods being carried as they are transiting. They can include packaging, assembly, or testing. The location of these activities depends on the type of product and the market. - **Distribution**. An array of operations performed on the cargo so that it can be distributed more efficiently. Consolidation and deconsolidation are common operations, with transloading and cross-docking being aimed at changing the load unit. - **Customs clearance**. Capacity to ensure that the inbound cargo is compliant with national rules and regulations. Correspond to the official port of entry where cargo can enter or exit a country. - **Foreign trade zone**. A sanctioned site where foreign and domestic goods are considered to be outside of the customs territory. It becomes possible to use this status to perform activities in a manner less subject to duties and taxation. - **Container depot**. A facility where containers are stored and made available to the maritime shipping and/or inland distribution market. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistics-zones-functions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistics-zones-functions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistics-zones-functions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistics-zones-functions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Logistic Centric Industrial Park, Wheatland, Pennsylvania](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistic_centric_industrial_park/) **Published:** January 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Logistic Wheatland Pa](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistic_wheatland_pa.jpg?resize=900%2C571&ssl=1 "Logistic Centric Industrial Park, Wheatland, Pennsylvania | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistic Centric Industrial Park Wheatland Pennsylvania*Source: Adapted from Google Earth.* A logistic-centric industrial park is a cluster of activities related to freight distribution that are not related to an intermodal terminal, but to road accessibility. The above site depicts such a zone, located halfway between Chicago and New York on the I-80, which is the major highway servicing this corridor. Chicago is commonly the hub for long-distance rail services carrying import cargo from the West Coast (e.g. through Los Angeles / Long Beach). At Chicago, many freight forwarders elect to switch their East Coast bound cargo to the road instead of rail. This is in part due to the opportunity of deconsolidating cargo as well as faster delivery times. Such a strategy has favored the setting of logistic zones at locations along major highway axis between the Midwest and the East Coast. They include a range of activities such as warehousing, cross-docking, chassis depots, as well as basic supporting activities like restaurants and hotels. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistic_centric_industrial_park/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistic_centric_industrial_park/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistic_centric_industrial_park/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/logistic_centric_industrial_park/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Advantages of Port-Centric Logistic Zones](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/port-centric-logistics-advantages/) **Published:** January 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/advantages_port_centric.png?resize=900%2C342&ssl=1 "Main Advantages of Port-Centric Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Advantages of Port Centric Logistic ZonesActivities related to freight distribution had historically been located directly adjacent to port terminal facilities and had a notable spatial imprint. Containerization incited the development of new terminal facilities and the relocation of many warehousing activities into peripheral greenfield sites, leaving former warehousing and industrial land idle, abandoned, and often reconverted to other uses. The outcome for many container ports was a disconnection between the port and the distribution activities it was supporting. With growing levels of congestion around several ports, this strategy is being reassessed as supply chain managers consider the advantages of port-centric logistic zones: - **Land**. The developers of port-centric logistic zones, commonly port authorities, have secured a significant real estate base next to port facilities; in co-location. This often occurs with the conversion of brownfield sites (e.g. abandoned industrial or warehousing facilities). As many port facilities are near central areas, recruiting labor tends to be less problematic than at peripheral sites. - **Drayage**. Since port-centric logistic zones are adjacent to terminal facilities, trucks have direct access to terminal gates and are able to retrieve and deliver containers quickly. Since trucks do not require to go through local roads, weight restrictions are less impairing the stuffing of containers. There is the potential to take full advantage of the weight limits of container loads and have more freight loads being carried. - **Container assets**. Port-centric logistic zones maximize the efficiency of transloading (e.g. transferring the contents of maritime containers into domestic containers or truckloads), which lowers dwell time. Maritime shipping companies are thus able to quickly get their empty containers back, which can then be repositioned to loading locations. - **Supply chain management**. There are several supply chain advantages to using port-centric logistic zones. Depending on the configuration of the hinterland (most of the customers within 600 km), the distribution center can provide direct deliveries by truck to customers, which is associated with lower lead times and inventory levels. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/port-centric-logistics-advantages/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/port-centric-logistics-advantages/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/port-centric-logistics-advantages/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/port-centric-logistics-advantages/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Logistic Zones](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistic-zones/) **Published:** January 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/typology_logistics_zones.png?resize=900%2C363&ssl=1 "Types of Logistic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Logistic ZonesThe main criteria that distinguish logistic zones is related to their relation with transport terminals and the array of services present: - **Intermodal Co-location**. A direct integration with an intermodal terminal, which involves an adjacent setting. **Port-centric** logistic zones are co-located by a port terminal, which is often the outcome of a strategy spearheaded by port authorities. An **inland port** (or dry port) has a similar co-location setting, but in this case, with an intermodal rail terminal (on some occasions with a barge terminal) along an inland transport corridor. Various actors are involved in the setting of these logistic zones, such as local governments, rail operators, and commercial real estate developers. - **Intermodal Proximity**. A step below co-location is relative proximity to an intermodal terminal (port or rail), which characterizes logistics parks. Although they were not established directly in relation to an inland terminal, they are connected to the facility as a customer. If there is no direct proximity or relation to an intermodal terminal, the logistic zone is simply an **industrial park** taking advantage of available land and road access. - **Freight services**. A **freight village** represents a specific logistic zone in the sense that it has a high orientation towards services such as hotels, convention centers and office space for third party logistics providers. They thus have a wide variety of potential settings, but are often found within logistics parks. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistic-zones/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistic-zones/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistic-zones/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistic-zones/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Taxonomy of Logistics Clusters](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-clusters/) **Published:** January 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/taxonomy_logistics_clusters.png?resize=900%2C517&ssl=1 "Taxonomy of Logistics Clusters | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Taxonomy of Logistics Clusters*Source: Taxonomy adapted from Sheffi, Y. (2012) Logistics Clusters: Delivering Value and Driving Growth, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.* Logistics clusters can be classified according to three main criteria: - **Modal orientation**. Relates to the primary transportation mode to which they are accessible. In the most optimal form, this accessibility involves a [co-location](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1570) where the logistics zone is directly adjacent to a terminal facility. [Port-centric](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3335), [airport-centric](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3878), and rail-centric (e.g. [inland port](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8139)) zones are the main forms of co-location. An inland logistics cluster is usually connected to a port facility through a corridor, namely a rail or a barge link. Since roads are considered a rather ubiquitous transportation mode, logistics zones are rarely defined according to roads. It is assumed that they have good road access. - **Geographical scope**. Relates to the general market areas being served by the logistics cluster. This ranges from global to urban supply chains ([city logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2792)). Port and airport-centric logistics zones are usually connected to global supply chains, while rail-centric logistics zones are usually bound to a regional market. There are also logistics zones designed to mainly service urban markets. - **Function**. Logistics zones can have a functional specialization with some oriented towards customs clearance as well as being [foreign trade zones](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8173). It is common for logistics zones to offer a wide array of functions to widen their customer base. Others may focus on a single commodity or a sector, such as agribusiness or pharmaceuticals. The modal orientation of the logistics cluster is commonly related to its function. For instance, an airport-centric logistics zone is likely to be highly involved in customs clearance and high added-value logistics chains. There is no formal taxonomy about how to define logistics clusters, but modal orientation tends to be the most [common criteria](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8295). The great majority are labeled as **logistics parks**, which in their simplest form, are areas that have been zoned for the development of logistics and related activities. Often, the zoning is simply industrial (an industrial park), and logistics activities are the most prevalent, not necessarily by design but by the outcome. However, a logistics park should also have a functional relation with a terminal facility, particularly if it is to assume a geographical scope beyond the region. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-clusters/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-clusters/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-clusters/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-clusters/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Evolution of the Scope and Taxonomy of Logistic Areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-zones-evolution/) **Published:** January 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_scope_taxonomy_logistics.png?resize=900%2C546&ssl=1 "The Evolution of the Scope and Taxonomy of Logistic Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Evolution of the Scope and Taxonomy of Logistic Areas*Source: Adapted from: T. Notteboom, F. Parola, G. Satta and M. Risitano (2016) “A Taxonomy of Logistics Centres: Overcoming Conceptual Ambiguity”, Transport Reviews, 37(3), pp. 1-24.* The setting of logistics activities has been contingent on an evolutionary process impacted by changes in technology, the extent and capacity of transport infrastructure, and public policy. This implies that both the scope and taxonomy of logistics activities have changed to become more comprehensive, integrated, and complex: - **Logistics**. The [evolution of the scope of logistics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4438) leads from the context where logistics tasks were highly fragmented to its functional integration and, eventually, its automation. Initially, warehousing was at the core of what was then logistics; a simple function of storage since most of the goods was produced and sold nationally. Consolidating logistics tasks eventually led to the distinct branches of material management and physical distribution, although physical distribution appears to have emerged first. With ongoing globalization and the diffusion of information technologies, the functional integration of tasks led to the formal emergence and recognition of logistics in the 1980s as a field of application. Then, logistics increased in scope to become supply chain management; the use of logistics not just to improve the efficiency of freight distribution but to improve its competitiveness. This includes integrating marketing, finance, and additional information technologies to coordinate production, distribution, and consumption. - **Transportation**. Palletization enabled by the 1950s transportation load units that are much more suitable to the application of logistics since different cargo types could be more effectively stored on racks and moved between transportation modes (particularly between warehouses and trucks). Containerization opened a whole new set of opportunities for logistics by expanding trade opportunities and the division of production. This was further expanded by the setting of intermodal rail systems effectively connecting seaports and their hinterland. Logistics took a global reach since the means of transport became further mechanized and automated. Advances in warehouse management and sorting capabilities led to their further integration with freight distribution, particularly with cross-docking that enabled flow-based logistics. Air cargo operations, driven by the growth of high-added value goods such as electronics, also led to the setting of their logistical activities. - **Public policy**. Public sector involvement in logistics remained indirect for an extended period of time, mainly to attract private investments. The focus was initially on trade liberalization, where trade barriers became less restrictive, particularly between neighboring nations. This indirectly favored the expansion of logistics activities. The 1970s saw a further focus on promoting exports as a tool for economic development, particularly in the then-newly industrialized economies of East Asia (Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Singapore). As globalization became more evident, the focus expanded towards trade facilitation, such as improving customs procedures and the regulatory hurdles to trade as well as mitigating key infrastructure bottlenecks. More recently, many public entities started to intervene directly in the setting of comprehensive logistics projects, often as landlords (setting of special public agencies). Trade and logistics were perceived to be of national interest and fundamental to the competitiveness of nations. The [taxonomy of logistics areas](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8295) (clusters) is commonly considered from a modal orientation (port, rail, airport, road), its geographical scope (national, regional, international), and function (single to multiple). Still, this taxonomy is the outcome of an evolution of the regulatory setting, the types of terminals, and the main activities involved in logistics: - **Regulations**. Historically, the concept of free zones (areas having a preferential taxation regime, or being outside the existing taxation regime) is enduring, since they can be found through Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Contemporary free trade zones were set through the 1930s and 1960s, mostly to [facilitate trade](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8173) and some level of manufacturing. The model was expanded in the 1980s and 1990s to focus on manufacturing, with export processing zones and special economic zones offering incentives (such as low taxes) as long as a large share of the output was exported. This became the standard regulatory template for many developing economies as a tool to develop their international logistics sector. - **Terminals**. Transport terminals have also evolved to support new logistical configurations. The standalone intermodal terminal simply transiting cargo became, in many cases, an inland (or dry) port with the co-location of logistics zones. A similar process occurred along large port gateways that became more closely integrated with their hinterland, with corridors connecting them to inland ports. - **Activities**. As a planned cluster of activities, the industrial park emerged in the 1960s and took different forms depending on the focus (light manufacturing, heavy industries, agribusiness). Formally designed logistics zones emerged in the 1990s when the footprint taken by logistical activities expanded, requiring its own space, investment, and governance structure. The concept of logistics zones further expanded in the 2000s with logistical platforms focusing on a range of services and infrastructure supporting supply chains. The emergence of global logistics hubs can be observed at a sufficient scale and scope. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-zones-evolution/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-zones-evolution/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-zones-evolution/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-zones-freight-distribution-clusters/taxonomy-logistics-zones-evolution/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Changes in the Diameter of a Graph](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/diameter-change-graph/) **Published:** December 12, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cycles_graph2.png?resize=900%2C446&ssl=1 "Number of Cycles | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Number of CyclesA, B, C, and D graphs have respective diameters of 2, 3, 4, and 3. Adding a link on graph C between nodes 4 and 6 reduced the diameter by 1 (graph D). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/diameter-change-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/diameter-change-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/diameter-change-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-measures-indices/diameter-change-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Isthmus Connection](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/isthmus-connection-graph/) **Published:** December 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/isthmus_connection.png?resize=900%2C483&ssl=1 "Isthmus Connection | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Isthmus ConnectionOn this graph, link (3,4) is an isthmus since removing the link creates two connected subgraphs. Link (4,5) is not an isthmus since removing the link does create two subgraphs, but one graph is composed of only one node (5). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/isthmus-connection-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/isthmus-connection-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/isthmus-connection-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/isthmus-connection-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Articulation Node](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/articulation-node/) **Published:** December 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/articulation_node.png?resize=900%2C451&ssl=1 "Articulation Node | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Articulation NodeBy removing node 1 from graph A, we obtain graph B, which is connected. 1 is thus not an articulation node. If we remove node 4 from graph A, the result is an unconnected graph C where *p*=2 (two subgraphs). Node 4 is thus the only articulation node of graph A. Removing any other node does not create two separate subgraphs. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/articulation-node/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/articulation-node/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/articulation-node/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/articulation-node/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Connectivity in a Graph](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connectivity/) **Published:** December 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/graph_connectivity.png?resize=900%2C600&ssl=1 "Connectivity in a Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Connectivity in a GraphConnectivity is dependent on the arrangement of links between nodes, including their direction. In the above figure, the two graphs are connected, but graph B is more connected than graph A since it has two [circuits](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6023) compared with only one for graph A. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connectivity/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connectivity/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connectivity/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connectivity/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Dual Graph](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/dual-graph/) **Published:** December 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dual_graph2.png?resize=900%2C340&ssl=1 "Dual Graph | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Dual GraphA method in space syntax that considers edges as nodes and nodes as edges. In urban street networks, large avenues made of several segments become single nodes, while intersections with other avenues or streets become links (edges). This method is particularly useful for revealing hierarchical structures in a planar network. Based on a planar network such as urban streets (A), space syntax proposes to consider line segments differently from traditional graph theory, where links (edges) are streets and intersections are nodes (vertices). The axial map (B) first defines the line segments based on their continuity (e.g. based on names of avenues and boulevards or other qualitative criteria). The dual graph (C) represents those segments as nodes and their intersections as links. It allows for discovering hidden structural properties of planar networks, such as the hierarchy of arteries and the true connectivity of the network. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/dual-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/dual-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/dual-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/dual-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Ego Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/ego-network-graph/) **Published:** December 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ego_network2.png?resize=900%2C358&ssl=1 "Ego Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Ego NetworkFor a given node, the ego network corresponds to a sub-graph where only its adjacent neighbors and their mutual links are included. The respective ego networks of node 10 (A) and node 8 (B) exhibit similar structures, although their actual situation in the whole network differs significantly (node 10 is more remote than node 8). It expresses more precisely the local environment of a node than the sole order (degree). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/ego-network-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/ego-network-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/ego-network-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/ego-network-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Length of a Link, Connection or Path](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/length-link-connection-path/) **Published:** December 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/link_connection_path.png?resize=900%2C456&ssl=1 "Length of a Link, Connection or Path | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Length of a Link Connection or PathOn this graph, the length of link (2,3) is 4 km, and the length of the path between 1 and 6 (1-4-5-6; 3 segments) is 15 km. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/length-link-connection-path/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/length-link-connection-path/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/length-link-connection-path/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/length-link-connection-path/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Connections and Paths](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connections-paths-graph/) **Published:** December 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/connections_paths.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Connections and Paths | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Connections and PathsIn graph A, there are 5 links \[(1,2), (2,1), (2,3), (4,3), (4,4)\] and 3 connections \[(1-2), (2-3), (3-4)\]. On graph B, there is a path between 1 and 3, but on graph C there is no path between 1 and 3. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connections-paths-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connections-paths-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connections-paths-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/connections-paths-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Planar and Non-Planar Graphs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/planar-non-planar-graph/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/planar_non_planar_graphs.png?resize=900%2C424&ssl=1 "Planar and Non-Planar Graphs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Planar and Non Planar GraphsGraph A is planar since no link overlaps with another. Graph B is non-planar since many links are overlapping. Also, the links of graph B cannot be reconfigured in a manner that would make it planar. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/planar-non-planar-graph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/planar-non-planar-graph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/planar-non-planar-graph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/planar-non-planar-graph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Impacts of E-commerce on Freight Distribution](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ecommerce-freight-distribution-impacts/) **Published:** November 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/impacts_ecommerce_distribution.png?resize=900%2C292&ssl=1 "The Impacts of E-commerce on Freight Distribution | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Impacts of E commerce on Freight DistributionAlthough several aspects of e-commerce are perceived as conventional retailing, it can better be understood from a freight distribution perspective since the distribution and delivery aspects are fundamental. Because of its operational characteristics, e-commerce has four fundamental impacts on freight distribution: - **Distribution Pattern**. The growth in home deliveries is one of the most [tangible impacts of e-commerce](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4524) as consumers are switching a growing share of their consumption (particularly discretionary) to purchases made online. Instead of a retail consumption pattern involving consumers going to stores and carrying back home their purchases, with e-commerce, most of these purchases are delivered through parcel services. This is changing the scale of last-mile logistics with the growing role of parcel deliveries and strategies to ensure that these parcels reach their consignees. - **Real Estate Footprint**. The transition towards online purchases is reducing the demand for standard retail activities, implying a [downward pressure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=612) on the conventional retail footprint. Many large chain retailers have been substantially reducing their footprint in recent years. Paradoxically, since home deliveries are distribution-based activities, the growth of e-commerce involves an increase in the warehousing footprint. This may also change as well real estate (and rent) values of some commercial areas since the location dynamics of distribution centers tend to favor suburban or exurban locations. Stores can also be designed to cater more effectively to the characteristics of e-commerce, acting partially as showrooms, warehouses, and pickup locations (known as omni stores). - **Logistical Facilities**. E-commerce has required the development of entirely new types of distribution facilities, such as e-fulfillment centers that are designed to service large volumes of heterogeneous orders to be shipped in parcels. More than any other type of distribution center, the high throughput requirements of logistical facilities have pressured the need for automation. E-fulfillment centers have developed random storage operations because it matches online orders and the large variety of goods carried. Individual goods are stored randomly on racks, with each location recorded for later retrieval. The main advantages include a reduction in the average retrieval time for an item since its inventory is stored at several locations in the distribution center. Since online orders usually involve single items shipped as single parcels, random storage matches the volume (single) and frequency (somewhat random) of e-commerce orders. This storage strategy reduces the warehousing footprint since inventory is stored in unallocated space, so the storage capacity has a higher utilization level. - **Vertical Integration**. E-commerce is reaching a throughput level giving some of its main actors significant leverage as users of logistical and transportation services. Many are developing capabilities as third party and fourth party logistics service providers, following vertical integration strategies with segments of freight distribution (home deliveries, air freight, maritime shipping). Once they reach a sufficient throughput level, online retailers may take stakes in carrier services, such as parcel deliveries by truck, and even develop their own air freight services. The setting of sortation centers, urban logistics depots and freight stations (pick up points) are also part of a vertical integration strategy. The development of non-vessel operating common carrier services is an additional strategy undertaken by major online retailers relying on containerized shipping (international sourcing) and able to generate substantial container volumes. Significant changes in contemporary logistics and freight distribution are thus being driven by e-commerce, which can be labeled as [distribution-based consumption](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2860). If the [automation and robotization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1363) of several manufacturing activities are considered, then even more significant changes can be expected since the means of production, distribution, and consumption are concomitantly changing. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ecommerce-freight-distribution-impacts/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ecommerce-freight-distribution-impacts/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ecommerce-freight-distribution-impacts/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/ecommerce-freight-distribution-impacts/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Nodal Region](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/nodal-region/) **Published:** December 11, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/nodal_region2.png?resize=900%2C358&ssl=1 "Nodal Region | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Nodal RegionA nodal region refers to a subgroup (tree) of nodes polarized by an independent node (whose largest flow link connects a smaller node) and a number of subordinate nodes (whose largest flow link connects a larger node). Single or multiple linkage analysis methods are used to reveal such regions by removing secondary links between nodes while keeping only the heaviest links. D and F are independent nodes because their largest flow is directed towards smaller nodes. A, B, C, and E, G are subordinate nodes because their largest flow is directed towards larger nodes (D and F). This algorithm can also be applied to directed graphs and may extend to secondary links (e.g. for each node, including up to 50% of its total traffic) to avoid losing too much information. Such methods are also labeled single linkage analysis (largest flows only) and multiple linkage analysis (largest flows over a certain threshold). They are often used to reveal functional regions based on flow patterns among localities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/nodal-region/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/nodal-region/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/nodal-region/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/graph-theory-definition-properties/nodal-region/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Topological and Contiguous Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessplace/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/topological_contiguous_accessibility.png?resize=900%2C518&ssl=1 "Topological and Contiguous Accessibility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Topological and Contiguous AccessibilityAccessibility can be measured in two different ways: - **Topological**. Considers a system of nodes linked by transport infrastructures, implying discrete entities. In this case, accessibility is calculated at the nodal level and a **function of the network structure**. For seven nodes (a to g) located at an equal distance from one another, node *d* is the most accessible because it represents the **minimal summation of total distances** with all other nodes. Accessibility is measured only for nodes, while the intervening spaces are not considered outside the distance they represent. - **Contiguous**. Considers a continuous space, here represented as a grid where each cell was assigned a level of accessibility. In this case, accessibility is a **function of the spatial structure**. Although accessibility values are here qualitative (ranking from least to most) a quantitative value can also be allocated for each cell. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessplace/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessplace/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessplace/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessplace/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Potential Accessibility](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/potaccessibility/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/potential_accessibility2.png?resize=900%2C560&ssl=1 "Potential Accessibility | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Potential AccessibilityBy considering the same valued graph matrix (L) as the previous example and the population matrix P, the **potential accessibility matrix**, P(G), can be calculated: - The value of all corresponding cells (A-A, B-B, etc.) equals the value of their respective attributes (P). - The value of all non-corresponding cells equals their attribute divided by the corresponding cell in the L-matrix. The higher the value, the more a location is accessible, node C being the most accessible. The matrix being non-transposable, the summation of rows differs from the summation of columns, underlining their respective attractiveness and emissiveness. Node C has more emissiveness than attractiveness (2525.7 versus 2121.3), while Node B has more attractiveness than emissiveness (1358.7 versus 1266.1). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/potaccessibility/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/potaccessibility/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/potaccessibility/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/potaccessibility/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Valued Graph Matrix (L-Matrix)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/valuedgraph/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/valued_graph_l_matrix.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "Valued Graph Matrix (L-Matrix) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Valued Graph Matrix L MatrixThe construction of the valued graph matrix (L-matrix) follows the following procedure: - **The distances in the network are transcribed in matrix L1** (direct connectivity distance) for each pair directly connected. An infinite (missing) value is given for pairs not directly connected. - **Calculation of the Nth order L matrix**. The operation is similar to the creation of the Shimbel Matrix. What differs is that we are not working with the minimum number of paths, but with the minimal distance, which could give different results. The shortest path between node A and B is obviously the A-B link. However, there is also an A-C-B link, which summation of distances could be smaller (actually, it is not for this case). The calculation of the L2 matrix requires the cross-summation of the L1 matrix, where each cell in a column is added with each cell in a row. The B-A cell on matrix L2 is thus calculated by the cross-summation of column B and row A. Only the smallest value of the five operations is kept, which is 10 in this case. - Since the above network has a diameter of 2, only two steps are necessary, and the **L2 matrix becomes the L-Matrix**. The summation of each row on the L2 matrix represents the minimal distance required to reach all the other nodes in the network. For node B, it is 43. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/valuedgraph/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/valuedgraph/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/valuedgraph/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/valuedgraph/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Shimbel Distance Matrix (D-Matrix)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/shimbelmatrix/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/shimbel_distance_d_matrix.png?resize=900%2C482&ssl=1 "Shimbel Distance Matrix (D-Matrix) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Shimbel Distance Matrix D MatrixThe Shimbel Distance Matrix (or D-Matrix) holds the shortest paths between the nodes of a network, which are always equal or lesser to the diameter. It only considers the shortest path and does not account for alternative routes. To construct this matrix, C matrices of nth order are built until the network’s diameter (d) is reached. So, if a network has a diameter of 4, four C matrices must be constructed. Each C matrix is converted into a corresponding D matrix. In this case, two C matrices, C1 (connectivity matrix) and C2 (two-linkages paths; C1\*C1), are built since the diameter is 2. - **The first order Shimbel Matrix** (D1) is a simple adaptation of C1, where all the direct links are kept (blue cells). A value of 0 is assigned for all the cii cells since the shortest path between a node, and itself is always 0 (green cells). Cells with a value of 0 in the C1 matrix (outside cii cells) remain unfilled on the D1 matrix. - **The second order Shimbel Matrix** (D2) is built from the first order matrix D1 but only from its unfilled cells. A value of 2 is assigned for each cell on the D2 matrix with a value greater than 0 on the C2 matrix, but if a value of 1 already exists (D1 matrix), this value is kept. This means that on the D2 matrix of the above figure, only the values of the blue cells have been changed to 2. Since the diameter of this network is 2, the **D2 matrix is the Shimbel distance matrix**. - **Nth order Shimbel Matrix** (DN). For a network having a diameter of 3, a D3 matrix would have to be built from a C3 matrix (C1\*C2) because at least 1 cell would have remained empty in the D2 matrix. Repeat the construction of Nth order Shimbel matrices until the diameter is reached. - **The Shimbel Matrix (D)**. The order of the Shimbel distance matrix that corresponds to the diameter is the D matrix. The summation of rows or columns represents the Shimbel distance for each node. In the D matrix of the above example, node C has the least summation of shortest paths (4) and is thus the most accessible, followed by node A (5), nodes B and D (6), and node E (7). The total summation of minimal paths between all nodes is 28. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/shimbelmatrix/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/shimbelmatrix/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/shimbelmatrix/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/shimbelmatrix/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The "Four Ts" in International Trade](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/four-ts-trade/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/four_t_trade.png?resize=900%2C341&ssl=1 "The "Four Ts" in International Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Four Ts in International Trade*Source: Adapted from Spulber, D.F. (2007) Global Competitive Strategy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.* There are four major cost components in international trade, known as the “Four Ts”: - **Transaction costs**. The costs related to the economic exchange behind trade. It can include the gathering of information, negotiating, and enforcing contracts, [letters of credit](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7214), and transactions, including [monetary exchange rates](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4114), if a transaction takes place in another currency. Transactions taking place within a corporation are commonly lower than for transactions taking place between corporations. Still, with e-commerce and e-documentation, they have declined substantially. - **Tariff and non-tariff costs**. Levies imposed by governments on a realized trade flow. They can involve a direct monetary cost according to the product being traded (e.g. agricultural goods, finished goods, petroleum, etc.) or standards to be abided to for a product to be allowed entry into a foreign market. A variety of [multilateral and bilateral arrangements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4082) have reduced tariffs, and internationally recognized standards (e.g. ISO) have marginalized non-tariffs barriers. - **Transport costs**. The full costs of shipping goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. Containerization, intermodal transportation, and economies of scale have reduced transport costs significantly. - **Time costs**. The delays related to the lag between an order and the moment it is received by the purchaser, which is often referred to as inventory in transit. Long-distance international trade is often associated with time delays that can be compounded by [custom inspection delays](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4077). Supply chain management strategies are able to mitigate effectively time constraints, namely through the concepts such as just-in-time distribution supported by a regular frequency of deliveries. Each of the costs has an **exogenous** (between countries) and **endogenous** dimension (within countries): - **Separation factors**, such as distance, transportation costs, and travel time, are imposing a friction to trade imposed by geography and the structure of international transportation networks. Transportation infrastructure, namely ports, can help mitigate these seperation factors. Countries that are part of the same trade agreement usually have lower separation factors than countries within a similar distance, but outside the trade agreement. - **Country-specific factors**, such as customs procedures, are dominantly under the control of the concerned nation and can impact trade negatively if tariffs are high and restrictions are imposed on specific goods. The national transportation system, particularly its main gateways, and corridors, has an important influence on the performance of international trade flows as it involves the fundamental “first and last mile leg” in a supply chain. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/four-ts-trade/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/four-ts-trade/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/four-ts-trade/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/four-ts-trade/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Creation of a Connectivity Matrix with a Link Table](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/connectivity-matrix-creation-link-table/) **Published:** December 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/connectivity_matrix_link_table.png?resize=900%2C387&ssl=1 "Creation of a Connectivity Matrix with a Link Table | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Creation of a Connectivity Matrix with a Link TableA links table can easily be used to construct a connectivity matrix, a core element for measuring accessibility. It can be achieved by using a simple algorithm: - The values of all the cells *Cij* in the connectivity matrix C are set to 0. The default assumption is that nodes are not linked. - For each record of the links table, the link becomes a connection (value of 1). - For each record of the links table, an inverted connection is created if the link is bi-directional (not a one way). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/connectivity-matrix-creation-link-table/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/connectivity-matrix-creation-link-table/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/connectivity-matrix-creation-link-table/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/network-data-models/connectivity-matrix-creation-link-table/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Relationship between Distance and Opportunities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessopportunities-2/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/distance_opportunities2.png?resize=900%2C467&ssl=1 "Relationship between Distance and Opportunities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Relationship between Distance and OpportunitiesAccessibility is a determining factor behind the availability of opportunities (jobs, customers, suppliers, etc.) and if they can be realized or not. In a high accessibility setting, an individual will have access to a wider array of goods and services, employment as well as additional social interactions. The same applies to a business with potentially more customers and suppliers. Keeping accessibility constant, density is also a factor impacting opportunities. In a high density setting, a distance will confer more opportunities than the same distance in a low density setting. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessopportunities-2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessopportunities-2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessopportunities-2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transportation-accessibility/accessopportunities-2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Map Elements](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/major-map-elements/) **Published:** December 23, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/major_map_elements.png?resize=900%2C625&ssl=1 "Major Map Elements | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Map ElementsThe above map contains elements that are fundamental to cartography: - The **title** should be clear, concise and placed at a prominent place which does hot overlap with other elements. - The **scale** is also relevant to help the reader visualize the geographical extent of what is being displayed (although on the above map, the scale is not necessary since it deals with a well known feature; the continental United States). - The **projection** and credits (such as the source and the cartographer) can also be stated. They are particularly useful for someone wishing to retrace the source data and replicate the map if necessary. - By convention, the top of the map is the north. If this is different, a **north arrow** should be placed on the map (it is pointless to place a north arrow on a map where the north is straight up). - A **locator map** is a more advanced element used to situate the main map in a wider geographical context. This is particularly relevant when the location depicted is generally unfamiliar to the average reader, notably when shown at a large scale (in the above case, a locator map is not very relevant since the general location of the United States is well known). - An **inset** can be considered as a sub-map depicting in more details a portion of a larger map. An inset frame is also used to specifically locate the extent of the inset map on the greater map (above, an inset of Long Island is provided as well as the inset frame on the larger map). Major map elements can be categorized as: - **Common elements**. Can be found on the great majority of map projects (scale, legend, north arrow and source). - **Context sensitive elements**. They are related the nature of the information being displayed (title, projection, legend, credits). - **Effective communication elements**. Used to improve the readability of the map (locator maps, insets). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/major-map-elements/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/major-map-elements/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/major-map-elements/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/major-map-elements/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Visual Resources and Geographical Features](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-geography/) **Published:** December 23, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/visual_resources_geographical_features2.png?resize=900%2C362&ssl=1 "Visual Resources and Geographical Features | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Visual Resources and Geographical FeaturesSeveral visual resources are unique to cartography. The most prominent is the direction indicator (known as the “North Arrow”) as well as the scale indicator. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A.3 - Symbolization of Transport Features in a GIS](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** #### Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue > Symbolization is the set of graphic methods used to convert cartographic information into a visual representation of transportation features. CHAPTER CONTENTS [Toggle](#) - [1. Cartography and Symbolization](#1_Cartography_and_Symbolization) - [2. Visual Resources](#2_Visual_Resources) - [3. Symbolization Strategies for Transport Attributes](#3_Symbolization_Strategies_for_Transport_Attributes) # 1. Cartography and Symbolization **Cartography** is the art and science of expressing the physical, economic, and social features of the earth graphically. Cartography is a **communication tool** that conveys a message to an audience through a medium, the map. The better the cartography, the more likely that this message will be conveyed effectively. Some forms of communication are better than others, so all maps are not equal, even if they could represent the same features. Since many transport projects have high visibility and significant capital costs, it is surprising that visual resources, particularly cartography, are often neglected or not used properly. The cartographic quality of many transport analyses is commonly poor. This stems from the fact that many transport practitioners are engineers or economists by training, disciplines in which cartographic expression is not emphasized or even considered. Among transport geographers using GIS-T (Geographic Information Systems for Transportation), the cartographic output is also commonly neglected, again an outcome of the priority placed on analytical methods. Even if cartography does not appear to be a feature that is analytically strong (in contradiction to the GIS packages that produce them), a proper cartographic expression has become a crucial element of transportation research, particularly because of the following: - Transportation systems, notably networks, are complex entities, and the map offers a powerful **medium to visualize them**. Thus, cartography can be seen as a synthetic tool. - Transportation is a field of application that is often planning-driven. As such, many projects require the approval of various private (funding) and public (regulation) entities, and sometimes with the general public involved. Maps are thus a medium that can be used to **explain the nature of a project** and help persuade an audience. Maps are using visual communication tools, thus implying that cartography is, at the same time, art and technique. It is an art since it is a visual expression; every map is, to some extent, a form of art that seeks to esthetically please its audience. Considering maps as an artistic expression is often seen with a level of suspicion among practitioners. It is often perceived that the quality of the container is inversely proportional to the quality of the content. Cartography is also a technique since it abides by a set of rules and methods pertaining to the visual symbols it uses; their placement, the choice of colors, and their size, for instance. Cartography is a process of abstraction, also referred to as symbolization, which uses a set of defined graphical elements to communicate a message. Symbolization implies that the features on a map be **generalized and simplified** since not all possible elements are relevant to the message a map conveys. It thus helps the message to be easier to understand. For instance, a map depicting a [highway system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1864) often ignores all the roads of lesser importance, thus underlining the feature it seeks to emphasize. With the maturation of GIS in recent years, the generation of maps has become a simpler and more straightforward process. Graphic design capabilities, which were found lacking in earlier packages, are more extensive. A GIS enables to produce maps at a very low cost and in large quantities. In addition, more information is available from a variety of sources, particularly in numerical format. Several databases and base maps are made available at virtually no cost. The Internet has become a massive distribution medium of graphical images such as maps and enables access to a wide array of publicly available databases from international, national, and local institutions. Many public or private agencies, from newspapers (e.g. the New York Times) to government offices, employ professional cartographers, and the quality of the cartographic output has considerably improved. # 2. Visual Resources A GIS automates several aspects of the cartographic process and assists cartographers with tasks that previously took a lot of training, time, and manual expertise. The creation and revision process of maps is improved since already created maps can be stored, retrieved, and modified to suit new purposes. The layout, the composition, and the symbolization can be modified at will. It is important to stress that a GIS does not per se make good or bad maps; cartographers do. Consequently, the appropriate usage of [visual resources](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7025) is the first step in the efficient cartography of the transport phenomena. The rapid diffusion of GIS and the improvement in computerized visualization techniques offer transport practitioners many opportunities to improve the visual quality of their work. This begins with the usage of visual resources, mainly two basic ones: - **Color resources**. It considers the hue, texture, and intensity of colors. A hue refers to the gradation of color within the optical spectrum (visible spectrum) of light. The texture is the variety of patterns that can be used to fill a shape, such as hatches, cross-hatches, or dot density. The intensity is the relative saturation of a color, on a scale from bright to dull. Color resources are particularly useful for [category ranges](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7029). - **Shape resources**. Considers the wide variety of geometric figures available. In a vector-based GIS, shapes are mainly represented as points, lines, and polygons. These shapes can be modified in terms of their nature, size, and orientation. Raster information, since it is grid-based, can only be modified through its color hue and intensity. For [cartographic purposes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7034), visual resources can be used to represent location, direction, distance, movement, function, process, and correlation. On most maps, including those related to transportation, several [elements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7040), such as title, scale, and legend are almost always present. How all these elements are positioned on a map, also known as map composition, depending on the nature of the message as well as the potential audience. Each cartographer has his/her own visual style. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/visual_resources3.png?resize=900%2C326&ssl=1 "Visual Resources | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-mapping/visual_resources/)Visual Resources[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/visual_resources_geographical_features2.png?resize=900%2C362&ssl=1 "Visual Resources and Geographical Features | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-geography/visual_resources_geography/)Visual Resources and Geographical Features[![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/major_map_elements.png?resize=900%2C625&ssl=1 "Major Map Elements | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/major-map-elements/usa_cartography/)Major Map Elements# 3. Symbolization Strategies for Transport Attributes Transportation deals with a set of issues that rely on a specific range of symbols. Most of the symbolization deals with networks, which are features that are commonly represented with lines and points (see [graph theory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5976)). Other symbolization strategies, such as choropleth maps, are common with standard cartographic methods. The following are the most common [symbolization strategies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7045): - **Nominal**. It includes only names, which are the result of classification. These names are not ordered in a specific way; rather, they describe different categories of the same rank. So, the only conclusion to be made is the inequality of each class. Transportation infrastructures are particularly suitable for nominal representations. Networks and terminals can be classified by function or ownership. - **Ordinal**. Result of placing descriptive categories into a formal order enables a comparison of rank without providing any information about the extent of the difference. There is an implicit qualitative order between classes. Networks and terminals can be classified by size, level of importance, or congestion. - **Interval**. An interval scale results from arranging values on a scale with a point of reference and a unit of measure. These scales are quantitative, which means some computations are allowed, namely how the ranges between classes are set. The level of traffic on networks and terminals can be categorized. - **Proportional symbols**. The size of a symbol is a function of a quantitative variable. Thus, the radius of a circle or the thickness of a line can be set according to a variable. For transportation systems, proportional symbols are particularly important to express flows in a network or at terminals. - **Labeling**. Involves the positioning of descriptive text over specific geographical features. The labeling process, which is particular to transportation, mainly concerns assigning identification symbols (dominantly numbers) to road segments. [![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Transport-Symbolization.png?resize=768%2C561&ssl=1 "The Symbolization of Transport Features | The Geography of Transport Systems ")](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/transport-features-symbolization/symbolizationtransportfeatures/)The Symbolization of Transport Features--- ## Related Topics - [Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6741) - [Network Data Models](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7585) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Visual Resources](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-mapping/) **Published:** December 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/visual_resources3.png?resize=900%2C326&ssl=1 "Visual Resources | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Visual ResourcesVisual resources come into two categories; color and geometry. Color can be modified according to hue, texture, and intensity. Geometry can be modified according to shape, size, and orientation. Color resources, such as gray scale, pattern, hue, and intensity, are commonly used to categorize visual elements either in nominal, ordinal, or interval manner. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-mapping/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-mapping/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-mapping/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/visual-resources-mapping/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Symbolization of Transport Features](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/transport-features-symbolization/) **Published:** December 23, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Transport-Symbolization.png?resize=900%2C657&ssl=1 "The Symbolization of Transport Features | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Symbolization of Transport Features*Data from United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Transport_Symbolization.pdf) The above map represents four ways to classify and symbolize transport-related information: - **Nominal classification**. A simple distinction is made between highways that have the status of interstate maintained by the Federal government and US and State Highways of the same class but maintained by state or local governments. There is no order in this classification since each class is simply different from the other. - **Ordinal classification**. A distinction is made between major roads according to their capacity (low, average, high). In this case, there is an implied order in the classification, as some road segments have a higher level of importance than others. - **Interval classification**. A quantitative variable, the volume-to-capacity ratio (a good indicator of the congestion level), is classified into distinct and clearly bounded categories. - **Proportional symbols**. The size of a symbol, road segments, in this case, is a direct function of a quantitative variable. The higher the traffic, the thicker the line segment. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/transport-features-symbolization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/transport-features-symbolization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/transport-features-symbolization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/transport-symbolization-gis/transport-features-symbolization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Probability of a Geomagnetic Storm with a Field Change Greater than 300 Nanoteslas per Minute (22-year cycle)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/probability-geomagnetic-storm/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Probability-Geomagnetic-Storm.png?resize=900%2C900&ssl=1 "Probability of a Geomagnetic Storm with a Field Change Greater than 300 Nanoteslas per Minute (22-year cycle) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Probability of a Geomagnetic Storm with a Field Change Greater than 300 Nanoteslas per Minute 22 year cycle*Source: adapted from T.S. Molinski, W.E. Feero and B.L. Damsky (2000) “Shielding grids from solar storms”, IEEE Spectrum.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_probability_geomagnetic_storm.pdf) The geomagnetic north pole is located approximately at 80 degrees of latitude on Ellesmere Island in Canada. Because of the structure of the earth’s electromagnetic field, a geomagnetic storm creates field disturbances that impact various power systems, such as electric grids, global positioning systems, and telecommunications. The above map represents the probability of a significant geomagnetic storm with a pattern shaped like concentric circles from the geomagnetic north. The highest risk area is roughly between 50 and 65 degrees north over the North American continent and between 60 and 75 degrees north over the European continent. The higher risk areas also cover both the transatlantic and transpacific great circle air routes, which in case of a serious geomagnetic storm, could expose passengers to high radiation levels and may disrupt the aircraft navigation system. Still, the main risk concerns electric distribution systems that are ill-prepared to deal with large-scale events. In 1989 a severe geomagnetic storm caused the collapse of Quebec’s power grid, leaving 6 million people without power for 9 hours. An important reason why this Canadian province was hit is that a large share of its electricity is generated by hydroelectric plants in Northern Quebec (mostly around James Bay), which is at the threshold of the highest electromagnetic storm probability area. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/probability-geomagnetic-storm/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/probability-geomagnetic-storm/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/probability-geomagnetic-storm/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/probability-geomagnetic-storm/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Logistic Activities and their Green Dimensions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/logistics-green-dimensions/) **Published:** December 17, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_activities_green.png?resize=900%2C592&ssl=1 "Logistic Activities and their Green Dimensions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistic Activities and their Green DimensionsWhile costs have always been an essential driver of supply chain management strategies, the negative energy and environmental footprint of many supply chains has been a strong incentive to improve what is known as green supply chain management. Since logistics are related to all the activities involved in making goods available to the final consumers, including all the stages associated with procurement and distribution, the green applications of logistics are numerous and cover [two main dimensions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4393); **materials management** and **physical distribution**. **Materials management** focuses on developing products with a lower environmental footprint, including manufacturing, sourcing, re-use, and recycling. The main possible strategies include: - **Product design**. Since the product and its distribution are the whole purpose of a supply chain, its design perspective plays a crucial role in its greenness. This includes the types of materials used for its manufacturing with a greater focus on the environmental footprint of the components as well as the durability of the product. - **Near sourcing**. Reassessing sourcing both at the global and domestic levels. This is best done if a comprehensive array of logistics costs is considered, particularly in light of energy and environmental constraints. While a supplier may appear to offer the lowest cost, if factors such as higher transport costs, more inventory in transit, longer response times, and a higher level of unreliability are considered, alternative, but closer, suppliers could be more advantageous. - **Sustainable sourcing**. A change in focus for sourcing based upon environmental standards and certification, which become the main factors in the selection and retention of a supplier This has notably been the case in the food industry where quality and certification (e.g. organic) have important marketing value. However, this strategy is running into the risk of offering goods and services that are less competitive since consumers remain highly sensitive to costs in spite of stated environmental awareness. - **Efficient packaging and packing**. Reduce the shipment volume of the same load by using less packaging or by changing how a good is packaged. How the goods are packed for shipments is also of relevance since it can reduce packing wastes and use transportation carrying capacity more efficiently. Higher transport densities are an important consideration for shipping since many goods tend to [cube out](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2618) their load units before they weigh them out. - **Circular material use**. Moving towards more efficient forms of materials use and sourcing, including packaging and recycling, so that what used to be an output can become an input. Optimally, a much higher level of reuse and recycling should be part of the inputs of the manufacturing sector. **Physical distribution** ensures that the mobility of freight related to logistics operations is performed in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner. The main possible strategies include: - **Demand responsive systems**. The setting of demand-responsive systems where supply chains are tightly integrated so that the goods being delivered are the outcome of an expressed demand. A better level of order fulfillment tends to reduce returns. This is in line with the setting off [pull-logistics systems](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4443) that have replaced many conventional push logistics. - **Load consolidation**. This can involve a wide array of strategies, such as a better consolidation of loads to avoid sub-optimal use of transportation (from LTL to FTL). Strategies to pool the LTL cargo of small shippers are also an option so that loads and vehicles are better used. The risk is that load consolidation can lead to additional delivery delays. - **Alternative modes and fuels**. Use a mode that is more energy and environmentally efficient. Rail is the logical alternative to trucking over longer distances, but [short sea shipping](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2254) can be suitable for coastal regions. For urban freight distribution, electric and natural gas-powered vehicles have been introduced as well as adapted vehicles such as small vans and even cargo bicycles. - **Certification of carriers and distribution facilities**. Certification provides standards for vehicles and facilities in terms of their expected environmental performance, such as emission and energy use, at the risk of being less competitive with carriers that do not. However, a growing number of procurement strategies are now contingent on the provider of logistics services having a certification covering its vehicles and facilities. This gives carriers abiding by certification a competitive advantage. - **Shipping scheduling and routing**. Adapt the scheduling of flows to ensure a greater level of utilization of existing transportation and warehousing assets. By allowing greater shipping time and outside congested periods, the same assets can be used more rationally, which conveys energy and environmental benefits. Longer, but less congested routes can be selected, as well as a sequence of delivery stops supporting FTL. All these strategies can be individually or jointly applied. Since they involve different actors, concerted efforts are uncommon as each element of the supply chain pursues strategies that are judged to be the most effective along their respective channels, which leads to a duality between forward and reverse logistics. The **conventional forward channel** in freight distribution is well understood, with raw materials, parts, and finished goods flowing from suppliers to manufacturers, distributors, and, finally, to consumers. A **reverse channel** is also emerging, where wastes, packages, and defective/obsolete products are “climbing back” the supply chain. In some instances, such as for a defective product, distributors will take back the merchandise. Still, in other instances, a specialized segment of the distribution industry aims at collecting and then recycling goods and parts. Thus, reverse logistics (or reverse distribution) is concerned with the movements of previously shipped goods from customers back to manufacturers or distribution centers due to repairs, recycling, or returns. There are several variants: - An important segment is **customer-driven**, where domestic waste is set aside by home-dwellers for recycling. This has achieved wide popularity in many communities, notably because the public became involved in the process, and local regulations are enforcing it. - A second type is where non-recyclable waste, including hazardous materials, is **transported for disposal to designated sites**. As landfills close to urban areas become scarce, waste must be transported over greater distances to disposal centers, a process that has become transnational in developing economies. - A different approach is where reverse distribution is a continuous embedded process in which the organization (manufacturer or distributor) takes responsibility for the delivery of new products as well as their take-back. An emerging challenge concerns the return rates of e-commerce purchases, which as 3 to 4 times those made in regular physical stores. This means environmental considerations for the **whole life-cycle of a product** (production, distribution, consumption, and recycling/disposal). This approach is at the core of the concept of the circular economy applied to supply chains. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/logistics-green-dimensions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/logistics-green-dimensions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/logistics-green-dimensions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/green-logistics/logistics-green-dimensions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Supply Chains and Blockchains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/supply-chains-and-blockchains/) **Published:** January 6, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_chain_blockchains.png?resize=900%2C495&ssl=1 "Supply Chains and Blockchains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Supply Chains and BlockchainsFour main elements are to be considered for blockchains to support supply chains : - **Physical flows**. The [sequence of processes and movements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4530) from suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, and the final customers (e.g. a retail store or an individual for e-commerce). It requires facilities (e.g. distribution centers), modes, and terminals. - **Information flows**. Each supply chain task generates information flows. For instance, a manufacturer ordering parts from a supplier will generate an order number for a GTIN (Global Trade Item Number) or SKU (Stock Keeping Unit) that it provides. This information is associated with production information such as batch numbers. Then, the carrier will generate an associated order and shipment number on a load unit being carried on specific equipment (a truckload, a container, etc.). - **Blockchain**. Conventionally, the information flows stated above were processed through various information systems, at times in paper form, a process that is time and labor-intensive. With a blockchain, each information flow creates a digital block that is attached to a previous block. As we progress through the supply chain, each actor uses previously created information stored in the blockchain to perform its role and, at the same time, adds its own blocks to the blockchain. At the end of the supply chain, the blockchain would contain all the associated tasks and processes that have led to the procurement of a specific good to a customer. - **Smart contracts**. They refer to programs using the information contained in a blockchain to automatically fulfill an agreed-upon contract. Since the contract is stored in the blockchain, it cannot be tampered with without the agreement of the concerned parties. Specific events in the blockchain will trigger the resolution of the contract. For instance, once a delivery has taken place, and that meets all the contractual requirements (e.g. quantity, quality, timeliness, etc.), then payment can automatically take place. Therefore, blockchains are an information substitute and improve the conventional processing of information associated with supply chains with [expected improvements](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=10651) in their velocity, visibility, and security. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/supply-chains-and-blockchains/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/supply-chains-and-blockchains/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/supply-chains-and-blockchains/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/supply-chains-and-blockchains/?share=reddit) - --- ### [High Rack Storage at Skechers Automated Distribution Center, Moreno, California](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/high-rack-storage-skechers-distribution-center/) **Published:** November 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/skechers_dc_moreno.jpg?resize=850%2C637&ssl=1 "High Rack Storage at Skechers Automated Distribution Center, Moreno, California | The Geography of Transport Systems ")High Rack Storage at Skechers Automated Distribution Center Moreno California*Photo: Dr. Laetitia Dablanc, 2014, USC/Metrofreight visit to Skechers DC, July 2014.* Skechers is an American shoe designer and distributor headquartered in California. In 2012, it opened a new distribution center in Moreno Valley, about 100 km from Los Angeles and close to interstate I-215, which connects to I-15, the major West Coast North/South highway. The 1.8 million square foot facility employs 700 people and was built and operated by Highland Fairview, a commercial real estate investment company specializing in the development of distribution centers. The distribution center covers American and European markets by fulfilling orders for most of Skechers’ 500 retail stores as well as online orders. The majority of the products, mostly shoes, are delivered to the distribution center by maritime containers from the port of Los Angeles or Long Beach. Since most of the shoes are made in Asia (particularly China) Southern California is a highly suitable location to service the North American market in retail goods. About 40 containers per day are delivered to the facility and 60 trucks are exiting with deliveries to regional distribution centers or to intermodal rail terminals for long-distance distribution to the Midwest or the East Coast. Considering the nature of the shoe retailing market, the throughput handled by the distribution center is relatively stable with peaks corresponding to the standard retail cycles. The distribution center acts as an automated [cross-docking facility](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4453). On one side maritime containers are brought and unstuffed of boxes usually containing 12 to 24 pairs of shoes. These boxes are then brought by conveyor belts to automated high storage racks (see above photo) that are designed to increase the speed of each storage and pickup movement. This requirement has incited the construction of a facility that is the equivalent of a five-floor building. Therefore, densification is the outcome of automation. For outbound logistics, specific store orders are assembled automatically as individual boxes are picked from the high storage racks, conveyed, and then floor loaded in trucks. Floor loading is the preferred method because boxes filled with shoes do not weigh much and take a fair amount of volume; more cargo can thus be carried in such a way, compensating for the additional labor costs. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/high-rack-storage-skechers-distribution-center/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/high-rack-storage-skechers-distribution-center/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/high-rack-storage-skechers-distribution-center/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/high-rack-storage-skechers-distribution-center/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Specifications for Very Large Post-Panamax Containerships](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/post-panamax-containerships-specifications/) **Published:** December 28, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** **Year****“Triple E Class”****“E Class” (Emma Maersk)****“S Class” (Sovereign Maersk)**Capacity (TEU)18,00014,5008,400Length (meters)400393348Width (meters)595643Draft (meters)15.515.514Deadweight (tons)165,000156,900105,000Speed (knots)23 (19 optimal)25.525The threshold for containerized maritime shipping has restricted the capacity of three of the world’s major bottlenecks: the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal, and the strait of Malacca. The Emma Maersk class, introduced in 2006, is essentially a Suez-max ship. Ship designs for a “Triple E Class” (the ‘E’s standing for economies of scale, energy efficiency, and environmental improvement) were introduced in 2013 and will likely mark to largest commercially feasible ship class for containers. However, their size would imply that only a few ports could handle them, which questions the practical limits of economies of scale. The ultimate containership class would be the “Malacca Max” with a draft of 21 meters. However, such a ship class would carry about 30,000 TEU and would be of such a dimension that no gantry crane equipment is currently designed to handle. Additionally, few port facilities would be able to accommodate such ships. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/post-panamax-containerships-specifications/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/post-panamax-containerships-specifications/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/post-panamax-containerships-specifications/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/maritime-transportation/post-panamax-containerships-specifications/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Panamax Containership at the Port of Le Havre](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/mscdiego-2/) **Published:** November 14, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0668.JPG?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Panamax Containership at the Port of Le Havre | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Panamax Containership at the Port of Le Havre*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2003.* Terminal de l’Ocean was one container terminal in the Port of Le Havre, France, leased by the maritime shipping company MSC (Mediterranean Shipping Company) and by Terminaux de Normandie. The MSC Diego, built in 1999, is a typical Panamax containership with a capacity of just over 4,000 TEU. A Panamax ship can fit into the conventional Panama Canal (the expanded Panama Canal can accommodate much larger ships). The vessel is 260 meters long, 32 meters wide, has a beam of 19 meters, and has a draft of 12.5 meters. Panamax cranes are required to transship their containerized cargo, which is 13 containers wide (the limit of the above crane). It is close to the Panamax-Max specifications. This facility was closed for container operations in 2011 when new Post-Panamax container terminal facilities began operation in 2007 in a deeper draft area. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/mscdiego-2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/mscdiego-2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/mscdiego-2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/mscdiego-2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Stages in a Bubble](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/bubble-stages/) **Published:** February 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/main_stages_bubble.png?resize=900%2C558&ssl=1 "Stages in a Bubble | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Stages in a Bubble**Note: The contents of this page (only) have been placed in the [public domain](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stages_of_a_bubble.png). This chart and the related text can be freely used as long as its source is cited.** Business cycles are a well-understood concept commonly linked with technological innovations, which often trigger a phase of investment and new opportunities in terms of market and employment. The outcome is an economic expansion, and as the technology matures and markets become saturated, expansion slows down. A phase of recession is then a likely possibility as a correction is required to clear the excess investment or capacity that irremediably occurs in the later stages of an economic cycle. The bottom line is that recessions are a **normal condition** to a market economy as they regulate any excess, bankrupting the weakest players, or those with the highest leverage. However, one of the mandates of central banking is to fight a process (business cycles) that occurs “naturally”. The interference of central banks such as the Federal Reserve appears to be exaggerating the amplitude of bubbles and the manias that fuel them. It could be argued that business cycles are being replaced by phases of booms and busts, which are still displaying a cyclic behavior but subject to much more volatility. Although manias and bubbles have taken place many times before in history under particular circumstances (Tulip Mania, South Sea Company, Mississippi Company, etc.), central banks appear to make matters worse by providing too much credit and being unable or unwilling to stop the process when things are getting out of control (massive borrowing). Instead of economic stability regulated by market forces, monetary intervention creates long-term instability for the sake of short-term stability. Bubbles (financial manias) unfold in several stages, an observation that is backed up by 500 years of economic history. Each mania is obviously different, but there are always similarities; simplistically, four phases can be identified: 1. **Stealth**. Those who understand the new fundamentals realize an emerging opportunity for substantial future appreciation, but at a high risk since their assumptions are so far unproven. So the “smart money” gets invested in the asset class, often quietly and cautiously. This category of investors tends to have better access to information and a higher capacity to understand the wider economic context that would trigger asset inflation. They can also rely on speculative and unproven assumptions. Prices gradually increase but often go completely unnoticed by the general population. Larger and larger positions are established as the smart money starts to understand better that the fundamentals are well-grounded and that this asset class is likely to experience significant future valuations. 2. **Awareness**. Many investors start to notice the momentum, bringing additional money in and pushing prices higher. There can be a short-lived sell-off phase taking place as a few investors cash in their first profits (there could also be several sell-off phases, each beginning at a higher level than the previous one). The smart money takes this opportunity to reinforce its existing positions. In the later stages of this phase, the media starts to notice positive reports about how this new boom benefits the economy by “creating” wealth; those getting in become increasingly “unsophisticated”. 3. **Mania**. Everyone is noticing that prices are going up, and the public jumps in for this “investment opportunity of a lifetime”. The expectations about future appreciation become a “no brainer,” and a linear inference mentality sets in; future prices are an extrapolation of past price appreciation, which of course, goes against any conventional wisdom. However, this phase is not about logic but a lot about psychology. Floods of money come in, creating even greater expectations and pushing prices to stratospheric levels. The higher the price, the more investments pour in. Fairly unnoticed by the general public caught in this new frenzy, the smart money, as well as many institutional investors, are quietly pulling out and selling their assets. Unbiased opinion about the fundamentals becomes increasingly difficult to find as many players are heavily invested and have every interest to keep asset inflation going. The market gradually becomes more exuberant as “paper fortunes” are made from regular “investors,” and greed sets in. Everyone tries to jump in, and new entrants have absolutely no understanding of the market, its dynamic, and fundamentals. Prices are bid up with all financial means possible, particularly leverage and debt. If the bubble is linked with lax sources of credit, then it will endure far longer than many observers would expect, therefore discrediting many rational assessments that the situation is unsustainable. At some point, statements are made about entirely new fundamentals implying that a “permanent high plateau” has been reached to justify future price increases; the bubble is about to collapse. 4. **Blow-off**. A moment of epiphany (a trigger) arrives, and everyone roughly at the same time realizes that the situation has changed. Confidence and expectations encounter a paradigm shift, not without a phase of denial where many try to reassure the public that this is just a temporary setback. Some are fooled, but not for long. Many try to unload their assets, but takers are few; everyone is expecting further price declines. The house of cards collapses under its own weight, and latecomers (commonly the general public) are left holding depreciating assets while the smart money pulled out a long time ago. Prices plummet at a rate much faster than the one that inflated the bubble. Many over-leveraged asset owners go bankrupt, triggering additional waves of sales. There is even the possibility that the valuation undershoots the long-term mean, implying a significant buying opportunity. However, the general public at this point considers this sector as “the worst possible investment one can make”. This is the time when the smart money starts acquiring assets at low prices. Bubbles can be very damaging, especially for those who arrived late with the hope of getting something for nothing. Even if they are inflationary events, the outcome of a bubble’s blow-off is very deflationary as large quantities of capital vanish in the wave of bankruptcies and financial defaults they trigger. Historically, they tended to be far in-between, but the scale and amplitude of bubbles have accelerated; web/technology stocks (deflated in 2000), real estate (deflated in 2006), commodities (deflated in 2008), and cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin (subject to multiple cycles of inflation and deflation). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/bubble-stages/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/bubble-stages/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/bubble-stages/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/bubble-stages/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Vertical and Lateral Passenger Flows at an Airport Terminal](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/passenger-flows-in-an-airport-terminal/) **Published:** November 23, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vertical_lateral_passenger_airport.png?resize=900%2C414&ssl=1 "Vertical and Lateral Passenger Flows at an Airport Terminal | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Passenger Flows in an Airport TerminalTo undertake all the operational and regulatory requirements for air travel, airports have a highly organized sequence of vertical and lateral passenger flows. Each of the requirements generally generates a queue since it can process a fixed amount of passengers and since flows fluctuate during the day. More stringent security requirements and a higher prevalence of carry-on luggage have substantially expanded queues at security checkpoints. From ground transportation, a passenger undertakes several steps and queues, some of which can be circumstantial. For instance, a domestic traveler using carry-on luggage and having checked in online with an electronic boarding pass would go directly to the security queue at the checkpoint. Security queues are often segmented according to fare (e.g. business class) and security pre-clearance programs. Inversely, an international traveler with several pieces of luggage would need to queue at the check-in/luggage drop counter, go through customs (sometimes after security), and then through security. Because of queues and delays, passengers are spending an increasing amount of time at airports, and activities taking place in waiting areas, namely restaurants, and shops, have assumed a higher prevalence as they become an important source of revenue. The last queue is the boarding process, which is often segmented by fare class. Boarding queues have also become a source of revenue for airlines selling earlier boarding access. The last queue usually involves the plane taxiing to its runway take-off slot. On the inbound side, the first queue involves deplaning and a less complex sequence for an inbound plane. Domestic travelers go directly to baggage claim (if necessary) and ground transportation (taxi and public transit queues). International travelers queuing through customs (immigration), then baggage claim, and finally customs inspection (luggage). With the emergence of large hub airports, a lateral array of flows has increased. The simplest lateral flows are domestic or international transits where passengers move from a deplaning to a boarding gate within an airport terminal. For instance, Atlanta is a large domestic hub, while Amsterdam is a large international hub. In both cases, passengers are moving freely within the terminal. On occasion, a security checkpoint will be required for international transit passengers. Passengers undertaking an international to domestic transit often have to go through the full customs/baggage claim procedure and then through domestic security. Domestic to international transit is simpler but can involve going through the customs exit checkpoint. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/passenger-flows-in-an-airport-terminal/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/passenger-flows-in-an-airport-terminal/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/passenger-flows-in-an-airport-terminal/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/passenger-flows-in-an-airport-terminal/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Phonsavan Airfield, Laos](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/phosavan-airfield-laos/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_0300.JPG?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Phonsavan Airfield, Laos | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Phonsavan Airfield Laos*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2003.* In the most basic circumstances, some airports offer no ground services such as refueling or boarding equipment. Therefore, planes must carry sufficient fuel for the return trip and have their own staircase. This is particularly the case in remote areas, such as the Arctic, or in small cities in developing economies. In the above photo, the small size of the parking space is indicative that the propeller planes servicing the Phonsavan airfield only remain for unloading and loading passengers. One domestic flight per day was calling the airport in 2003. Since then, the airfield has been paved, and the frequency of services has improved. The Lao Airline plane is a Chinese-made Xian X-7 based on the 1970s Russian Antonov An-24 design, carrying 50 passengers. The airline upgraded its propeller fleet with ATR 72s. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/phosavan-airfield-laos/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/phosavan-airfield-laos/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/phosavan-airfield-laos/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/phosavan-airfield-laos/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World's Largest Freight Airports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/worldfrtairports/) **Published:** November 22, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/largest_freight_airports2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World's Largest Freight Airports | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Largest Freight Airports*Source: Airports Council International. In metric tons. Seoul traffic for Incheon before 2001. Note: In million tons.* The world’s 20 [largest freight airports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3750) each handle traffic of over 1.5 million tons of cargo. The most impressive growth is observed in Shanghai and Dubai which became major activity centers, but for different reasons. For Shanghai, the growth concerns export-oriented activities related to the booming Chinese added-value manufacturing sector. Dubai became an important intermediary location for the Asia-Europe trade. There are thus two main sources of growth dynamics for freight airports. The first are gateways where the airport is a significant generator and attractor of air cargo. The second are hubs, where the airport is a connecting point between different regional or global networks. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/worldfrtairports/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/worldfrtairports/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/worldfrtairports/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/airport-terminals/worldfrtairports/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Public and Private Roles in Port Management](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/public-private-roles-ports/) **Published:** November 20, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/public_private_roles_port_management2.png?resize=900%2C352&ssl=1 "Public and Private Roles in Port Management | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Public and Private Roles in Port Management*Source: adapted from The World Bank (2007) Port Reform Toolkit, Second Edition.* There are five main port management models based on the respective responsibility of the public and private sectors. They include the public service port, the tool port, the landlord port, the corporatized port, and the private service port. Each of these models concerns ports with different characteristics concerning the ownership of infrastructure, equipment, terminal operation, and who provides port services such as pilotage and towage. While service and tool ports primarily promote public interests, landlord ports attempt to balance public and private interests. At the other end of the spectrum, private service ports are maximizing the interests of their shareholders. - **Public service ports**. The port authority of public service ports performs the whole range of port-related services and owns all the infrastructure. They are commonly a branch of a government ministry, and most of their employees are civil servants. Some ancillary services can be left to private companies. Because of the inefficiencies, they are related to, the number of public service ports has declined. - **Tool ports**. Similar to a public service port, the tool port differs only in the private handling of its cargo operations, albeit the port authority still owns the terminal equipment. In several cases, a tool port is a transitional form between a public service port and a landlord port. - **Landlord ports**. Represents the most common management model where infrastructure, particularly terminals, are leased to private operating companies with the port authority retaining ownership of the land. The most common form of lease is a concession agreement where a private company is granted a long-term lease in exchange for rent that is commonly a function of the size of the facility as well as the investment required to build, renovate or expand the terminal. The private operator is also responsible for providing terminal equipment to maintain operating standards. - **Corporatized ports**. Concerns ports have almost entirely been privatized, except that ownership remains public and often assumed as a majority shareholder. The port authority essentially behaves like a private enterprise. This management model is unique since it is the only one where ownership and control are separated, which lessens “public good” pressures landlord port authority faces and “shareholder value” pressures private ports face. - **Private service ports**. The outcome of the complete privatization of the port facility mandates that the facilities retain their maritime role. The port authority is entirely privatized, with almost all the port functions under private control, with the public sector retaining a standard regulatory oversight. Still, public entities can be shareholders and thus gear the port towards strategies that are deemed to be of public interest. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/public-private-roles-ports/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/public-private-roles-ports/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/public-private-roles-ports/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/public-private-roles-ports/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World's Major Ports, 2016](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-ports-tonnage/) **Published:** November 19, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Largest-Ports.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's Major Ports, 2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds Major Ports 2016*Source: American Association of Port Authorities.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_World-Largest-Ports.pdf) The position of Rotterdam as the world’s largest port was unparalleled for decades, a rank it held until 2000. It was then overtaken by Shanghai, Singapore, and Tianjin; a large share of the world’s major ports is now in East Asia. The main factors behind this shift are linked with export-oriented strategies that concomitantly involve an increase in export throughput, but also imports of parts, energy, and raw materials to supply urbanization and industrialization. The geography of the world’s major ports, as measured in tonnage, shares some commonality with [traffic figures measured in TEU](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3373), but very large port facilities are found in areas that have limited commercial activity. Two general patterns are observed: - Major **commercial gateways** (polyfunctional ports) are clustered around East Asia and the northern European range. Although many are large industrial and manufacturing complexes generating large quantities of bulk cargo, they are also major centers of containerized trade. They tend to have a high value-to-weight ratio. - **Resource ports** (monofunctional ports) are in different clusters than main commercial gateways since most of them do not handle significant container traffic. Of particular relevance are Australian, Brazilian, and American Gulf Coast ports linked with mineral, petrochemical, and grain trade. They have a low value-to-weight ratio. For instance, Port Hedland in northwestern Australia is the world’s largest exporter of iron ore, handling 484 million tons of cargo in 2016, more than three times the amount handled by Los Angeles / Long Beach (129 million tons), the largest commercial gateway of North America. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-ports-tonnage/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-ports-tonnage/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-ports-tonnage/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-ports-tonnage/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Port Elizabeth Intermodal Complex, Port of New York / New Jersey](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-elizabeth-intermodal-complex/) **Published:** November 20, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/port_elizabeth_new_jersey_panynj.png?resize=900%2C569&ssl=1 "Port Elizabeth Intermodal Complex, Port of New York / New Jersey | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Port Elizabeth Intermodal Complex Port of New York New Jersey*Source: Base map from Google Earth.* The Port Elizabeth intermodal complex is part of the facilities of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. This is where in 1956, containerization began. The complex comprises two major terminals; **Maher Terminal** (acquired by the German financial firm RREEF in 2007 and sold to Macquarie Infrastructure in 2016) and **APM Terminal** (a branch of Maersk shipping company). Maher Terminal is the largest intermodal port terminal on the North American East Coast with an annual capacity of about 2.4 million TEU. From 1998, it went through a series of substantial renovations, including the combination of two terminals (Maher Fleet Street Terminal and Maher Tripoli Street Terminal) into one, a process that was completed in 2004. In 2008, gate renovations were completed, making it one of the most efficient in North America and handling 10,000 movements per day. Both terminals are adjacent to an on-dock rail facility that expanded to 18 tracks in 2007 (serviced by CSX, NS, and CP). In 2020, APMT opened a new reconfigured gate system, allowing it to handle 5,000 movements per day. **Maher Terminal****APM Terminal**Area184 hectares142 hectaresPiers10,000 feet6,000 feetPortainers19 portainers14 portainersCapacity3,600,000 TEU1,300,000 TEUReefer slots1,2001,275Yard StackingStraddle-carriersRTGMaher Terminal also undertook investments in information technologies, notably an entirely paperless gate system, a terminal management system, an empty container storage system using GPS, and a chassis pool. For the latter, Maher was one of the first terminal operators to establish an off-site chassis pool. Initially, chassis pools were for terminal users since they represented a captive market. But as vessel-sharing agreements have grown over the years, Maher’s customers began calling other facilities, such as the adjacent APM Terminal, so locating the equipment pool outside the gates became critical. This also conveyed the benefit of freeing terminal space and thus expanding capacity. Both terminal operators have different terminal management strategies for their container yards. While Maher uses straddle carriers to move containers between stacking piles, APM uses overhead rubber-tired gantry cranes (RTGs). The disadvantage of using straddle carriers is a lower stacking density since only two full containers can be stacked, which is related to more space consumption by the stacking piles. The advantage is a faster average container retrieval. Therefore, one must be cautious about linking terminal efficiency and stacking density since lower density can be linked with a terminal design aiming at high throughput. Looking at the gate system and the stacking configuration clearly underlines the trucking orientation of the Maher terminal. The advantages of RTG are a higher stacking density and a higher utilization level of the terminal’s real estate assets. However, container retrieval can be longer and would involve more re-handles. Adjacent to the terminals and chassis pools are also several transloading facilities that are transferring the contents of maritime containers into domestic containers (and vice versa). These activities are mostly for cargo bound further inland since local cargo tends to be brought directly from the maritime terminal to the distribution center. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-elizabeth-intermodal-complex/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-elizabeth-intermodal-complex/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-elizabeth-intermodal-complex/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/port-elizabeth-intermodal-complex/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Air Hubs and Market Fragmentation at Chicago](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hubs-market-fragmentation-chicago/) **Published:** November 13, 2017 **Author:** John Bowen **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Chicago-Air-Hub-1984-2001.png?resize=900%2C791&ssl=1 "Air Hubs and Market Fragmentation, 1984-2001 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Air Hubs and Market Fragmentation*Source: adapted from R. Baseler (2003) “Market Outlook for Air Travel: A Global Perspective”, 2nd Annual MIT Airline Industry Conference, Washington DC.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Chicago-Air-Hub-1984-2001.pdf) Before deregulation and Open Skies agreements, only a few international city-pairs could be serviced. The unavailability of lower capacity aircraft for long ranges also meant that only the largest city-pairs could be serviced, often with just one daily service. Deregulation and the introduction of smaller wide-body long-range aircrafts such as the Boeing 767 (1982, about 250 passengers), the Boeing 777 (1995, about 350 passengers), and the Airbus A330 (1994, about 300 passengers) permitted a wider range of city-pairs to be serviced and involving cities of smaller size. With technical and regulatory changes in air travel, Chicago has evolved from being a domestic hub to assuming the function of a major international hub. The fact that Chicago became a hub enabled the consolidation of a larger number of passengers bound for various European cities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hubs-market-fragmentation-chicago/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hubs-market-fragmentation-chicago/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hubs-market-fragmentation-chicago/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hubs-market-fragmentation-chicago/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Airline Deregulation and Hub-and-Spoke Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hub-spoke-deregulation/) **Published:** November 12, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/air_deregulation_hub_and_spoke2.png?resize=900%2C685&ssl=1 "Airline Deregulation and Hub-and-Spoke Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Airline Deregulation and Hub and Spoke NetworksHubs existed [before deregulation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2420), but the removal of restrictions on market entry and exit, along with policies permitting airline mergers, freed surviving carriers to consolidate hub-and-spoke networks feeding traffic to and from strategically located hubs. Prior to deregulation policies (end of 1970s-early 1980s), many airline services were taking place on a point-to-point basis. In the above figure, two airline companies are servicing a network of major cities. A fair amount of direct connections exists, but mainly at the expense of the frequency of services and high costs (if not subsidized). Also, many cities are serviced, although differently, by the two airlines and connections are likely to be inconvenient. With deregulation, a system of hub-and-spoke networks emerges as airlines rationalize the efficiency of their services. A common consequence is that each airline assumes dominance over a hub and services are modified so the two hubs are connected to several spokes. Both airlines tend to compete for flights between their hubs and may do so for specific spokes if demand warrants it. However, as this network matures, it becomes increasingly difficult to compete at hubs as well as at spokes, mainly because of economies of agglomeration. As an airline assumes the dominance of a hub, it reaches oligopolistic (if not monopolistic) control and may increase airfares for specific segments. The advantage of such a system for airlines is the achievement of regional market dominance and higher planeloads, while passengers benefit from better connectivity (although delays for connections and changing planes more frequently) and lower costs. There are however physical and commercial limits to hubbing. Hub airports may run into capacity limitations, both in terms of the number of gates and the availability of landing and takeoff windows, which makes them vulnerable to disruptions. Further, as the demand for air transport grows, direct (point-to-point) services become increasingly feasible. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hub-spoke-deregulation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hub-spoke-deregulation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hub-spoke-deregulation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/hub-spoke-deregulation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Air Transportation Growth and Economic Growth, 1950-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-transport-economic-growth/) **Published:** November 12, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/annual_air_transportation_growth_gdp.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Air Transportation Growth (Passengers and Freight) and Economic Growth, 1950-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Air Transportation Growth Passengers and Freight and Economic Growth 1950 2020*Source: Air Transport Association and World Bank.* Between 1950 and 2020, air passenger and freight traffic grew systematically faster than gross world product (or GDP) as the unique ability of air transportation to collapse space and time drew [more traffic](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2368). Correlation analysis reveals strong associations between air transport activity and GDP; with an R square of 0.96 for passengers-km and 0.98 for freight. Thus, each unit of economic growth is directly associated with a corresponding level of growth in passenger and cargo air transportation. Air transportation endured a strong period of growth during the 1960s, with passenger and freight growth systematically in the 10%-20% range. Airports were being increasingly congested, and airline companies were looking for jet planes with higher capacities. The surge of passengers-km in 1970 (+31.1%) is mainly attributed to the introduction of the 747, a large capacity airplane that revolutionized air transportation by offering lower fares, high capacity, and a longer range of operation (thus more passengers-km). A setback for air transportation came in 1973 with the Arab oil embargo and the subsequent recession (1974-1975). The 1981-1984 recession, the Gulf War (1991), and the Asian Financial Crisis (1997) were also economic setbacks that impacted air transportation. The events of September 11, 2001, linked with a recession had considerable impacts on air transportation which experienced a global loss of 35 million passengers between 2000 and 2001. This was the second time in history that passenger air transport experienced a year of negative growth. The third occurrence of negative growth took place in 2009 as the outcome of a major financial crisis and an issuing recession. The industry experienced a drop of 9 million passengers between 2008 and 2009. The Covid-19 pandemic represents the fourth time the industry experienced a decline with a **strong divergence between passengers and freight activity**, which was not apparent in previous phases. While the number of passenger-km declined by 65.6% between 2019 and 2020 (a loss of 57 million passengers), the number of tons-km only declined by 0.1%. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-transport-economic-growth/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-transport-economic-growth/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-transport-economic-growth/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/air-transport-economic-growth/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Amazon Air Boeing 767](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/amazon-air-boeing-767/) **Published:** June 30, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Amazon_Air_Boeing_767.jpg?resize=900%2C899&ssl=1 "Amazon Air Boeing 767 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")*Source:* [*Wikipedia*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Air#/media/File:Amazon_Air_Boeing_767_at_TPA.jpg)*.* As Amazon grew in size and complexity, it reached a point where it generated enough air cargo to justify own-account air transport. By the middle of 2019, Amazon’s rapidly growing freighter fleet included nearly 50 aircraft as the company rushed to expand next-day delivery services across the United States. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/amazon-air-boeing-767/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/amazon-air-boeing-767/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/amazon-air-boeing-767/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/amazon-air-boeing-767/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Concorde Supersonic Services, 1976-2003](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/concorde-services/) **Published:** November 12, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Concorde.png?resize=900%2C630&ssl=1 "Concorde Supersonic Services, 1976-2003 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Concorde Services 1976 2003*Source: Adapted from “[Concorde Chronology](http://www.concordesst.com/home.html)“.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Concorde.pdf) The Concorde represents the only supersonic commercial service to be implemented in 1976 and was abandoned in 2003 after close to 30 years of operations. Interestingly, the four cities with regular Concorde service throughout its lifetime were London and Paris – the hubs for the two flag carriers whose governments had funded the project – and New York and Washington – the financial and political capitals of the United States. Other services were attempted, albeit for a short duration, as they turned out to be economically unprofitable. The short-lived services to Dallas and Singapore were undertaken as joint services with Braniff and Singapore Airlines, respectively. The most enduring service outside the London-Paris-New York-Washington core was a winter-only service between London and Bridgetown (Barbados), an upscale tourist destination and former British colony. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/concorde-services/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/concorde-services/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/concorde-services/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/concorde-services/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Early Intercontinental Air Routes, 1930s](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/early-air-networks/) **Published:** November 12, 2017 **Author:** John Bowen **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Early-International-Air-Routes.png?resize=900%2C470&ssl=1 "Early Intercontinental Air Routes, 1930s | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Early Intercontinental Air Routes 1930s*Source: adapted from B. Graham (1995) Geography of Air Transport, Chichester: Wiley.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Early-International-Air-Routes.pdf) Due to range limitations, the first international air routes were composed of a series of refueling stages. Crossing the comparatively calm and narrow South Atlantic was much easier than transiting the North Atlantic. Although the world’s most powerful economies bracketed the North Atlantic, regular air services between the United States and Europe did not begin until 1939, when Pan Am offered Boeing 314 flying boat services. Air travel was highly expensive and only used by a few wealthy individuals or high-ranking officials. For instance, the 9-day trip from London to Sydney on Imperial Airways in 1938 included overnight stays at luxurious hotels along the way and cost more than $15,000 (2000 dollars). Following the outbreak of World War II, commercial services were suspended but military flights operated by Pan Am and other carriers continued, providing experience and stimulating technical advances upon which the postwar expansion of aviation would be based. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/early-air-networks/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/early-air-networks/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/early-air-networks/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/air-transport/early-air-networks/?share=reddit) - --- ### [40-Foot Containers Doublestacked on a Rail Car](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/doublestack-railcar/) **Published:** November 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/doublestackrail.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "40-Foot Containers Doublestacked on a Rail Car | The Geography of Transport Systems ")40 Foot Containers Doublestacked on a Rail Car*Photo: Dr. jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2012.* Double-stacking rail services were first introduced in North America in 1984, multiplying the productivity of inland container transportation. The advantages are obvious since two 40-foot containers (or 4 twenty-foot) can be stacked on a rail car, essentially doubling the capacity of a unit train. The drawback is a more complex loading or unloading and a higher clearance requirement so that double-stacked cars can fit under bridges and tunnels (see the above photo taken in the port of Vancouver, Canada). Until recently, North America remained the only region of the world where double-stacking services were possible. However, in April 2004, double-stack container train services using 40-foot boxes between Shanghai and Beijing were launched. Both cities can be serviced in about 38 hours. There is also the possibility of using double-stacked trains on the Betuweroute, a 160 km rail segment between Rotterdam and the German border. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/doublestack-railcar/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/doublestack-railcar/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/doublestack-railcar/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/doublestack-railcar/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Rail Stations and Rail Lines in the Paris Metropolitan Area](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/major-rail-stations-paris-metropolitan/) **Published:** March 19, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Paris-Metro.png?resize=900%2C623&ssl=1 "Major Rail Stations and Rail Lines in the Paris Metropolitan Area | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Rail Stations and Rail Lines in the Paris Metropolitan AreaFrom the middle of the 19th century, the construction of large rail stations became an important element of the urban landscape and the centrality of cities. However, for large metropolitan areas such as Paris, the city core predates rail technology by several centuries. Even if a footprint could be found to build a rail station in the central area, it is unlikely that a footprint for rail spurs between the station and the outlying area could be available. For cities like Paris, the first rail stations were built in the outlying areas of the time, roughly around 3 km from Les Halles (the central market of Paris at the time). As railways were built by separate private companies, each began its network from a hub station connecting through a corridor a specific region of France and its main cities. Gare Saint Lazare was the first to open in 1837, offering services to Rouen and Le Havre, both important port cities. This was followed by Gare Montparnasse (Gare de l’Ouest; 1840; linking Bordeaux), Gare d’Austerlitz (1840; linking Orleans), Gare du Nord (1846; linking Lille), Gare de Lyon (1849), and Gare de l’Est (1849; linking Strasbourg). By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, all of these stations became surrounded by high-density urban developments, which they helped spur. The French railways were nationalized in 1938 to become the SNCF, responsible for managing the network as a whole. The construction of the Reseau Express Regional (RER) heavy rail in the 1970s allowed to connect several of these stations with underground rail tunnels that converge at Chatelets-Les Halles, the largest underground rail station in the world (half a million RER passengers per day). In the 1980s, several stations were reconverted to accommodate [high-speed rail services](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/gare-de-lyon-tgv/ "TGV Train at Gare de Lyon, Paris, France"), giving them a new dynamism associated with the growth of intercity rail between European cities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/major-rail-stations-paris-metropolitan/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/major-rail-stations-paris-metropolitan/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/major-rail-stations-paris-metropolitan/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/rail-terminals/major-rail-stations-paris-metropolitan/?share=reddit) - --- ### [GIS Data Models](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/gis-data-models/) **Published:** December 18, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gis_data_models2.png?resize=900%2C606&ssl=1 "GIS Data Models | The Geography of Transport Systems ")GIS Data ModelsRepresenting the “real world” in a data model has been a challenge for GIS since their inception in the 1960s. A GIS data model enables a computer to represent real geographical elements as graphical elements. Two representational models are dominant; raster (grid-based) and vector (line-based): - **Raster**. Based on a cellular organization that divides space into a series of units. Each unit is generally similar in size to another. Grid cells are the most common raster representation. Features are divided into cellular arrays and a coordinate (X,Y) is assigned to each cell, as well as a value. This allows for registration with a geographic reference system. A raster representation also relies on **tessellation**: geometric shapes that can completely cover an area. Although many shapes are possible (e.g. triangles and hexagons), the square is the most commonly used. Resolution is an important concern in raster representations. For a small grid, the resolution is coarse but the required storage space is limited. For a large grid, the resolution is fine, but at the expense of much larger storage space. In the above figure, the real world (shown as an aerial photograph) is simplified as a grid where the color of each cell relates to an entity such as a road, highway, or river. - **Vector**. The concept assumes that space is continuous, rather than discrete, which gives an infinite (in theory) set of coordinates. A vector representation is composed of three main elements: points, lines, and polygons. Points are spatial objects with no area but can have attached attributes since they are a single set of coordinates (X and Y) in a coordinate space. Lines are spatial objects made up of connected points (nodes) that have no width. Polygons are closed areas that can be made up of a circuit of line segments. In the above figure, the real world is represented by a series of lines (roads and highways) and one polygon (the river). A real-world entity could be represented by different types of vector features depending on the map scale used in an application (e.g. a road can be represented as a line at a smaller scale or as a polygon at a larger scale.) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/gis-data-models/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/gis-data-models/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/gis-data-models/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/geographic-information-systems-transportation/gis-data-models/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Plate Tectonics and Seismic Activity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-plate-tectonics/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Plate-Tectonics-1.png?resize=768%2C401&ssl=1 "Global Plate Tectonics and Seismic Activity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Plate Tectonics and Seismic Activity[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_world_plate_tectonics.pdf) The boundary between tectonic plates is indicative of earthquake risk and potential disruptions of local transport systems, namely roads, telecommunication infrastructure, airports, and ports. The above map depicts a global distribution of earthquake risk, ranging from a low probability of a significant earthquake over the next 50 years to a very high probability (more a matter of when than if). The areas bordering the Pacific Plate, also known as the “Pacific Ring of Fire”, are at a particularly high risk since most of the largest earthquake events of the last century took place in the region. The most salient recent example is the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and its associated tsunami which significantly damaged infrastructure, including transportation, along coastal areas in Eastern Japan. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-plate-tectonics/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-plate-tectonics/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-plate-tectonics/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/global-plate-tectonics/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Factors behind the Development of Transport Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/factors-behind-the-development-of-transport-systems/) **Published:** July 12, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/development_factors_transport_systems.png?resize=900%2C327&ssl=1 "Factors behind the Development of Transport Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Factors behind the Development of Transport SystemsTransportation systems develop to interact at different scales and through the influence of a variety of factors: - **Environmental**. At the local scale, existing hydrographical and geomorphological characteristics are strong factors in transport development, particularly in terms of the technical challenges (bridge, gradients) they present to construct and maintain infrastructure. Climate, which is more a regional attribute, also conditions transportation construction and operations. At the national level, distance underlines the geographical scale to be serviced, influencing transport infrastructure development since servicing the nation becomes imperative. At the global level, the contour of oceanic masses such as choke points becomes the defining factor shaping the structure and development orientation of transport systems. - **Historical**. Settlement patterns, which are influenced by cultural attributes, strongly influence local transport development, such as street grids. At the regional level, the structure of an urban system, the result of historical processes of accumulation, coordinates the development of transport systems by connecting them. It is also a historical process such as colonialism and forms of imperialism that have shaped aspects of national transport developments, particularly in areas of the world that were colonized. However, it is the process of globalization that had one of the most enduring influences in recent decades in shaping global transport systems. - **Technological**. Each transportation technology has a matching scale of development. Roads, despite their ubiquity, are strongly associated with local (short distance) mobility. At the regional level, this mobility becomes more the realm of railways (or canals when present), although air transportation also has a strong regional component. Corridors, which are mainly long-distance rail and highway networks, are transport constructs built to connect at the national or continental level. The technologies that have supported the most transport development at the global level are mainly air transportation and telecommunications. Paradoxically, these technologies are mostly used at the regional (air) and local (telecommunications) levels. - **Political**. Transportation development is a process that is managed and regulated. At the local level, zoning is the regulatory framework that influences the most transport development since it dictates what is allowed to be built, including the function of what is being built. Forms of taxation and regulations such as safety and operating conditions are political aspects that play at the regional (most transport regulations are at the state / provincial level) and the national levels. Trade agreements have an important transnational implication, linking neighboring economic entities, which has influenced transportation development with an attempt to coordinate physical and trade networks. Multilateral agreements, particularly over trade have shaped the development of transportation systems by favoring specific transnational connectivity. - **Economic**. Economic processes shape transportation development since its core purpose is to support economic activities and their interactions. The more advanced an economy is, the more intensive and efficient transportation systems are. At the local level, employment and distribution are key drivers focusing on transit systems as well as the freight distribution of final goods. Transportation modes compete to service markets, a process that mainly takes place at the regional level. The outcome of this competition is a distribution of modal preferences and usage levels of specific transport systems. Markets are increasingly perceived as transnational, requiring coordinated supply strategies. Competition between major economic actors at the global level, often the outcome of comparative advantages, influences major freight flows and the transport systems supporting them. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/factors-behind-the-development-of-transport-systems/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/factors-behind-the-development-of-transport-systems/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/factors-behind-the-development-of-transport-systems/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/factors-behind-the-development-of-transport-systems/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Drivers of Trade and Globalization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/drivers-trade-globalization/) **Published:** June 11, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/drivers_trade_globalization.png?resize=900%2C424&ssl=1 "The Drivers of Trade and Globalization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Drivers of Trade and GlobalizationFour major drivers support the process of globalization by setting common standards about how to undertake commercial activities: - **Economic integration**. The setting of regulatory chains allows for the harmonization of regulatory regimes, particularly through trade agreements. - **Production**. The setting of global value chains, particularly through offshoring and manufacturing clusters allows for networked forms of global production. - **Transportation**. The setting of transport chains supported by containerization enables the potential to move large quantities of goods over long distances. - **Transactions**. The setting of information chains through information and communication technologies allow investments and capital to be transferred. The above is facilitated through the setting of standards that improve interoperability. Historically, standards such as measures (decimal system) and time zones helped economic systems to better interact. The container represents one of the most salient standards around which globalization was able to expand. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/drivers-trade-globalization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/drivers-trade-globalization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/drivers-trade-globalization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/drivers-trade-globalization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Maglev Train, Shanghai](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/maglev-shanghai/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/maglev_shanghai.jpg?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Maglev Train, Shanghai | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Maglev Train Shanghai*Source: Wikipedia.* In January 2003, the world’s first commercial Maglev train was inaugurated in Shanghai, China. Built from German technology at a cost of 1.2 billion dollars, it links the new Shanghai Pudong International airport to the center of Pudong, in the eastern part of Shanghai. The system has a length of about 30 kilometers with maximum speeds of about 440 kilometers per hour. It takes on average 8 minutes to go from one end to the other, making it the fastest urban transit system in the world. The principles of magnetic levitation technology are quite apparent in the above picture, where the train is magnetically suspended 15 centimeters above the guideway. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/maglev-shanghai/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/maglev-shanghai/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/maglev-shanghai/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/maglev-shanghai/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Competitive Advantages of Multinational Corporations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/competitive-advantages-multinational-corporations/) **Published:** September 6, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/competitive_advantages_mnc.png?resize=900%2C330&ssl=1 "Competitive Advantages of Multinational Corporations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Competitive Advantages of Multinational CorporationsMultinational corporations are seeking an array of competitive advantages allowing them to expand on international markets: - **Lower production costs**. A standard approach where going on international markets can reduce input costs such as labor, or grant access to a broader pool of resources. Multinational corporations are often better placed to take advantage of input cost differences than domestic corporations bound to the conditions of a national market. - **Price stability**. Input costs can vary for reasons such as variations in exchange rates, resource scarcity, and changes in labor costs. The goal is not necessarily to find the lowest input costs but to find a location where the price of relatively low input costs has the potential to remain stable for a period of time. Therefore, it is considered risky to invest in locations that may have low input costs, but could be subject to some form of instability (e.g. political) where market conditions could change. - **Product quality**. Offering consistency in product quality allows a multinational corporation to remain competitive. Quality can be measured in terms of the performance of the product (consistency and endurance), the quality of customer service, and how easy it is to maintain or upgrade a product. - **Logistics flexibility**. Market demands are regularly subject to changes, such as demand seasonality and surges. Being able to respond rapidly to such an event allows a corporation to remain able to continuously offer goods on markets. At the same time, competitors may be unable to, thus being a temporary situation of monopoly. Further, the capability to withstand disruptions such as natural disasters allows multinational corporations the ability to supply markets with more resilient supply chains. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/competitive-advantages-multinational-corporations/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/competitive-advantages-multinational-corporations/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/competitive-advantages-multinational-corporations/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/freight-transportation-value-chains/competitive-advantages-multinational-corporations/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Visualization of a Cargo Airship Prototype](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/cargo-airship-prototype/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/ARH-50.jpg?resize=850%2C478&ssl=1 "Visualization of a Cargo Airship Prototype | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Visualization of a Cargo Airship Prototype*Source: Varialift Airships. Analysis courtesy of Dr. Barry Prentice.* Airship technology has been available for more than a century. In the 1930s, large rigid airships were able to cross the Atlantic Ocean at 80 mph, carry up to 70 tons, while maintaining regular passenger schedules. However, due to rapid advances in propeller technology and safety concerns (e.g. the Hindenburg disaster of 1937), such technology was almost abandoned for commercial purposes. Airships were left to service small niche markets such as advertising and tourism. With advances in engineering, computers, engines, composite materials, and control systems, modern transport airships can be built to much higher standards and performance. For example, no current airship designs envision ground crews holding ropes. Modern airships would land autonomously, and cargo would be rolled on and off. They have a minimal footprint, require only a flat space to land, and can carry large heavy loads. They are also relatively affordable and sustainable. The most suitable markets that could see the application of airships concern supplying remote regions, particularly in the Arctic. Transport airships are ideally suited for year-round northern transportation. The Canadian case is particularly revealing. For example, existing transportation systems cannot effectively address the mounting problems of Northern Canada. About 70% of Canada’s landmass has neither road nor rail access. Remote communities and resource developments depend on ice roads, summer sealifts, and small airplanes for crucial supplies. While warmer temperatures may extend the Arctic sealift period, the ice road season has been precariously reduced. In any year, ice roads can become impassable before all requested supplies are delivered. Climate change is also affecting existing infrastructure. Melting permafrost threatens airstrips and sections of the few all-weather road links in the North. Distances are vast, markets are thin, and generally, no backhaul loads exist. The formidable terrain encompasses muskeg, rock outcrops, poor drainage, permafrost, and many water crossings. Obtaining environmental approval is difficult, and land claims issues can drag on for decades. The costs of converting ice roads to all-weather roads are enormous. Gravel roads that could be built for half a million dollars per kilometer in southern Canada, can average $3 million per kilometer in the North. Each year Manitoba builds 2,200 km of ice roads, and Ontario builds 3,000 km. Just converting these networks to all-weather gravel roads could cost $15 billion, not to mention maintenance and snow-clearing costs. The cost of supplying communities and mining settlements is very high. The only year-round transportation for many locations is by air, but this is mainly done with small aircraft using gravel landing strips. The cost of extending and paving runways, and using larger jet aircraft is prohibitive. Food prices in the North are 2.5 to 3 times more than in the rest of Canada. Transport airships would burn only one-quarter of the fuel of a similar-sized airplane, and are less expensive to build. For example, the Varialifter prototype with a 50-ton payload (above photo) created by a British company is priced at less than half the cost of an equivalent airplane. An all-aluminum airship, with an estimated commercial life of 40 years, is ideal for containing helium with a minimum loss. It remains to be seen which types of commercial applications such technology will be used for, but the Canadian arctic remains a strong test case. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/cargo-airship-prototype/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/cargo-airship-prototype/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/cargo-airship-prototype/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/cargo-airship-prototype/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Number of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones by Month (1851-2018)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/atlantic-tropical-cyclones-by-month/) **Published:** January 20, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/atlantic_tropical_cyclones.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones by Month (1851-2018) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Number of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones by Month 1851 2018*Source: NOAA Hurricane Research Division.* The northern Atlantic is an area of hurricane activity mainly impacting the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Eastern Seaboard. Atlantic tropical cyclones usually emerge in the mid The month of September represents peak cyclone activity over two dimensions, the first being the largest number of occurrences and the second being the largest share of hurricanes in relation to tropical cyclones, close to 40%. During that month, there are, on average, 2.4 hurricanes and 3.6 tropical storms each year, for a total of 6.08 events. This implies that there are, on average, 5.4 hurricanes per year, of which 1.75 will make landfall in the United States. Therefore, the closer to the peak activity month of September, the more cyclones and the probability of a hurricane. Each time such an event takes place, transportation systems, from air travel to public transit, are impacted by closures and diversions. With the growth of cruises in the Caribbean, hurricanes can disrupt itineraries, even more so if a hurricane passes over a turn port such as Miami, Fort Lauderdale, San Juan, or Galveston, which are all in high-risk areas. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/atlantic-tropical-cyclones-by-month/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/atlantic-tropical-cyclones-by-month/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/atlantic-tropical-cyclones-by-month/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/atlantic-tropical-cyclones-by-month/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Footprint of UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/footprint-cach-chicago/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/chicago_cach.jpg?resize=900%2C543&ssl=1 "UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub | The Geography of Transport Systems ")UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub*Source: adapted from Google Earth.* A modern distribution center consumes a large amount of land, such as the UPS Chicago Area Consolidation Hub (CACH). The 240 acres (97 hectares) site is in co-location with a major intermodal rail terminal owned by BNSF. The distribution center occupies 37 acres (14.9 hectares), about 15% of the site. The standard facility to plot size ratio is around 40-45% but mostly concerns smaller distribution facilities. Because of the nature of its operations (consolidating and deconsolidating parcel loads), a substantial share of the site is allocated to trailer parking as well as parking space for the 11,000 employees working in different shifts. Additionally, space must be allocated for water collection as rainfall over such a large paved area would flood local streams. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/footprint-cach-chicago/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/footprint-cach-chicago/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/footprint-cach-chicago/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/environmental-footprint-of-transportation/footprint-cach-chicago/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Paradox of Mobility and its Costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/mobility-paradox-costs/) **Published:** December 7, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mobility_paradox.png?resize=900%2C282&ssl=1 "The Paradox of Mobility and its Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Paradox of Mobility and its CostsMobility conveys various benefits, including access to employment, goods, and social activities. The paradoxical relation between mobility and its costs is based on the premise that the benefits are derived by the users of transport systems (e.g. drivers) and that the costs are in part assumed by society and the environment. The **demand for mobility** has been increasing on par with global economic growth, particularly in developing economies in recent years. [Motorization](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=264 "Vehicle Use Indicators, World, 1950-2019") has been a prevalent trend, which has increased the **footprint of transportation** infrastructures such as roads, terminals, and vehicles. This mobility also consumes vast quantities of energy, with petroleum being the main source. Mobility comes at a cost partially assumed by the users (e.g. fuel, maintenance, licensing, insurance, etc.). However, there are societal costs mainly involving infrastructure provision and maintenance as well as accidents related to the operation of transport systems. Environmental costs mostly assumed by society can be linked with pollutant emissions, such as volatile organic compounds and carbon. The benefits of mobility are internal to the users, while the costs are, in part, **externalized**. The assessment and measurement of externalities remain one of the most salient environmental concerns. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/mobility-paradox-costs/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/mobility-paradox-costs/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/mobility-paradox-costs/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/mobility-paradox-costs/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Crude Oil Reserves, 2000-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/crude-oil-reserves/) **Published:** December 19, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/major_crude_oil_reserves.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Major Crude Oil Reserves, 2000-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Crude Oil Reserves 2000 2020 Thousand Million Barrels*Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy.* The geographical imbalance in oil reserves is similar to production. From a long-term perspective, OPEC countries account for most oil reserves. Saudi Arabia alone had about 25% of the world’s oil reserves until recently. Still, changes in the evaluation of oil reserves have tremendously increased the share of Venezuelan and Canadian reserves. Due to increased oil prices and improved extraction technologies, Canadian tar sands have become economically recoverable, thus being counted as official reserves. Questions remain about to what extent these reserves are economically recoverable. If a cost-effective way is set, this will go a long way to extend the availability of petroleum on global markets. Furthermore, it may take a long time at the current consumption level for OPEC to run out of oil reserves. In recent years, the United States has also experienced a substantial increase in its reserves due to the inclusion of shale oil. No European country, except Norway, has significant oil reserves. There is controversy concerning the true extent of oil reserves, especially in the Middle East. OPEC countries may have vastly overstated their reserves, mainly because production quotas are based upon estimated reserves. This means that the larger its reserves, the more an OPEC country can export oil. Kuwait is a good example of this issue, as it reported a gradual decline in its reserves in the early 1980s. This was expected since the Kuwaiti oil industry can be considered as mature. However, in 1985 the country reported a 50% increase in its reserves without any new discovery, a strategy solely designed to increase its export quotas. Kuwait was not alone in increasing its reserves for quota reasons. In 1988, the United Arab Emirates, Iran, and Iraq all significantly increased their reported reserves for the same reasons. Even Saudi Arabia followed and reported a massive increase in its reserves in 1990. However, as world demand gradually increased, quota issues became less relevant. There are concerns about the high concentration of reserves in Saudi Arabia and the “creative accounting” estimates of oil reserves. 95% of Saudi oil comes from six major fields discovered between 1940 and 1967. The Ghawar field alone produces 60% of this total. It was discovered in 1948 and put into production in 1951. By 2009, it produced 5 million barrels per day, but large amounts of water needed to be injected to maintain the field’s output. As such, this field is likely to be at the end of its production cycle, and its output may decline substantially in the coming years. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/crude-oil-reserves/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/crude-oil-reserves/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/crude-oil-reserves/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/crude-oil-reserves/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Annual Oil Production and Peak Oil](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/peak-oil/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/peak_oil.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Annual Oil Production (1900-2021) and Peak Oil | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Annual Oil Production 1900 2021 and Peak Oil 2005 2020 Scenarios*Source: Adapted from BP Statistical Review of World Energy.* The oldest continuously operated oil well, called McClintock #1, is located south of Titusville, Pennsylvania, and started operations in 1861. Its initial output was about 50 barrels of oil per day, and after more than 155 years of operation, the well still produces about 1 barrel per day. This historical example indicates a process where an initially abundant resource slowly gets depleted. Although the well is likely to produce oil for a long time, it is beyond its peak production level. Based upon this observation about a single well, it is possible to infer that peak output applies to whole oil fields, and ultimately to global oil production. In 1956, the geophysicist King Hubbert published a theory concerning the temporal evolution of oil production, which takes the shape of a bell curve. Oil production starts at zero and then rises to a peak that can never be surpassed. Once peak production has been reached, production declines, and prices go up until oil resources are depleted or too costly to have widespread use. Hubbert predicted that oil production in the United States would peak between 1965 and 1970, which attracted criticism, even ridicule, from the oil industry. His assumption turned out to be true, and oil production in the United States peaked in 1971 (it boomed again in the 2010s because of oil shale technology). The only fundamental way to establish a peak oil point is when the event has occurred. For the states of Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, and Texas, it was 1891, 1927, and 1972 respectively. Consequently, the concept of peak oil can be inferred to global oil reserves, but with much uncertainty. The time framework for which oil production is expected to peak is subject to much debate. The International Energy Agency stated that peak oil would not occur until around 2030, while other commentators state it could happen earlier. Prior assumptions that the 2005 and 2010 peak oil scenarios did not occur (peak of 30 billion barrels per year). A 2020 peak oil scenario would place the peak production at 35 billion barrels, which was surpassed in 2018 and 2021. Still, the Covid-19 pandemic was associated with a notable drop in production in 2020. Total oil reserves are estimated to be around 1,800 to 2,200 billion barrels, with about 1,700 billion barrels considered proven reserves. Under such circumstances, most of the remaining oil could be extracted by 2060. However, several nuances have to be brought forward concerning the validity of peak oil: - **New reserves**. New large-scale oil reserves have been getting more difficult to find since the 1970s. New reserves tend to be in remote areas, offshore or difficult to recover. There have been serious issues concerning the real availability of oil reserves, as some figures have been inflated to uphold the confidence of markets and investors. Since reserves in many countries, mainly OPEC countries, are not audited by external sources, reporting agencies are likely to have overestimated potential oil reserves. Still, with technological development and investments, new reserves can be brought online, as the example of tar sands and shale oil underlines. Still, their economic recoverability tends to involve much higher prices. - **Demand**. Oil consumption is far from being a constant growth process and has been subject to fluctuations, with growth rates gradually receding. Rapidly growing economies, particularly China, have imported more oil and significantly impacted the structure of global oil demand. Consequently, if demand goes up, the time remaining before the exhaustion of global oil supplies could get shorter. Still, demand can also decline, namely with technological improvements, shifts to alternative sources of energy, automated vehicles, and economic downturns where global and sectorial demand can face setbacks. - **Recoverability**. A historical perspective on exploiting resources reveals that resources that are the easiest to access are exploited first. In contrast, resources that are more difficult to access are left for later times (if not overlooked). Oil extraction has followed the same principle as most of the easy-access oil has now been extracted. What remains is located in more remote areas (subarctic; offshore), is much deeper, or is much more complex to extract (e.g. tar sands and shale oil). This implies that the oil that can be extracted is much more difficult to recover than the oil that has been extracted so far. The last few hundred billion barrels of oil may be economically unrecoverable. The concept of peak oil, although logical and substantiated, remains so far elusive. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/peak-oil/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/peak-oil/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/peak-oil/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/peak-oil/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector in the United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/petroleum-demand-united-states/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/demand_petroleum_products_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector in the United States, 1960-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector in the United States 1960 2021*Source: BTS, National Transportation Statistics.* Over the decades, transportation accounted for a growing share of oil consumption in the United States, while the amount of oil consumed by the industrial sector remained the same. By 2018, transportation accounted for 70.4% of petroleum consumption, while this share was 64.5% in 1990. Residential, commercial, and electric utilities’ use of petroleum declined. The convenience of petroleum for transportation remains fundamental, but other sectors are able to switch more effectively to other sources of energy, mainly electricity. Domestic petroleum consumption appears to have peaked and has been on the decline since 2005. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/petroleum-demand-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/petroleum-demand-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/petroleum-demand-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/petroleum-demand-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Fuel Consumption and Fuel Efficiency](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/fuel-consumption-efficiency/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_fuel_consumption.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Fuel Consumption and Fuel Efficiency | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fuel Consumption and Fuel EfficiencyAmong the [factors of energy consumption](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5890) by transportation, vehicle fuel efficiency plays a significant role. With an increase in fuel efficiency (in miles per gallon), marginal fuel consumption decreases. The most important fuel consumption benefits are achieved in the lower ranges of improvements. For instance, an improvement from 10 to 20 miles per gallon reduces fuel consumption by 50%, while an improvement from 20 to 30 miles per gallon will further reduce fuel consumption by 33%. Thus, vehicle-wise a significant fuel economy is reached if a consumer switches from a Sport Utility Vehicle (15 miles per gallon) to a regular car (25 miles per gallon). Although switching to a more fuel-efficient vehicle such as a hybrid (35 miles per gallon) results in fuel economy gains, they are not marginally that significant for an individual consumer, but much more at the aggregate level (fuel consumption by the society). This is particularly the case if the higher price of a more energy-efficient vehicle does not compensate for the gain in fuel efficiency. It is not a rational choice from an economic standpoint. Therefore, for fuel efficiency to benefit society, the price of the vehicle should remain similar as its fuel efficiency increases, or at least its fuel efficiency should compensate for its higher price. Significant gains in fuel efficiency are also achieved when vehicles operate in conditions with less congestion. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/fuel-consumption-efficiency/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/fuel-consumption-efficiency/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/fuel-consumption-efficiency/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/fuel-consumption-efficiency/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Factors of Energy Use by Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/transportation-energy-use-factors/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/energy_use_factors_transportation.png?resize=900%2C578&ssl=1 "Energy Use Factors by Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Energy Use Factors by TransportationFour major factors jointly influence fuel consumption and energy use by transportation: - **Vehicle**. Linked with **fuel efficiency**, particularly the engine and the fuel it uses. There are substantial engineering efforts to design more fuel-efficient vehicles. - **Infrastructure**. Linked **transport efficiency** as the capacity and condition of transport infrastructures can influence energy consumption. This is particularly the case for transport terminals, such as those handling freight. Terminal equipment, such as cranes, are large consumers of energy. - **Demand**. Linked with the **level of economic activity**; the higher the level of economic activity, the more energy is used due to higher passenger mobility and more demand for goods and services. - **Spatial structure**. Linked with the **average transport distance**. The distribution of economic activities and the structure of transport networks are a direct expression of the spatial structure and the travel distances it implies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/transportation-energy-use-factors/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/transportation-energy-use-factors/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/transportation-energy-use-factors/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/transportation-energy-use-factors/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Energy Systems Transition](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-systems-transition/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_energy_systems_transition.png?resize=900%2C490&ssl=1 "Global Energy Systems Transition | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Energy Systems Transition of market*Source: adapted from The Economist, 2001.* Energy use is in constant transition, particularly from a long-term perspective where changes can be substantial. An energy transition involves a change from one supply system to another, namely in terms of the fuels used, their sources, and how they are processed and brought to the market. A common pattern in energy transition involves moving to sources that have a **higher energy content**, but that requires a higher level of technical expertise to be extracted, processed, stored, and distributed. In time, this has implied growth in the quantity consumed, changes in energy sources, and the usage of sources that tend to have a lower environmental impact. The first significant energy transition took place during the [industrial revolution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9183), which mostly involved the adoption of coal as the dominant source of energy. By the early 20th century, a significant transition toward petroleum took place, mainly because of the diffusion of internal combustion engines and the shift of maritime shipping to bunker fuels. Even if there is a gradual transition away from petroleum to natural gases and alternative energy (wind, solar), it is expected to dominate global energy systems within the foreseeable future. Several utility factors favor the usage of petroleum as the main source of energy in general and for transport activities in particular: - **Occurrence**. Concerns the location of energy sources considering the demand. Several energy sources are only available when a transportation system is able to transfer large quantities from its extraction areas to markets. The exploitation of oil fields in several regions of the world (Middle East, Siberia, etc.) was made possible when an efficient transportation system relying on pipelines and tankers was established. - **Transferability**. The distance over which an energy source can be transported depends on its physical form (solid, liquid, or gas), energy content, and available transport technology. Most petroleum products are in a liquid, more or less viscous, form. They thus offer an efficient transferrable form, which is less convenient than solids such as coal, but much more than gases. Furthermore, economies of scale in transportation, notably maritime, enhance transferability by reducing unit costs. - **Energy content**. A low energy content is inadequate when demand is high and concentrated in space. Gasoline and other petroleum products have a high energy content compared to other fossil fuels like coal, but even more when compared to hydroelectricity and solar energy. - **Reliability**. Continuous availability is an advantage over intermittent sources. The emergence of many sources and constant supply through maritime and land routes has given relative reliability to petroleum products. - **Storability**. An energy source has an advantage when it can be stored to answer fluctuations in demand and interruptions of supply. In liquid form, petroleum products are easily stored, and several countries have built strategic reserves. - **Flexibility**. The capacity of an energy source to answer multiple uses is an advantage over energy sources that can only fit a single purpose. In addition to providing energy, petroleum by-products are the basis of whole industrial sectors (petrochemical) that synthesize goods like plastics, fertilizers, pharmaceutical products, and synthetic rubber. - **Safety**. Sources that can be provided and used at low risks (human and environmental) are an advantage. Although the petrochemical industry presents some risks (accidents during extraction, refining, transport, and usage), oil is considered a safe source of energy for its production and usage. - **Cleanliness**. Sources that produce limited waste and are cleanly used are an advantage. Relative to other conventional energy sources like coal, oil is cleaner to use and produces a limited amount of waste. Still, the use of petroleum products has negative environmental impacts, such as the emission of particulates and carbon into the atmosphere. - **Price**. Low-cost energy sources are generally preferred. Cost is a function of the occurrence, transferability, and energy content of an energy source. With massive investments in large-scale extraction, refining, and transport of petroleum products, a constant supply, and intense competition from several oil-producing countries, petroleum product prices are cheaper and more stable than many other sources. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-systems-transition/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-systems-transition/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-systems-transition/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-systems-transition/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Annual Energy Consumption in England and Wales, 1560s to 1850s](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-consumption-england-1560-1850/) **Published:** February 4, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/energy_consumption_england_1560_1850.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Annual Energy Consumption in England and Wales, 1560s to 1850s | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Annual Energy Consumption in England and Wales 1560s to 1850s*Source: adapted from Wrigley, E.A. (2010), Energy and the English industrial revolution, Cambridge University Press.* One of the fundamental changes the Industrial Revolution brought about concerns energy consumption patterns as a growing amount of work was performed by machines. This energy transition involves a shift to more practical and energy-intensive sources. The case of England is illustrative since it was the first nation to undertake an industrial revolution and its related energy transition. While up to the mid-17th century, humans, draught animals, and firewood were the dominant energy sources. By the early 19th century, the balance completely shifted to coal, a higher-density source conveniently available. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-consumption-england-1560-1850/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-consumption-england-1560-1850/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-consumption-england-1560-1850/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-consumption-england-1560-1850/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Evolution of Energy Sources](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-sources-evolution/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_energy_sources2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Evolution of Energy Sources | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Evolution of Energy SourcesEconomic and technological developments are linked with shifts in sources of energy. The trend is towards the adoption of higher energy content sources, as the shift from coal (solid) to oil (liquid) and natural gas (gas) illustrates. This shift can be simplified into five major phases, including one speculative about the future: - **Before the industrial revolution** (18th century), energy use relied only on muscular and biomass sources. Most of the work was provided by manual labor and animals, while the biomass (mainly firewood) was used for heating and cooking energy needs. Other sources of energy, such as windmills and watermills, were present, but their overall contribution was marginal and for very specific purposes (e.g. milling flour). - By the mid-19th century, the **industrial revolution** brought a significant shift in energy sources with the usage of coal, mainly for steam engines, but increasingly for power plants. The use of thermal energy to generate mechanical energy was the core driver of this transformation. It mainly took place in areas in proximity to coal fields. - As the 20th century began, the major reliance was on coal, but a gradual shift towards higher energy content sources like oil began. This second major shift saw the introduction of internal combustion engines and oil-powered ships. - In the late 20th century, the **preeminence of petroleum products** as the main energy provider reached a high level of dependence on the world economy. A massive distribution system for petroleum was established, including pipelines, storage tanks, and liquid bulk carriers. As the level of technical expertise increased, more efficient sources of fossil fuels were tapped, such as natural gas, and an entirely new form of energy, nuclear fission, became available. Renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectric, wind, and solar, started to be tapped but remained marginal sources. - The 21st century will be characterized by **major shifts in energy sources** with the gradual obsolescence of fossil fuels (decarbonization), like coal and oil, for more efficient fossil fuels, such as natural gas. Advances in biotechnologies underline the growing potential of biomass-derived fuels, while wind and solar energy will also account for a notable share of energy sources. Nuclear energy, particularly if nuclear fusion becomes commercially possible, may play a significant role, but this remains speculative. A new transition is likely to be the usage of hydrogen, mainly for fuel cells powering vehicles, small energy generators, and portable devices. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-sources-evolution/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-sources-evolution/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-sources-evolution/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-sources-evolution/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Sources of Energy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-sources/) **Published:** December 10, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/source_energy.png?resize=900%2C359&ssl=1 "Sources of Energy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Sources of EnergyEnergy exists in various forms, including **mechanical**, **thermal**, **chemical**, **electrical**, **gravitational**, and **nuclear,** which are all interconvertible. Mechanical energy results from movement and is the combination of kinetic and potential energy. Thermal energy is the outcome of temperature differences between two systems. Electromagnetic energy (also called radiant energy) is the outcome of electromagnetic waves, such as light emitted by the sun. Gravitational energy is the foundation of mechanical energy derived from the attraction of two masses, the earth being the most significant. Forms of energy come from sources qualified as **renewable** and **non-renewable**, which include **chemical reactions** (mainly combustion), **nuclear reactions** (fission or fusion), the **effect of gravity** (mainly tidal), and **direct** (photovoltaic) and **indirect** (photosynthesis, wind, and hydraulic) **solar energy conversion**. The concept of renewability is based on the scale of human events and if the source can be replaced during that period. Fossil fuels are the most common source of non-renewable energy since oil, or natural gas reserves would take millions of years to replenish themselves through anaerobic decomposition. Inversely, wood is a renewable biomass energy source as long as adequate conditions are kept for reserves to be replenished. Rates of exploitation/deforestation in a number of areas are so high that biomass may be considered a non-renewable source in those circumstances. Vectors represent the main fuels available for use. Many are the outcome of conversion, such as refining to create liquid fuels or using a turbine to generate electricity. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-sources/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-sources/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-sources/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-energy/energy-sources/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation Yield Management](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transportation-yield-management/) **Published:** December 7, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_yield_management.png?resize=900%2C361&ssl=1 "Transportation Yield Management | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Yield ManagementFor a yield management strategy, two variables significantly influence the rate (fare or toll) being charged to use a given transport supply (scheduled flight, ship, road, etc.): - **Remaining capacity**. As the available remaining capacity declines, it becomes more valuable, with fares increased accordingly. The last remaining capacity can be offered at a high cost to see which user is willing to pay to access it. For instance, on high-demand routes, an airline often keeps a few seats to make them available the week before a scheduled flight to cater to time-constrained customers (e.g, business) willing to pay a higher price for the seats. - **Remaining time**. Transport supply is made available at a specific point in time (t), implying that it is scheduled. As the remaining time before a scheduled capacity decreases and if the capacity is not hired, the fare will be reduced in the hope that a taker will be found until the fare reaches operating costs. For domestic flights in the United States, prices generally drop until 30 days before departure, and then they start going up as airlines manage the remaining capacity to maximize revenues. Operating costs are the fare below, which it is preferable not to offer the capacity even if it is available. For instance, an airline company will not sell a seat on a flight at a cost that is below its operating costs (mostly fuel), even if the seat would, therefore, remain empty. Low prices may also create expectations from users that they are the norm, which will change their future economic behavior. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transportation-yield-management/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transportation-yield-management/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transportation-yield-management/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transportation-yield-management/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Supply, Demand and Travel Time](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/supdemtime-2/) **Published:** December 7, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_supply_demand_travel.png?resize=900%2C765&ssl=1 "Transport Supply, Demand and Travel Time | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Supply Demand and Travel TimeWithin an urban area, transport supply (A) tends to be stable throughout the day, with the exception of public transit that adjusts its services (namely in terms of frequency) to cope with peak hours. Transport demand (T), on the other hand, varies considerably, mainly because of [commuting patterns](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5050) that are characterized by morning and afternoon periods of peak activity. During these periods, transport demand usually exceeds transport supply, with the resulting congestion significantly increasing travel time. The same journey can take more or less time, depending on the time of the day and the prevailing supply/demand relations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/supdemtime-2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/supdemtime-2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/supdemtime-2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/supdemtime-2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Road Transport Elasticity by Activity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/elasticity-road-transport/) **Published:** December 7, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/road_elasticity.png?resize=900%2C497&ssl=1 "Road Transport Elasticity by Activity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Road Transport Elasticity by Activity*Source: Adapted from Victoria Transport Policy Institute (2002) Transportation Elasticities.* The concept of elasticity is very useful for understanding the economic behavior of transport supply and demand. Depending on the transport activity, mobility is linked with different elasticities. Emergencies tend to have low, if any, elasticity. Commuting also has a very low elasticity as this form of mobility is related to a fundamental economic activity that provides income. This fact is underlined by empirical evidence that shows that drivers are marginally influenced by variations in the price of fuel or tolls in their commuting behavior, especially in highly motorized societies. Since work is a major, if not the only, source of income, commuting can not be forfeited under any circumstances short of being cost-prohibitive. Activities that confer limited economic benefits tend to have higher elasticities. Social and recreation-oriented movements are commonly those whose users have the least cost tolerance. Consequently, as transport costs increase, recreational movements (tourism) are those that experience the fastest decline. In the above figure, for each ΔC(6) transportation cost increase, there is a ΔT(6) decrease in traffic. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/elasticity-road-transport/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/elasticity-road-transport/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/elasticity-road-transport/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/elasticity-road-transport/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Impacts of Modal Competition and Intermodal Capacity on Transport Supply](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-modal-competition/) **Published:** December 7, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modal_competition_intermodal_capacity2.png?resize=900%2C245&ssl=1 "Impacts of Modal Competition and Intermodal Capacity on Transport Supply | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of Modal Competition and Intermodal Capacity on Transport SupplyTransport supply is commonly assessed in terms of the capacity of infrastructures. Although this dimension is suitable in a number of circumstances, particularly when a single mode is considered, the concept of transport supply must consider circumstances where several modes share the same infrastructure or where intermodalism is the core factor of transport supply. - **Modal competition**. In modal competition, two modes (A and B) share the same transport infrastructures. Assuming that infrastructures are used to their full capacity, the total capacity (C) is a function of their common demand, T(A) plus T(B). This common demand is the outcome of the respective modal assignment, the shares of modes A and B. In this zero-sum environment, any change in the share of one mode will be done at the expense of the other. This issue is particularly prevalent at transport bottlenecks such as bridges where different modes, namely cars and trucks, are competing for the same fixed capacity, which often results in high congestion levels. - **Intermodal capacity**. The capacity of two connected intermodal terminals is derived from the terminal with the lowest capacity. Two terminals (A and B) have respective capacities of C(A) and C(B). The maximum transport demand possible between them, T(AB), is equal to the capacity of the smallest terminal, C(B). This assumes that no other activity is taking place between other terminals. In reality, an intermodal terminal is connected with several other intermodal terminals, implying that the capacity is even lower. This issue is particularly prevalent for large port and airport facilities running close to capacity. Any additional service must be carefully considered in relation to the existing capacity. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-modal-competition/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-modal-competition/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-modal-competition/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-supply-modal-competition/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Supply Variables for Transportation Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-modes-sypply-variables/) **Published:** December 7, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_variables_transportation.png?resize=900%2C385&ssl=1 "Major Supply Variables for Transportation Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Supply Variables for Transportation ModesBasic supply variables for major modes can be categorized by routes, terminals, and vehicles: - **Road**. Supply depends on road conditions, traffic (congestion), and the level of control (such as speed limits) and is generally measured in terms of the number of vehicles per lane per hour. The main supply variables are road width, number of lanes, the capacity of the vehicle (average number of people per vehicle in several North American cities: 1.2), speed, inventory, and frequency of service (for mass transit). - **Rail**. The main supply variables are the number of tracks, the capacity of stations and railyards, the capacity of the vehicle, and the speed of the vehicle. - **Air**. The main supply variables are the capacity of airports, the capacity of aircraft, the frequency of services, and the speed of the vehicle. The capacity of an airline corridor is enormous, but that of airports is not. - **Maritime**. The main supply variables are port capacity, the capacity of ships, the frequency of services, and the speed of the ship. The capacity of a maritime route is enormous. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-modes-sypply-variables/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-modes-sypply-variables/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-modes-sypply-variables/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/transport-modes-sypply-variables/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Transportation Demand](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/types-transportation-demand/) **Published:** May 12, 2021 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_transport_demand.png?resize=900%2C365&ssl=1 "Types of Transportation Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Transportation DemandEstimating transportation demand can be conceptualized from three main perspectives that are also models: - **Constant**. Transportation demand is proportional to a variable, so an increase in demand is expected with the corresponding growth of the variable. This does not necessarily imply causality, although variables having a strong association tend to be causal. The associations depicted are usually linear, but non-linear relations can also be represented. This is commonly known as the multiplier effect in economic impact assessments. For instance, additional employment in an area could be associated with (proportional to) a defined number of additional commuting trips. An additional number of tons handled by a port could be associated with a proportional number of truck or rail movements to the hinterland. - **Deterministic**. Transportation demand is a direct function of a number of known parameters. Knowing the parameters allows for estimating the demand accurately with a modal such as multiple regression. For instance, knowing supply and demand functions, including their elasticity, allows estimating how many passengers would purchase a ticket at a specific price level. A spatial interaction model is a standard example of deterministic demand, which is a general function of the attributes of at least two locations pondered by a function of their distance. - **Stochastic**. Transportation demand cannot be accurately estimated because of the complexity of the parameters and the possibility of random events. In a complex transport market, demand becomes a bounded probability. A certain demand level is assessed to be probable, but another demand level remains possible. For instance, freight demand and rates can have substantial variations, including surges and crashes associated with the volatility of commodity and energy prices, transportation prices, geopolitical events, and currency fluctuations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/types-transportation-demand/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/types-transportation-demand/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/types-transportation-demand/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/provision-and-demand-of-transportation/types-transportation-demand/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Retail Gasoline Prices and Annual Vehicle Mileage, United States, 1960-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/vehicle-mileage-gasoline-prices-united-states/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_gasoline_mileage_us.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Retail Gasoline Prices and Annual Vehicle Mileage, United States, 1960-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Retail Gasoline Prices and Annual Vehicle Mileage United States 1960 2020*Source: FHWA for miles traveled. EIA for gasoline prices (2005 dollars). Leaded gasoline prices before 1980, unleaded gasoline afterward.* There is a concordant relationship between the average annual mileage traveled per vehicle and gasoline prices. Sixty years of empirical evidence in the United States underlines that higher gasoline prices are linked with lower levels of annual miles traveled per vehicle. However, this relationship can be broken down into four clusters corresponding to specific periods: - **1960-1978** (Motorization). This era marks the ongoing motorization of American society, the fast growth of suburbia, and low gasoline prices. - **1979-1985** (Recessionary transition). The [First and the Second Oil Shocks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5880) and the recession of the early 1980s are characterized by a setback in the average annual mileage in light of rising gasoline prices. - **1986-2000** (Peak motorization). Through the 1990s, gasoline prices remained low, enabling the motorization trend observed through the 1960s to resume. America reached peak motorization and peak suburbanization. - **2001-2019** (Peak motorization transition). Through the 2000s, gasoline prices increased substantially, marking a new transition where the average annual mileage was in [decline](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1879). 2020 represents a notable outlier as in the initial stages of the pandemic, driving declined, including gasoline prices. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/vehicle-mileage-gasoline-prices-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/vehicle-mileage-gasoline-prices-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/vehicle-mileage-gasoline-prices-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/vehicle-mileage-gasoline-prices-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Shipment Size and Inland Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/inland-transport-costs-shipment-size/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/shipment_size_inland_costs.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Shipment Size and Inland Transport Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Shipment Size and Inland Transport Costs*Source: P.O. Roberts (1999) “Logistics and Freight Transportation: Review of Concepts Affecting Bulk Transportation”, World Bank.* The principle of [economies of scale](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1530) in transportation particularly applies to freight distribution, as costs tend to be inversely proportional to shipment size. Freight shipped in 10 pounds parcels would cost about $1,000 per ton for 1,000 miles, while freight shipped on a 2 million pounds barge load would cost $2 per ton for 1,000 miles. This favors a specialization of shipments according to the value of what is being transported. Different transport options are not necessarily competing but servicing specific markets and supply chains. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/inland-transport-costs-shipment-size/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/inland-transport-costs-shipment-size/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/inland-transport-costs-shipment-size/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/inland-transport-costs-shipment-size/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Maritime Transportation Rates for a 40 Foot Container between Selected Ports, 2010](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/container-shipping-rates-40-foot-container/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rates_40_foot_container_ports.png?resize=900%2C457&ssl=1 "Maritime Transportation Rates for a 40 Foot Container between Selected Ports, 2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Maritime Transportation Rates for a 40 Foot Container between Selected Ports 2010*Source: Drewry Shipping Consultants. Note: Rates are for full container loads and include the base ocean shipping rate across ship classes, port charges both at origin and at the destination, fuel surcharges and all other surcharges.* The rates to ship a 40-foot container (the most common containerized unit) between different maritime facades are a function of several factors: - **Port charges**. Larger and more productive port terminals tend to have lower rates, attracting port calls. - **Distance**. A simple function of the amount of bunker fuel consumed since fuel accounts for about 50% of the operating costs of a containership. Longer distances tend to have higher rates. - **Economies of scale**. The larger the volume between port pairs, the larger the ships that can be employed to service them, which reduces operating costs. Larger volumes are also subject to more competition, which holds down rates. The limits to economies of scale are related to the nautical profile of the concerned ports. - **Imbalances**. Trade imbalances tend to increase the rates for inbound flows and depress them for outbound flows, assuming that the inbound flows are related to a country having a negative trade balance. More cargo is competing for the containership cargo slots. The higher inbound rates subsidize the repositioning of empty containers. On the above map, the rates between Asia and North America, Europe and North America, and Asia and Europe are illustrative of these imbalances. Significant imbalances in containerized maritime freight rates have emerged along major trading routes. Before 1998, the “spread” between eastbound and westbound rates used to be relatively narrow, a couple of hundred USD per TEU. From 1999, the rate spread increased to about a thousand USD per TEU, reflecting the substantial global trade imbalances. On the one hand, the Asian financial crisis of 1997 created a substantial devaluation of their respective currencies (with the exception of the Chinese Yuan, which was pegged to the USD until 2005), which made exports cheaper. On the other hand, the same period was characterized by significant economic growth in North America with its associated consumption and a level of deindustrialization. American containerized imports thus increased at a rate that was significantly faster than exports. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/container-shipping-rates-40-foot-container/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/container-shipping-rates-40-foot-container/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/container-shipping-rates-40-foot-container/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/container-shipping-rates-40-foot-container/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Cost to Import a 20 Foot Container, 2015](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/import-costs-container-teu/) **Published:** December 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Import-Costs-per-TEU.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Cost to Import a 20 Foot Container, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Cost to Import a 20 Foot Container 2015*Source: World Bank, Doing Business project.* *Note: Cost measures the fees levied on an imported 20-foot container in U.S. dollars (USD). They include costs for documents, administrative fees for customs clearance and technical control, customs broker fees, terminal handling charges and inland transport. The cost measure does not include tariffs or trade taxes as well as maritime shipping costs.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Import-Costs-per-TEU.pdf) In its ‘Doing Business’ framework, the World Bank has developed and collected a series of indicators concerning the regulatory and economic framework for commercial activities, particularly as they relate to trade. These include 11 indicator sets covering 190 economies aligned around issues such as the ease of starting a business, registering property, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts, and labor market regulations. In particular, the trading indicators time and cost to export the product of comparative advantage and import auto parts in a container. Ideally, transportation costs should experience a convergence as containerized transport systems become extensive and ubiquitous. Since the container has become the most common transport unit in international trade, the costs of handling them across jurisdictions are representative of the ease of trade. Thus, lowering import and export costs per TEU can be reflective of trade facilitation. There are substantial variations across nations in the cost of importing the same load unit. The main factors behind these differences are: - **Geography**. Basic geographical factors are at play. Countries having a long coastline and a large share of their population living close to the coast tend to have lower containerized import costs (e.g. Chile). In such as case, the average inland transport distance tends to be low. The same rationale applies to archipelago and island countries (Indonesia, Philippines, Caribbean). Large countries having a good share of their populations living inland also tend to have higher import costs (e.g. Russia, United States, Canada, Mexico). Landlocked countries have systematically higher import costs because of the additional costs and complexity of importing containers through a third-party gateway. Interestingly, Latin American landlocked countries (Bolivia and Paraguay) are the exception to this rule, indicating notable efforts to maintain effective gateways to global trade. - **Efficiency of inland transportation**. Countries having a high-capacity rail system and/or a fluvial system are associated with lower transport costs. Many landlocked countries, in addition to their isolation, are usually not well connected to the gateways through which they have access to global markets. This is particularly the case for sub-Saharan African and Central Asian countries, where the highest import costs for containerized cargo are observed. - **Policy and regulations**. Some countries purposely impose high transaction costs as a source of revenue. Countries that have implemented trade facilitation strategies, particularly major infrastructure investments, are prone to have lower costs. Inversely, situations of political instability and insecurity substantially add to transport costs. Corruption and rent-seeking behavior are commonly linked with political instability. - **Trade imbalances**. Trade imbalances are linked with container flow imbalances, which impose surcharges for imports if they are substantially higher than exports or surcharges for exports if they are higher than imports. These surcharges cover the costs of repositioning containers from areas with a surplus to areas with a deficit. For instance, due to imbalances, it is common for container shipping rates from Asia to North America to be twice as high for the inbound trip. It is, however, difficult to separate the contribution of each factor to import costs. On average, import costs per TEU are higher than export costs since most countries implicitly favor exports over imports since they support national industries. OECD countries have import costs 38% less than the global average, while this figure is 51% less for East Asian countries, which is the region having the world’s lowest import costs. Inversely, [landlocked countries](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2103) have import costs 85% higher than the global average. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/import-costs-container-teu/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/import-costs-container-teu/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/import-costs-container-teu/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/import-costs-container-teu/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Freight Transportation Service Spectrum](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-transport-service-spectrum/) **Published:** December 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/freight_transport_service_spectrum.png?resize=900%2C392&ssl=1 "Freight Transportation Service Spectrum | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Freight Transportation Service Spectrum*Source: adapted from Global Insight, Inc., TRANSEARCH database, and U.S. Department of Transportation Freight Analysis Framework data.* Cargo value and weight are related to the mode of transportation used and are usually the outcome of a balancing act between cost, capacity, and level of service. Freight offers a whole spectrum of transport services, each with its own cost, speed, and reliability characteristics. On one side of the spectrum, air cargo is the fastest but the most expensive, which caters to high-value and time-sensitive cargo. On the other side of this spectrum, maritime transport offers low costs, and high capacity but low speeds. While this is suitable for bulk trades (e.g. oil and raw materials), containerized shipping is coping with low speeds by offering high service frequency. Rail transportation is in the middle of this spectrum. The freight service spectrum is conditioned by geography and underlines a duality between maritime and inland transportation: - **Inland transportation** is serviced by the whole range of transport services, implying greater costs/time options, including intermodal rail. Still, inland transport systems usually have capacity constraints because of more limited water transportation options on fluvial systems. - **Intercontinental transportation** is facing a dichotomy where shippers are constrained by two opposite options; air and maritime. Freight can either be placed on the fast or the slow lanes, implying different supply chain management strategies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-transport-service-spectrum/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-transport-service-spectrum/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-transport-service-spectrum/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/freight-transport-service-spectrum/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Components of Transport Cost](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-components/) **Published:** December 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_cost_components2.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "Components of Transport Cost | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Components of Transport CostA movement between locations A and B involves three cost components in the assessment of the related transport costs: - **Transactions costs** are related to resolving the setting of the movement, including legal costs and insurance. For international movements, they can be significant as issues related to currency exchange as well as customs duties have to be considered. - The **friction of distance** represents how many units of distance can be traded per unit of cost, which indicates how much effort (time, energy, etc.) must be made to ensure that a movement takes place. [Distance](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5553) is considered to be the simplest attribute for such a purpose. Still, when international transportation is involved, the change in the jurisdiction is also an important component of the transport cost. - **Shipment** implies the physical characteristics of the transportation process and the efforts that must be made to make a passenger or freight unit transportable. The higher the level of [massification](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=51) of the units, the lower the transport costs (economies of scale). Additionally, freight must be prepared for transport, such as packaging, palletizing, or stuffing into a container. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-components/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-components/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-components/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-components/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Fixed and Operating Transport Costs](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-fixed-operating/) **Published:** December 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/fixed_operating_costs.png?resize=900%2C533&ssl=1 "Fixed and Operating Transport Costs | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Fixed and Operating Transport Costs**Fixed costs** are incurred to make transportation services available and involve the provision of infrastructure, rights of way, terminals, and the control equipment for their operations. They do not change with the level of traffic but provide a level of capacity. **Operating costs** (or variable) are incurred when traffic takes place and are a function of its intensity. They mainly include labor, fuel (or energy), and maintenance. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-fixed-operating/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-fixed-operating/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-fixed-operating/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/transport-costs-fixed-operating/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Household Expenditures on Transport, United States, 2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/household-expenditures-transport-united-states/) **Published:** December 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/household_expenditures_transport_us.png?resize=900%2C519&ssl=1 "Household Expenditures on Transport, United States, 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Household Expenditures on Transport United States 2020*Source: BLS Consumer Expenditure Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics.* Transportation accounts for about 15% of all consumer expenditures in the United States. Vehicle operations are the largest transport expenditure, accounting for more than half of household transport expenditures. This particularly includes gasoline and insurance, both around 30% of operational expenditures. Only 3 to 5% of average annual household expenditures are related to public transit. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/household-expenditures-transport-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/household-expenditures-transport-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/household-expenditures-transport-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/household-expenditures-transport-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Noise Levels from Different Sources](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/noise-levels/) **Published:** December 9, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/noise_levels2.png?resize=900%2C762&ssl=1 "Noise Levels from Different Sources | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Noise Levels from Different SourcesA decibel is a unit of measure of the intensity of acoustic pressure. 0 dB is barely perceivable by human beings, while 120 dB is considered the threshold of pain and hearing damage. Decibels are measured on a logarithmic scale, which means that an increase of 10 dB corresponds to an increase in intensity by a factor of 10. The acoustic pressure of 120 dB is thus one million times that of 0 dB. Measures are often given in dB(A) or Leq when a time period is involved. The Leq is the average of noise exposure, often in dB(A), over a time period. It is often measured for the 6h00-22h00 period, which corresponds to the period of the day when most people are awake. Legal limits usually range between 50 dB and 65 dB, above which some abatement measures must be provided (e.g. a sound barrier) or where residential land uses are restricted. For instance, a jet airplane produces a sound intensity of 120 dB(A) during take-off, and a heavily used urban road intersection of 80 dB, and 70 dB is a common noise level near a highway. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/noise-levels/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/noise-levels/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/noise-levels/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter4/transportation-and-environment/noise-levels/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Probability of Pedestrian Fatality by Impact Speed](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatality-impact-speed/) **Published:** December 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/probability_pedestrian_fatality.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Probability of Pedestrian Fatality by Impact Speed | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Probability of Pedestrian Fatality by Impact Speed*Source: adapted from D.C. Richards (2010) Relationship between Speed and Risk of Fatal Injury: Pedestrians and Car Occupants, Department for Transport: London, Transport Research Laboratory.* The probability of a pedestrian fatality in the event of a collision can be related to many factors, but the speed of the vehicle is by far the most significant. Any impact taking place at a speed above 60 km per hour results in a dramatic increase in the probability of a fatality. Any collision with a pedestrian taking place at more than 80 km per hour is almost certain to result in a fatality. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatality-impact-speed/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatality-impact-speed/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatality-impact-speed/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatality-impact-speed/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Just-in-Time and its Logistic](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/logistics-just-in-time/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/just_in_time_logistics2.png?resize=900%2C381&ssl=1 "Just-in-Time and its Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Just in Time and its LogisticsIn a simple manner, a supply chain is based on the delivery of parts to be assembled and then distributed to markets. Logistics can be seen as synchronizing this process so that deliveries of parts, assembly (manufacturing), and deliveries of goods are coordinated. Just-in-time is a concept at the convergence of manufacturing and logistics that relies on freight transport, particularly trucking and containers, when global supply chains are concerned. It involves delivering a component just before the assembly line requires it, which **reduces the inventory held at warehouses but increases the inventory in circulation**. Consequently, freight forwarders must respect tighter delivery schedules and plan their operations accordingly to avoid delays and disruptions. The production unit (the factory) assumes a lower level of warehousing. As a result, the trucks (vehicles) themselves assume the task of moving storage units with a large share of the inventory constantly in circulation. Although just-in-time is a more productive form of supply chain management, it is also prone to vulnerabilities since interruptions can significantly impact production. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/logistics-just-in-time/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/logistics-just-in-time/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/logistics-just-in-time/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/logistics-just-in-time/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Technology Hype Cycle](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/technology-hype-cycle/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/technology_hype_cycle.png?resize=900%2C435&ssl=1 "Technology Hype Cycle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Technology Hype Cycle*Source: adapted from Gartner Inc.* Technology has the potential to disrupt markets, a fact underlined since the industrial revolution, when several key technologies created new markets and new economic opportunities. This is also the case for the transport sector. However, the impacts of technological innovation are usually not a linear process. On several occasions, a new technology goes through a set of stages before its potential can be realized. Two major phases can be identified: - **Hype phase**. Once a new technology (or product) is introduced, its real potential is fairly unknown and subject to much speculation and exaggeration. There are thus many expectations, and the corporation introducing new technology will obviously do its utmost to ensure it receives the highest visibility possible and even promotes the “hype”. The utility of the technology has not yet been formally demonstrated. What often happens is after a stage of inflated expectations (e.g. “world-changing / disruptive” technology), the realization comes about that those expectations cannot be reconciled with the reality (low utility and market potential). In some cases, the new technology can be abandoned altogether. - **Realization phase**. Once the hype phase is over, then the real potential of the technology can be realized after a learning and adaptation period. The utility of the technology improves greatly as a larger number of applications are found (sometimes different from those believed to be possible during the hype phase). At some point, the technology has reached its potential (maximum utility). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/technology-hype-cycle/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/technology-hype-cycle/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/technology-hype-cycle/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/technology-hype-cycle/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Baltic Dry Index, 1985-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/baltic-dry-index/) **Published:** December 6, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/baltic_dry_index.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "The Baltic Dry Index, 1985-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Baltic Dry Index 1985 2022*Source: Bloomberg; BDIY:IND. Value as of the last business day of the month.* The **Baltic Dry Index** (BDI) is an assessment of the average price to ship raw materials (such as coal, iron ore, cement, and grains) on a number of shipping routes (about 50) and by ship size. Thus, it is an indicator of the cost paid to ship raw materials on global markets and an important component of input costs. The index is considered a leading indicator (forward-looking) of economic activity since it involves events taking place at the earlier stages of global commodity chains (the procurement and transformation of raw materials). A high BDI index indicates a tight shipping supply due to high demand and is likely to create inflationary pressures along the supply chain. A sudden and sharp decline of the BDI is likely to foretell a recession since producers have substantially curtailed their demand leaving shippers to substantially reduce their rates in an attempt to attract cargo. Like all market indexes, the BDI is constantly changing, reflecting its price discovery mechanism. The major factors impacting the BDI are: - **Commodity Demand**. This is mainly a volume impact that could be irrespective of commodity prices. An increase in the demand, particularly if sudden, will likely result in a surge in shipping rates since additional capacity takes time to be brought online (either as new ships or reassignment of existing ones). If expectations about future demand change and producers reduce their raw materials demand accordingly, then the BDI will drop. - **Ship Supply**. Represents the availability of ships in terms of their capacity and their function. Many bulk carriers, such as tankers, cannot be readily converted to other uses, so the bulk market is quite segmented and fairly inflexible. The average ship age can also play since the useful life of a ship is about 25 years. If the average age becomes too high, there are expectations that significant capacity may be reduced and that this would imply a rise of the BDI. Inversely, the addition of new capacity in terms of ship orders may trigger a decline in the BDI, particularly if demand is not expected to change significantly in light of this new supply. - **Seasonality**. The demand for raw materials, such as grain and coal, has a significant seasonality, which will create fluctuations in the BDI when transporting these commodities is in high or low demand. - **Bunker Oil Prices**. Bunker fuel accounts for about 40% of vessel operating costs, with limited opportunities to mitigate them. Thus, a surge in oil prices is directly reflected in shipping rates. The opposite holds as if energy prices drop, the BDI can also drop accordingly. - **Port Congestion and Canal Capacity**. Some ports, particularly in the context of seasonality, can become congested and can tie up ships for longer periods than usual. This results in higher shipping rates as port supply is reconciled with shipping demand. Additionally, the Panama and Suez canals, important bottlenecks in global freight circulation, have a fixed capacity and can impose additional delays. - **Geopolitics**. Depending on the geopolitical context, there may be a risk of calling some locations, which is reflected in insurance rates and, consequently, shipping rates. Some chokepoints, such as the straits of Hormuz, Aden, and Malacca, may involve the risks of political instability and piracy, and capacity constraints to maritime circulation. The above graph underlines that the BDI has been very volatile in recent years, particularly between 2005 and 2009, when it behaved as a bubble. The main driver of this surge was linked to commodity prices, particularly oil. The index then plummeted to historical levels and remained weak despite a recovery in global trade. A factor is that many ships were ordered during the “bubble years” and have entered the market, providing capacity growth above demand growth. In recent years the BDI has remained low, underlining a situation of excess capacity in the shipping industry. The situation changed following the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020. While the initial effect of the pandemic was a decline in shipping rates because of a drop in demand, by the second half of 2021, the BDI surged. This was the outcome of declining shipping capacity, pushing shipping rates higher. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/baltic-dry-index/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/baltic-dry-index/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/baltic-dry-index/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/baltic-dry-index/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Impact of Recessions on Consumption, Production, and Trade](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/recessions-consumption-production-trade/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/recessions_consumption_production_trade.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Impact of Recessions on Consumption, Production, and Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impact of Recessions on Consumption Production and Trade*Source: Adapted from Notteboom, T., A. Pallis and J-P Rodrigue (2021) “Disruptions and Resilience in Global Container Shipping and Ports: The COVID-19 Pandemic vs the 2008-2009 Financial Crisis”, Maritime Economics and Logistics, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-020-00180-5* Recessions can have a severity ranging from light, where economic decline (e.g. GDP) may last a short period of time (a few months), to severe, where economic decline is steep and may last several years (commonly a depression). This severity will imply various levels of decline in consumption, trade, and freight rates: - **Consumption (demand)**. The level of impact on consumption is related to the value of goods. Basic goods (also labeled essential goods such as food) and luxury goods tend to be the most resilient, so their respective supply chains are impacted marginally by recessions. However, it is for durable goods (e.g. cars, appliances), discretionary goods (e.g. electronics), and capital equipment (e.g. ships and port infrastructure) that recessionary forces can have significant impacts in lowering their respective demand. During recessions, consumers lose a significant share of their discretionary spending capacity, implying the postponement in spending, particularly for durable goods. Corporations, seeing a decline in demand, reduce their spending on capital equipment accordingly. Further, to reduce risks, they also reduce their inventory levels. - **Trade and production (supply)**. Changes in production, transportation, and trade (supply) are taking place along a sequence of events. The first of these events concerns future indexes such as stock market valuations, commodity prices, and freight rates, indicators that quickly react to changing market conditions. Interpreting these indicators (repricing of inputs and assets and the anticipated drop in demand), manufacturers are incited to curtail their production and the related demand for parts and raw materials. These adjustments occur differently in different sectors, depending on whether they supply discretionary goods or capital equipment. Afterward, container volumes and global trade confirm the subsequent collapse of the material economy with a substantial decline in merchandise trade. The causes of recessions vary but are usually associated with economic cycles of malinvestments (such as the financial crisis of 2008-2010), asset inflation ([financial bubbles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=9035 "Stages in a Bubble")), or the outcome of a disruptive event such as a pandemic (e.g. COVID-19). An unfolding sequence implies that future (forward-looking) indexes collapse first. Afterward, container volumes and global trade confirm the material economy’s subsequent collapse with the substantial decline in merchandise trade. All of this indicates a global economy that is increasingly integrated as sequences affect several markets at once. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/recessions-consumption-production-trade/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/recessions-consumption-production-trade/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/recessions-consumption-production-trade/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/recessions-consumption-production-trade/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Business Cycles and Misallocations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/business-cycles-booms-busts/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/business_cycles_misallocations.png?resize=900%2C526&ssl=1 "Business Cycles and Misallocations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Business Cycles and Misallocations*Source: De Monie, G. J-P Rodrigue and T. Notteboom (2010) “Economic Cycles in Maritime Shipping and Ports: The Path to the Crisis of 2008” in P.V. Hall, B. McCalla, C. Comtois and B. Slack (eds) Integrating Seaports and Trade Corridors. Surrey: Ashgate.* Fractional reserve banking and central banks can have substantial negative impacts on business cycles since they tend to **distort** growth opportunities and capital accumulation. By opting for strategies that tend to mitigate recessionary cycles (often of their own doing), central banks, under the pressure of governments and financial institutions, issue massive amounts of credit, leading to a **credit driven-boom**. Since debt can be defined as present consumption at the expense of future consumption, a debt-based bubble “steals” a large amount of consumption from the future and compresses it in a short lapse of time. Bubbles, which are nothing more than credit-driven booms and the unintended consequences of central banks’ policies, thus give wrong signals to the economy by misguiding investment and capital accumulation processes. More capital than required accumulates in activities related to the bubble, creating overcapacity. In North America and a number of European countries, in particular, the UK and Spain, the 2002-2006 credit bubble resulted in overcapacity in residential and commercial real estate and created an artificial level of consumption. For export-oriented economies, overcapacity took place in the setting of production and distribution assets incited by the debt-derived growth of consumption taking place because of asset inflation. Actors involved in international trade, such as maritime shipping companies and terminal operators, also responded to this credit driven-boom by substantial investments in additional capacity. They were **extrapolating the credit-driven demand** into the far future and making investments in additional capacity accordingly. At some point, a credit-driven boom always collapses under its own weight as the weakest and most leveraged actors start to default. The resulting credit-driven bust removes a substantial amount of capacity, leaving the sector(s) in which it took place in a weaker position than before the boom started. The credit-driven bust can also be exacerbated by various bailout schemes where politically connected firms receive some financial aid (moral hazard) and punishing prudent strategies. The outcome is an economic system that is weaker, corrupt (preferential access to capital), and prone to additional misallocations. Another paradoxical outcome of a credit-driven bust is the potential for **higher prices** as producers cut production capacity and restrain from new investments, mainly because capital is scarce. Supply could drop below demand, particularly in the early stages of the next growth phase. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/business-cycles-booms-busts/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/business-cycles-booms-busts/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/business-cycles-booms-busts/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/business-cycles-booms-busts/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Cycles, Space and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/cycles-space-transport/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cycles_space_transportation2.png?resize=900%2C359&ssl=1 "Cycles, Space and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Cycles Space and Transportation*Source: Adapted from Rodrigue, J-P, C. Comtois and B. Slack (1997) “Transportation and Spatial Cycles: Evidence from Maritime Systems”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 87-98.* Since transportation technology is widely standardized, cycles represent different scales of spatial change of a transport system. However, some transportation systems have limited potential for spatial diffusion simply because of their operational scale and the nature of the markets they service. A public transit system covers, at most, a metropolitan area and cannot be expanded further. Transport development and spatial diffusion are closely linked. The growth and contraction of transport systems are commonly taking place through a hierarchical diffusion process influenced by the existing network structure. As highly dynamic entities, networks are the agents and, at the same time, the recipients of spatial diffusion. The above figure provides a synthetic representation of a cycle impacting two transport systems, one which is local in character and the other that is transborder in nature. Cycle C1 represents the diffusion of a transit system closely related to urban growth, but also with competition from other modes. From A to B, cycle C1 experiences periods of introduction, growth, and maturity, while after B, there is a potential for obsolescence and competition, causing a decline in ridership. Devolution has been the fate of public transit in several North American cities since the 1960s. Cycle C2 is more indicative of a transport system servicing international trade, like container shipping. With an initial state affecting a service area of limited geographical coverage (a few ports; C), growth and maturity provide a transportation system covering a global scale and often taking shape of a hub-and-spoke network to minimize operation costs while maintaining a good market (spatial) coverage (D). Transport systems enter a phase of decline and eventually obsolescence only if they cease to have a commercial utility. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/cycles-space-transport/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/cycles-space-transport/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/cycles-space-transport/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/cycles-space-transport/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Time Sequence and Nature of Impacts of Transport Investments](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-time-sequence/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/time_sequence_impacts_transport_investments.png?resize=900%2C471&ssl=1 "Time Sequence and Nature of Impacts of Transport Investments | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Time Sequence and Nature of Impacts of Transport InvestmentsThere is no straightforward relationship between transport and economic development as the level of impact and its time sequence can vary based on location and socioeconomic characteristics. This leads to five potential relationships: - **Weak relationship (1).** Although transportation supports economic and social activities, no specific causality can be expressed. This is particularly the case for infrastructures that were implemented a while ago, and becoming embedded in the regional economy. Their lead role can no longer be asserted, but it does not mean that transportation is not important, as it is still a fundamental component supporting mobility within the economy. - **Positive and lead impacts (2)**. Represents the best-case scenario where investments and the presence of infrastructures triggers economic growth for a region, namely the expansion of production and consumption. This process commonly occurs when new infrastructures are built to access resources or new markets, triggering a wave of investments. - **Lag and positive impacts (3).** The development of transport infrastructures follows economic development by trying to add capacity to meet additional demands. A good example would be fast-paced growth, as seen in Pacific Asia (notably China), where investments in transport infrastructure do not keep up with the substantial traffic growth generated by rising mobility and new globally linked manufacturing functions. This situation could eventually impair future growth prospects as the existing infrastructure can no longer satisfy the demand. - **Lead and negative impacts (4).** Commonly involves infrastructure investments made with the expectation of triggering development but failing to meet those expectations. Many negative outcomes have been observed. For instance, infrastructure can be built at a great cost. Simultaneously, they fail to generate additional traffic, leaving the community with a substantial debt that cannot be recovered and will drain regional wealth. On the other hand, transportation could generate traffic, but the new accessibility benefits external economies with improved access to the regional market. Local resources, either physical (commodities) or human (emigration), can also be “drained” away by transport improvements. - **Lag and negative effect (5)**. This represents the worst-case scenario. In addition to the negative consequences of transportation investments on the economy (drain on resources), these investments occur after the downward spiral begins and may even accelerate the process. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-time-sequence/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-time-sequence/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-time-sequence/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-investments-time-sequence/?share=reddit) - --- ### [A Multi-Layer Perspective about Transport and Economic Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/layers-transport-economic-development/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/multi_layer_perspective_transport_economic_development.png?resize=900%2C565&ssl=1 "A Multi-Layer Perspective about Transport and Economic Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")A Multi Layer Perspective about Transport and Economic Development*Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2007) “Re-assessing Port-Hinterland Relationships in the Context of Global Supply Chains”, in J. Wang et al. (eds) Inserting Port-Cities in Global Supply Chains, London: Ashgate.* Transport service operations and the associated traffic flows do not take place in a vacuum. Transport markets are not only about reconciling the supply of and demand for transport services but also concern the process of **valorization** of a location leading to positive impacts on economic development. The interaction with locations (including intermediate locations), transport infrastructure, and transport chain organization also deserves attention: - **Geographical location (first layer)**. Locations are relative and define the market potential by being an origin, destination, or intermediary for transport flows. Due to its excellent location and economies of scale and density, many transport nodes such as airports, seaports, railway stations, or intermodal terminals serve as important consolidation and bundling points in transport systems. By offering a good intermediate location near the main maritime routes and production and consumption centers, transport nodes can adopt an important turntable function in national or international transport service networks, thereby attracting destination traffic and substantial transit flows. - **Transport infrastructure (second layer)**. A favorable geographical location is meaningless if it is not valorized through the provision of efficient infrastructures. The infrastructural layer involves the provision of basic infrastructure for both links and nodes in the transport system. The development of intermodalism has made particularly relevant the connectivity of infrastructures. - **Transport service operation (third layer)**. The transportation of passengers or freight between two places involves using a complex mix of transport infrastructures and transport services. Passengers and goods do not always follow the shortest path between origins and destinations but pass via intermediate nodes. This takes place in view of switching to another transport mode (e.g. transfer from rail to air in an airport) or to shift between small units to larger units of the same transport mode (e.g. transfer from a short-haul intra-regional flight to a connecting long-haul flight or the transfer in a transshipment hub from a feeder vessel to a deepsea post-Panamax container vessel). - **Transport chain organization (fourth layer)**. The flow of passengers or freight through a multimodal transport system requires actors who have the managerial capabilities to design a seamless and efficient transport chain. Logistics service providers and freight forwarders have developed a specialization in this area, supported by market knowledge and information and communication systems. At the logistical layer, shippers, freight forwarders, logistics service providers, and other market parties design the routing solutions that best fit the requirements of the supply chains they are dealing with. The decision-making at the level of the logistics layers is mainly oriented towards the design of the distribution network and the choice of the transport route and associated transport modes and nodes. Each layer valorizes the lower layers while a **demand pull** is exerted from the higher levels towards more fundamental layers. In a demand-driven transport market environment, the infrastructural layer serves the transport service and chain organization layers. The more fundamental the layer is, the lower the adaptability (expressed in time) in facing market changes. For instance, the planning and construction of major transport infrastructures (infrastructural level) typically take many years. The planning and implementation of new transport services on specific transport corridors (transport-level) usually vary between a few months up to one year. At the logistical level, freight forwarders and multimodal transport operators are able to respond almost instantly to variations in the market by modifying the commodity chain design, i.e. the routing of the goods through the transport system. As adaptable as they may be, they are still dependent on the existing capacity. Still, their decisions often indicate the inefficiencies of the other layers and potential adjustments to be made. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/layers-transport-economic-development/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/layers-transport-economic-development/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/layers-transport-economic-development/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/layers-transport-economic-development/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Economic Indicators](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-economic-indicators/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_economic_indicators.png?resize=900%2C264&ssl=1 "Transport Economic Indicators | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Economic IndicatorsTo measure the complex economic aspects and expected benefits of transportation, a series of indicators can be used. - **Transportation prices**. The cost that users pay for transportation services is indicative of the input costs that transportation conveys for economic sectors. Comparative prices are reflective of the competitiveness of each transportation option. Subsidies can be a factor of distortion since it conveys policy preferences for specific modes. - **Transportation productivity**. The capacity to carry specific quantities of people or freight per unit of input (e.g. labor and capital costs); how much output is derived per any given unit of input. Productivity measures are useful to assess the level of return on investment. - **Logistics costs**. The burden that each segment of the supply chain imposes on the economy indicates how efficient logistics are. High logistics costs are usually associated with resource-intensive economies. - **Transportation capacity utilization**. The closer a transport system is to its design capacity, the more congested it is, but the more profitable it is. As capacity utilization rises, there is a need to provide additional capital for maintenance and, eventually, transport infrastructure expansion. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-economic-indicators/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-economic-indicators/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-economic-indicators/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-economic-indicators/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Resource-Based Transport Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-system-resources/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/resource_based_transport_systems2.png?resize=900%2C415&ssl=1 "Resource-Based Transport Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Resource Based Transport SystemsColonial (or resource-based) transportation systems were designed to facilitate the extractive nature of colonial economies from the 19th to mid-20th century. They were particularly prevalent in Africa and Latin America. Still, resource-rich countries such as Canada, Russia, and Australia also have parts of their rail transport systems fashioned in such a manner. These systems were usually focused on a primary port city (a gateway), which often served as the colonial administrative center. This port functioned as the freight transshipment center for a converging land transportation system. Railroads and roads (to a lesser extent) developed as spokes from the port city, connecting it to the load centers of extractive regions. Resources could be punctual such as mines, or covering an area such as plantations. Infrastructure development prioritized connections from the port to regions of the colony oriented toward an export economy, including agricultural goods, forest products, and minerals. Colonial transport systems were not connected networks as they did not aim at servicing the needs of the local economy but to export commodities to the international market. Because of their purpose and structure, they were insufficient to serve the national needs and were shaped like trees branching out to specific inland load centers. These centers collected and stored resources, synchronizing the output of a resource area with the transport capacity as well as the demand on external markets. Colonies were also not very well connected. Each maintained its individual links to the outside world, but overall regional integration would have been virtually impossible to achieve from a transportation standpoint. Even after the colonial era, this transportation system has largely remained in place in resource-rich areas. Accumulated inertia in infrastructure is very expensive and difficult to overcome as many former colonies remained dependent on the existing extractive system for revenue generation. Thus, the newly independent states inherited transport systems designed to meet the needs of the former colonial powers rather than systems that facilitated their development goals. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-system-resources/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-system-resources/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-system-resources/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-system-resources/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Socioeconomic Benefits of Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-socio-economic-benefits/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transportation_socioeconomic_benefits.png?resize=900%2C509&ssl=1 "Socioeconomic Benefits of Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Socioeconomic Benefits of TransportationTransport improvements usually increase the scale and scope of economic (mostly for freight) and social interactions (mostly for passengers). There is a wide range of economic benefits conveyed by transportation systems, some direct (capacity and efficiency), some indirect (accessibility and economies of scale), and some induced (multipliers and opportunities). They are impacting transport supply and demand as well as the economy: - **Direct Impacts**. The direct benefits are mostly related to capacity and efficiency improvements that impact users and operators, particularly in terms of time and cost savings. Corporations involved in the provision of transport services earn an income and pay wages to their employees. - **Indirect Impacts**. The indirect benefits mostly relate to accessibility gains and better economies of scale. While employers and the retail sector (as well as other activities such as institutions) gain better access to labor or customers, the customers of freight transport services (distribution centers, manufacturing, retailers) derive some productivity gains that are the outcome of better transport services. Landowners also usually derive higher rents from the increasing intensity of passenger and freight traffic taking place in the vicinity. Both passenger and freight traffic also convey additional demands for goods and services (e.g. fuel, maintenance, repairs, insurance). Freight-related activities also benefit from a wider range of suppliers for their inputs and markets for their outputs. - **Induced Impacts**. The induced benefits are mostly related to economic multipliers and increased opportunities. Society benefits from increased mobility since individuals have a wider range of options for their activities and the associated social opportunities (education, social interactions, leisure). An economy usually becomes more competitive, attracts new and expanded economic activities, and has more complex distribution networks. At this level, transportation becomes a factor in promoting economic competitiveness. The question remains about what is the extent of the economic benefits for specific modes and locations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-socio-economic-benefits/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-socio-economic-benefits/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-socio-economic-benefits/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-socio-economic-benefits/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Infrastructure Investment and Maintenance Spending as Share of GDP, 2015](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-investment-maintenance/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_infrastructure_investment_share_gdp.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Transport Infrastructure Investment and Maintenance Spending as Share of GDP, 2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Infrastructure Investment and Maintenance Spending as Share of GDP 2015*Source: OECD.* Transport infrastructure investment and maintenance spending represent a relatively constant share of the GDP among a sample of countries, around 0.5% to 1% of GDP. Outliers, such as China and India, are facing strong economic growth and, more importantly, improving the performance of their transport systems. A lower share of investment relative to GDP is not necessarily indicative of capacity or performance issues, but the existing infrastructure level appears adequate to meet demands. Therefore, each transport system must be looked upon through the lenses of the existing level of accumulation and relation to existing and expected demand, including the lifespan of its existing infrastructure base. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-investment-maintenance/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-investment-maintenance/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-investment-maintenance/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-infrastructure-investment-maintenance/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Share of Transport Costs in Product Prices and Average Domestic Haul Length](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-costs-prices-domestic-haul-united-states/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/share_transport_costs_domestic_haul.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Product Prices and Average Domestic Haul Length | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of Transport Costs in Product Prices and Average Haul Length*Source: Adapted from US Department of Commerce.* There is a distinct difference between the level of **transport intensity** of goods and the economic sectors they are associated with. This trend is mostly attributed to the material intensiveness of each good in relation to its value. Goods with a high transport intensity tend to have a low added value. The most transport-intensive sectors involve agriculture, forestry, and fishing, which are handling ponderous goods over long distances. For instance, the cost of shipping lettuce between California and New York is about $8,000 per truckload. This is related to the long distance involved, but also to the requirement that the lettuce must be stored at constant temperatures (cold chain in a refrigerated trailer) between 0 and 2 degrees Celsius. Construction and mining share similar characteristics as ponderous products are transported, but in this case, over much shorter distances. For instance, construction materials such as stone, clay, and glass have the highest transport intensity (27%) and are transported over distances of less than 100 km. In a global setting, wholesale and retail activities are increasingly becoming transport dependent as many manufacturing segments have been offshored. Information processing activities, namely finance, insurance, and real estate, are the least dependent on transportation since they have limited material inputs. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-costs-prices-domestic-haul-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-costs-prices-domestic-haul-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-costs-prices-domestic-haul-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transport-costs-prices-domestic-haul-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Employment in Transportation, United States, 1990-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-employment-united-states/) **Published:** December 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/employment_transport_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Employment in Transportation, United States, 1990-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Employment in Transportation United States 1990 2021*Source: Bureau of Transportation Statistics, National Transportation Statistics, table 3-23.* Transportation is a significant source of employment, namely since the operation of vehicles, such as trucks or buses, is labor-intensive. In advanced economies, it employs between 3% and 8% of the total labor force. In the United States, transportation directly employed 6.1 million people in 2021, about 4.2% of the workforce. The dominant sector of employment involves motor vehicle operators, namely truck drivers, many of which are owner-operators. Support activities include air traffic control services, marine cargo handling, and motor vehicle towing. Couriers, urban transit, and the air transport industry are significant employers. Although it carries vast amounts of freight, the rail sector is more capital-intensive than labor-intensive. In recent years, warehousing and courier work have experienced the most significant growth, which is associated with the growth of e-commerce, particularly at the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-employment-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-employment-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-employment-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/transportation-employment-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Services and their Associated Infrastructures](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/infrastructures-services/) **Published:** December 4, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/services_infrastructures2.png?resize=900%2C472&ssl=1 "Services and their Associated Infrastructures | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Services and their Associated Infrastructures*Source: adapted from R. Prud’homme (2005) Infrastructure and Development, in F. Bourguignon and B. Pleskovic, (eds). Lessons of Experience, Proceedings of the 2004 Annual Bank Conference on Development Economics, Washington: The World Bank and Oxford University Press, pp. 153-181.* Infrastructures are capital goods that are not directly consumed and serve as support to the functions of society (individuals, institutions, and corporations). They service a derived demand since they exist to fulfill needs (e.g. transportation, mobility, power generation). Most have long life spans as they are designed to last and be resilient, but tend to have high maintenance costs. Once they are constructed, they are fixed to their location, used or not, implying that infrastructures are particularly prone to market failure if the activities they have been designed to service do not generate sufficient flows. It is challenging to provide infrastructures incrementally, so they are “lumpy” capital investments. For instance, city streets can be built incrementally, but a highway must be provided with sufficient length and coverage to be effective. An airport must be built with a specific base capacity, irrespective of its initial level of use. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/infrastructures-services/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/infrastructures-services/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/infrastructures-services/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-economic-development/infrastructures-services/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Information Technologies and the Corporate Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/information-technologies-corporate-structure/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/information_technologies_corporate.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "Information Technologies and the Corporate Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Information Technologies and the Corporate StructureA conventional (Fordist) corporate structure leans on a **hierarchical organization**, compartmentalizing the decision-thinking process. Decisions and information move vertically between the levels of the hierarchy. This structure is usually contained within the same building for a small to a medium-sized corporation, over several floors when required. Managers usually have direct physical contact with the employees under their supervision. Large corporations have regional offices replicating a similar hierarchy in which a geographical hierarchy is embedded. With globalization and information and communication technologies (ICT), a **networked organizational structure** (Post-Fordist) can emerge. A wider array of telecommunication services supports its cohesion. Proximity and direct contacts, at least for mundane tasks, are no longer a priority, which confers flexibility in the organization and its locations. As a result, some tasks can be relocated elsewhere, either in different regions/countries (**offshoring**; A), or within the same metropolitan area (**offsite**, such as in suburban offices or a home; B). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/information-technologies-corporate-structure/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/information-technologies-corporate-structure/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/information-technologies-corporate-structure/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/information-technologies-corporate-structure/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Forms of Transport Automation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/forms-of-transport-automation/) **Published:** May 30, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_automation.png?resize=900%2C455&ssl=1 "Forms of Transport Automation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Forms of Transport Automation*Source: Vehicle automation adapted from Eno Center for Transportation.* Transport automation considers the range of technologies and control systems that can be implemented for transportation modes such as automobiles and trucks, but also at terminals such as [ports](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3291), airports, and [distribution centers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4458). While automobile automation has received a lot of attention, the automation of other modes (particularly trucks) and terminals can be far-reaching in consequences as well. The level of automation for vehicles has been subject to a categorization ranging from level 0 (no automation) to level 5 (full automation). This classification can also be applied to terminals and distribution centers. - **Level 0 (no automation)**. Vehicles and equipment are manually operated, which represents standard mechanical operations. Even if a vehicle or equipment can be set on automatic (e.g. fixed speed cruise control), it cannot adapt without assistance to changing conditions. - **Level 1 (basic)**. A form of adaptive driving assistance is provided for vehicles, mainly the ability to change speed under adaptive cruise control (e.g. if the speed of other vehicles changes). Still, the operator needs to be in control at all times. A similar analogy can be applied to terminals and distribution centers. For instance, a crane could automatically do a movement from the point of pickup and drop off. Still, the operator would be responsible for the pickup or drop off of equipment during operations. - **Level 2 (partial)**. Under this level of automation, the vehicle can undertake partial control such as steering, acceleration, and deceleration under well-defined circumstances (e.g. a highway). This represents the current automation level available for commercial automobiles, with the operator ready to take control of the vehicle at all times. For terminals, this level of automation mainly relates to yard and warehousing management systems that automatically assign cargo (or items) to a storage slot and the equipment to handle it. - **Level 3 (conditional)**. This level of automation is getting close to truly autonomous vehicles since most of the driving is automated, and the operator is ready to take control under request and more complex circumstances. The vehicle is actively monitoring the environment with various sensors. This form of automation is subject to risks since the operator has the illusion that the vehicle is autonomous while it is so only under specific circumstances. For terminals and distribution centers, conditional automation is often the norm since the equipment (such as cranes and horizontal movements) operates under well-defined circumstances that are less likely to be disrupted by unforeseen events. However, operators must be ready to handle exceptions. This form of automation also involves automated gates and access to facilities where vehicles and users can enter and exit if they meet defined criteria (e.g. electronic bill of lading). - **Level 4 (high)**. Represents true self-driving vehicles able to perform all the required navigation without intervention. This would require constant and active monitoring of the environment and the capability to adapt to changes, with the option to manually operate the vehicle. Fully automated terminals and distribution centers can integrate different storage, and retrieval systems so that the interactions between different automated component becomes functional. Such systems should also be able to automatically load and unload vehicles. - **Level 5 (full)**. A completely autonomous vehicle able to operate in all possible environments without intervention, with the vehicle remotely controllable. Users simply need to provide origin and destination information. On the terminal side, this would represent a completely autonomous terminal able to dynamically respond to demand from users to access cargo that will be loaded or unloaded from conveyances such as ships, trains, or trucks. These conveyances could be automated as well. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/forms-of-transport-automation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/forms-of-transport-automation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/forms-of-transport-automation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/forms-of-transport-automation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Number of Monthly Trips by for Hire Services, New York City](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/monthly-trips-for-hire-services-new-york/) **Published:** September 30, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/nyc_for_hire.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Number of Monthly Trips by for Hire Services, New York City, 2015-2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Number of Monthly Trips by For Hire Services New York City 2015 2019*Source: New York City, Taxi and Limousine Commission (TLC).* The introduction of on-demand ride-sharing services substantially impacted urban mobility in terms of the **market composition** of for-hire services and the related **number of trips**. On-demand services are [technically and operationally more competitive](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1649) than conventional taxi services. The case of New York City is reflective since its high density and income generate tens of millions of for-hire trips each month. The conventional taxi services were offered by Yellow Taxis, which has the right to pick up passengers at all New York City locations, including airports. At the same time, Green Taxis (also called ‘Boro Taxis’) can only pick up passengers outside the Manhattan core market (excluding airports). On-demand ride-sharing services such as Uber, Lyft, Via, and Juno were introduced in 2011 (for Uber) and slowly started to gain market share. By 2017 they accounted for more than 50% of all monthly for-hire trips, and by 2019 this share climbed to 74%. The ease of booking on-demand services also doubled the demand during the 2015 to 2019 period, while the demand for conventional taxi services was halved. This involves a larger number of vehicles in circulation in high-density areas and related congestion. This has incited the City of New York to impose in 2018 a limit to the number of for-hire vehicles that can circulate in Manhattan at a given time. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/monthly-trips-for-hire-services-new-york/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/monthly-trips-for-hire-services-new-york/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/monthly-trips-for-hire-services-new-york/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/monthly-trips-for-hire-services-new-york/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Blockchains and Value Creation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-value-creation/) **Published:** June 16, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/blockchains_value_creation.png?resize=900%2C336&ssl=1 "Blockchains and Value Creation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Blockchains and Value CreationThe commercial purpose of a Blockchain is to generate value for logistics chains. Due to the transactional intensity of logistics, the main value proposition involves contract management, coordination (stakeholders able to more effectively share information), and dis-intermediation (stakeholders able to directly interact without a third party). Automated settlements (smart contracts) can also be arranged so that payments are done when a set of conditions have been met and verified (e.g. a shipment has been received at a warehouse). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-value-creation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-value-creation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-value-creation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/blockchains-and-value-creation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Core Principles of Digital Ledgers](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/the-core-principles-of-blockchains/) **Published:** May 24, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/core_principles_blockchains.png?resize=900%2C450&ssl=1 "The Core Principles of Digital Ledgers | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Core Principles of Digital LedgersA digital ledger (or blockchain) builds a **digital trust** platform, implying the near impossibility of tampering with the information once it has been inputted and the capacity for all involved actors to verify and trace each step. Each time there is a new transaction, a new block is created and appended to the existing blocks, thus the name ‘blockchain’. All the blocks are updated on the network at the same time and contain the full history of the involved transactions, thus maintaining a chain of integrity (or a chain of trust). **Smart contracts** are another important aspect of blockchain technology. They refer to programs (algorithms) using the information contained in a blockchain to automatically fulfill an agreed-upon procedure, such as a transaction or reporting. For instance, if a container has been loaded on a ship and this event has been encoded in its [bill of lading blockchain](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transport-costs/letters-credit-bill-lading/ "Letters of Credit and Bills of Lading in Commercial Transactions"), then a smart contract can be used to automatically pay the terminal operator. Smart contracts thus expand the usefulness of blockchains by providing a unique and enforceable document. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/the-core-principles-of-blockchains/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/the-core-principles-of-blockchains/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/the-core-principles-of-blockchains/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-and-blockchains/the-core-principles-of-blockchains/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Economies in Production, Distribution and Consumption](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/economies-production-distribution-consumption/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/economies_production_distribution_consumption.png?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Types of Economies in Production, Distribution and Consumption | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Types of Economies in Production Distribution and ConsumptionActivities involved in production (manufacturing), distribution (transportation), and consumption (retail) are constantly seeking economies to improve their margin, competitiveness, and increase their market share. This is commonly done by opting for specific locations and types of facilities. The main five economies are: - **Economies of transportation**. Relate to the benefits that lower transport costs may grant to specific activity sectors and are derived from a locational choice. For production, it relates to a location that minimizes total transport costs (accessibility to suppliers and customers) and lowers production unit costs. [Weber’s location triangles](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1548) are standard approaches to such problems that minimize transportation costs. Economies of transportation in distribution consider the management of transport chains, often of several modes, to reduce total transport costs (modal and intermodal). Some are elements of transport costs in production, while others are elements of transport costs in consumption. Economies of transportation in consumption can be derived from economies in distribution as well as accessibility (proximity) to customers. - **Economies of scale**. Relate to the benefits that scale may offer to activity sectors. For production, the larger the production plant, the lower the unit costs since fixed costs (e.g. the factory) are spread over a larger quantity of units. For transportation, the principle involves unit cost reduction derived from larger modes (e.g. megaships), terminals, and distribution centers; the massification of transportation. For consumption, larger retail outlets tend to reduce input costs, underlining the success of large megastore chains such as Wal-Mart. This concept is also implying that **diseconomies of scale** can be reached after a certain size, particularly through growing complexity and management costs. Diseconomies vary substantially by the type of activity; steel production is prone to large economies of scale, while restoration is much less so. - **Economies of scope**. Relate to the benefits derived by expanding the range of goods and services. For production, they are commonly based on product diversification and flexible manufacturing systems able to produce a variety of products in view of changes in demand and consumer preferences. For distribution, economies of scope are significant and commonly achieved when a transporter is able to bundle several different loads into fewer loads. For instance, a containership is able to bundle the loads (and offer economies of scale) for several customers in often completely different activity sectors that share a similar origin and destination. For consumption, activities offering a wider range of goods or services are usually able to attract more customers since they have more choices. Economies of scale and economies of scope are highly related. - **Agglomeration economies**. The benefits are derived from locating in proximity to other activities, even if the location is suboptimal. Often referred to as the clustering effect, and involves the sharing of common infrastructures such as roads and utilities. For production, industrial and service linkages are offered as respective suppliers and customers benefit from proximity and interactions. The outcome is a manufacturing cluster. A similar trend is observed in freight distribution as logistics activities tend to cluster and often [co-locate](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1570) next to an intermodal terminal. For consumption, commercial districts or shopping malls are a common expression of the benefits of agglomeration. - **Economies of density**. The benefits derived from the increasing density of features on the costs of accessing them. For production, this could involve access to a larger labor pool (and skills) or resources (e.g. mining, agriculture). Higher market densities reduce distribution costs as shorter distances service the same number of customers and freight volume. A similar rationale applies to consumption, where higher market densities involve higher accessibility levels to goods and services. High densities can also lead to diseconomies, particularly with congestion. Many of these economies are interdependent. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/economies-production-distribution-consumption/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/economies-production-distribution-consumption/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/economies-production-distribution-consumption/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/economies-production-distribution-consumption/?share=reddit) - --- ### [China's Special Economic Zones](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/special-economic-zones-china/) **Published:** November 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-Zones.png?resize=900%2C657&ssl=1 "China's Special Economic Zones | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Chinas Special Economic Zones*Source: adapted from World Bank (2009) World Development Report 2009: Reshaping Economic Geography.* China’s remarkable process of economic growth through globalization began in 1978 with the implementation of the “Open Door Policy”. It enabled a partial liberalization of the factors of production and permitted private and corporate capital accumulation, which was mostly forbidden beforehand. This was followed by a massive wave of investments and rapid expansion of China’s infrastructure base (e.g. real estate, utilities, transport, and communication). From the 1980s, special economic zones (SEZ) played an instrumental role in integrating China into the global economy and in its economic development. Their setting aimed at attracting foreign investments and technology (many through the setting of joint ventures), providing employment, utilizing Chinese and imported resources, and supporting capital formation. The bulk of the output was to be exported to foreign markets, underlining that SEZs were part of an export-oriented strategy that characterized many Asian economies since World War II (Japan was the first to develop such a strategy in the region). The following incentives were offered to foreign investors: - **Labor**. The ability to use the vast Chinese pool of low-cost labor was a powerful incentive to locate in SEZs. Foreign firms also have the right to hire and fire labor, which was different from the then-prevailing Chinese lifetime system of public or collective firms. - **Land use**. SEZs were physically developed as planned entities with infrastructures and access to a container port complex (airports played a more significant role later) so that parts and raw materials could easily be brought in for processing and the output shipped to foreign markets. A degree of protection of private property was also significant since, until 2004, there was no constitutional protection of private property in China outside SEZs. - **Tax incentives**. SEZs offered a reduced corporate income tax rate, including income tax exemptions for foreign nationals working in SEZs. No custom duties were levied on imported materials and parts as long as they were for re-exports. The development of SEZ went through several stages, which were linked with the setting and expansion of major container port infrastructure: - In 1980, the **first four SEZs** were established in proximity to Hong Kong (Shenzhen), Macau (Zhuhai), and Taiwan (Shantou and Xiamen). Their location was aimed at attracting “overseas” Chinese capital and as a showcase for the potential impacts of such a reform. This was dramatically different from the centrally planned policies that have taken place since the setting of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. These SEZs were also close to Hong Kong, the only modern port facility of the time, which had effective access to the global shipping network. - By 1984, the SEZ model was judged to be successful and could be expanded. The initial setting of the four SEZs was solely concerning southern China, so **14 coastal port cities**, from the Dalian to Beihai, were selected to become SEZs. This triggered the development of modern port infrastructures, particularly container ports, which were essential to support an export-oriented strategy. - The importance of **specific economic clusters** was acknowledged in 1985 when the status of SEZ was expanded to the Yangtze River Delta, the Pearl River Delta, and the Xiamen-Zhangzhou-Quanzhou Triangle (Min River delta). This also provided additional space for the setting of industrial districts. In time, the Pearl River Delta would become the world’s most important manufacturing cluster. The development of manufacturing clusters was also accompanied by the development of port terminal clusters in these deltas, particularly for the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta. - In 1988, the status of SEZ was expanded to **Hainan Province,** which mostly developed the touristic and agribusiness sectors, which became the fifth SEZ. By the late 1990s, the province would become an important destination for domestic tourism. - Since their inception, SEZs and their positive economic impacts were solely a coastal endeavor, with interior provinces lagging. By the late 1980s, a substantial migration of labor from the interior to coastal provinces was observed. In an attempt to counterbalance this trend, six Yangtze River ports and 11 border cities were granted SEZ status, in addition to all the capital cities of interior provinces and autonomous regions. Yet, accessibility to port infrastructures and foreign markets remained the dominant factor in the dynamism of SEZs, and comparatively, limited development took place in interior provinces until the 2000s. By 1992, 60 SEZs have been set up in China, including 5 initial SEZs, 15 coastal port cities, 8 river port cities, 19 inland cities, and 13 border cities. Then, the process received wide adoption, particularly through the coastal provinces of China, as many jurisdictions (provincial governments, municipalities, counties) started to develop and promote their own development zones. Ten years later, by 2005, there were 210 national development zones and 1,346 provincial development zones. Therefore, China’s geography of production is strongly coordinated by its proximity to coastal areas and its capabilities to access global markets through port and airport terminals. To counterbalance the development of this coastal orientation, from 2013, the Chinese government began an inland infrastructure investment strategy across Eurasia. The development of road, rail, and pipeline corridors across Eurasia was initially articulated as OBOR (One Road One Belt), which in 2017 became the BRI (Belt and Road Initiative) to better reflect the geographical context of the project. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/special-economic-zones-china/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/special-economic-zones-china/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/special-economic-zones-china/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-trade/special-economic-zones-china/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Behavioral Approach to Location](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-behavioral-approach/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/location_behavioral-scaled.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "Behavioral Approach to Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Behavioral Approach to Location*Source: adapted from A. Pred (1967) Behavior and Location: Foundations for a Geographic and Dynamic Location Theory. Part I, Lund 1967; Part II, Lund 1969. \[The Royal University of Lund, Department of Geography Studies in Geography Ser.B (Human Geography) Nos. 27 & 28 / C.W.K.Gleerup, Lund\].* Although location decisions often appear to be based on a set of well-defined criteria, the behavioral approach to location considers that decision-makers (e.g. a corporation or a potential store owner) are not entirely rational. This potential inability to be fully rational is based on two assumptions. The first is the availability of locational information, since all the suitable information required to make an optimal decision may not be fully available or expensive, and time-consuming to acquire. The second is the ability to use the information on hand to make a locational decision, which considers factors such as skills, experience, and even corporate governance. This is why many locational recommendations are done by specialized consultants familiar with the regulatory and socioeconomic context of a region. Pred (1967) developed a representation based upon a **behavioral matrix** where one axis represented the available information and the capacity to use it to consider the complexity of behavioral factors in locational decisions. This construct considers that even if a lot of information may be available, this information may not necessarily be used properly or could even be analyzed incorrectly. Some decision-makers are thus better than others. This representation assumes that most locational decisions are not optimal but acceptable, which is profitable. A profitable location is within a spatial **profitability margin**, which is simply a set of locations (often conterminous) where the revenue derived from an activity is superior to the incurred costs of that location (rent, labor, etc.). The above figure shows a behavioral matrix composed of a series of potential outcomes in regard to a locational decision. The “Homo eoconomicus” (cell Cnn) is a perfectly informed individual having access to all the available information. The locational decisions of such an individual are optimal, implying the choice of a location has the highest profitability. Decision-makers having a good capacity to use and good availability of information (C35 and C54) would make a locational decision within the profitability margins. Another decision maker (C22) could even be “lucky” because, despite the poor capacity to use and availability of information, the locational choice turns out to be profitable. Even if Pred’s behavioral matrix is almost impossible to apply to the real world, it underlines the possibility of sub-optimal locational decisions reflective of a complex reality. Uncertainty is implicitly assumed because the decision-maker is not certain that a locational choice would be profitable (within the spatial margins of profitability) until the choice has been made and figures about revenue and expenses become available. Even if all the necessary information was at hand, it is not guaranteed that the chosen location will be profitable. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-behavioral-approach/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-behavioral-approach/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-behavioral-approach/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-behavioral-approach/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Strategic Decision Making in Location](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategic-decision-making/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/location_decision_making.png?resize=900%2C221&ssl=1 "Strategic Decision Making in Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Strategic Decision Making in LocationCorporations seek to answer four main questions concerning strategic decision-making; what to produce or sell, in what quantity, how, and where? The first two questions are related to the economic strategy of the firm, mostly dependent on markets (demand) and the planning of production. The third question underlines the technological and labor strategy related to the inputs. The fourth is the spatial strategy that sets the spatial division of production. The location decision usually depends on product, inputs, and market considerations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategic-decision-making/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategic-decision-making/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategic-decision-making/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/location-strategic-decision-making/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Factors in Urban Location](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/urban-location-factors/) **Published:** February 9, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/factors_urban_location.png?resize=900%2C336&ssl=1 "Factors in Urban Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Factors in Urban LocationThe location of [major cities around the world](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4981) is far from being random. Although cities have historically required an agricultural base for their support, the development of mechanized transport systems underlined three interdependent factors that played a substantial role in the location of cities. - Many cities provide **connectivity** to different systems of circulation, a role that has endured throughout history with port cities, but became prevalent with the growth of international trade from the 19th century. A good port site could become an important city distributing materials and goods and favoring the agglomeration of commercial, industrial, and financial activities. The location of the [world’s largest container ports](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter6/port-terminals/world-major-container-ports/ "World’s Major Container Ports, 2016") is reflective of the connectivity metropolitan areas are required to act as gateways. - The **distribution of resources** is also a factor that incites cities to locate in **proximity**. The necessity to collect, transform, and distribute resources through the clustering of the related activities is a factor of location and urbanization. Resources can be collected from an area or a punctual location. Agricultural land was historically the main location factor. Still, with the industrial revolution, industrial cities emerged at locations in proximity to inputs such as energy and raw materials, which can be seen as a [weighting of ponderous inputs](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1548) for manufacturing. - Since cities provide goods and services to a population base, the level of **accessibility** to this base is a location factor. This is often defined as a market area. [Central places theory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1457) focuses on this aspect in explaining the distribution of cities, including their sizes, over a region. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/urban-location-factors/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/urban-location-factors/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/urban-location-factors/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/urban-location-factors/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Land Use Values by Activity Sectors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/land-use-activity-sectors/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/land_use_activity_sector.png?resize=900%2C480&ssl=1 "Land Use Values and Activity Sectors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Land Use Values and Activity Sectors*Source: adapted from R.L. Morrill. (1970) The Spatial Organization of Society.* In an urban area, land use value tends to vary according to the distance from the point of maximum accessibility, usually the central business district (CBD). Therefore, for each activity sector, such as commercial, multi-family, or single-family residential, land costs increase with proximity to the city center and decrease if they are located further away. Land costs are thus inversely proportional to the distance from the CBD, but this function varies by the type of economic activity able to bid to occupy a specific location. For the commercial sector, the value curve represents three peaks where values increase, while, generally, values decline with distance from the city center. This implies clusters of commercial activities ([central places](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1481)) at specific urban and suburban locations to service local demand. The curves for both residential sectors (single and multiple family) also follow a general trend towards lower values but less drastically for single-family residences (almost a straight line stretching far from the center). In contrast, the curve for multi-family housing land follows a more pronounced curve. It is important to note that costs vary with distance and that demand functions (and rent) indicate a propensity for more commercial real estate in the center at the expense of residences. The opposite applies to distance from the center. Therefore, a commercial site located outside the center would cost less but would yield correspondingly lower profitability. This perspective provides a basic understanding of the spatial organization of cities at a large scale, particularly in a market economy. It provides only a partial explanation since factors like geography (rivers, rugged terrain, marshes), history (the changes in the importance of a city, including the structure of its economic activities), and political (the location of institutions such as churches, seats of government and education) can play a significant role. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/land-use-activity-sectors/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/land-use-activity-sectors/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/land-use-activity-sectors/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/land-use-activity-sectors/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Central Places in Urban Areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-urban-areas/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/central_places_urban_areas.png?resize=900%2C580&ssl=1 "Central Places in Urban Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Central Places in Urban AreasThe spatial organization of cities tends to follow a [central places structure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1457) as the goal is to provide a hierarchy of services to the whole urban population. This is particularly the case when looking at large metropolitan areas composed of a variety of nodes where commercial and service activities are concentrated. It is assumed that the hierarchy observed at the regional level will also have correspondence within a metropolitan area. The above example depicts a concentric multi-nodal city with a ring road. Many metropolitan areas have such a spatial structure, but with significant variations in density, modal preferences, and spatial extension. The Central Business District (CBD) has the highest order. It represents the “central place” of an urban area, followed by centers of lesser importance, up to local centers offering basic services, including groceries, banking, and entertainment. The whole spatial organization is structured by the transport axis radiating from the CBD. Increased mobility, namely the automobile, has substantially reduced the cohesion of urban areas and their service hierarchies. Still, although more diffuse, this hierarchy remains present. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-urban-areas/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-urban-areas/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-urban-areas/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-urban-areas/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World High Speed Rail Systems, 2018](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-HSR.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World High Speed Rail Systems, 2018 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World High Speed Rail Systems 2018*Source: Adapted from International Union of Railways.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_World-HSR.pdf) High-Speed Rail (HSR) systems are built to reinforce accessibility and connectivity within well-developed regional urban systems, many of which are mega-urban regions. They fill a gap between short-range mobility provided by cars and buses and medium-range mobility provided by air transport. As of 2016, more than 34,800 km of operational HSR lines globally, with an additional 24,800 km under construction. These lines were initially set as corridors between city pairs, and their growth eventually led to integrated systems spanning extended regions, such as Japan, Coastal China, and Western Europe. While services remain designed along corridors, nodes are emerging, where it is possible to switch from one corridor to the other effectively. Like air transport, a good frequency of high-speed services enables these interconnections to occur effectively. HSR systems are mainly found in three regions of the world where they have contributed to shaping intercity mobility: - In **Asia**, the urban density factor is the most suitable for the development of HRS systems, with most cities well above 5,000 people per square km. Japan was the innovator, and from 1964 a national integrated HSR system was built along dedicated lines to service the major cities and three of the four main islands of the Japanese territory. Both South Korea and Taiwan have built HSR to serve as a corridor between their two largest cities. China has embarked on an ambitious plan to build a national HSR system that is showing a growing level of integration. The Chinese HSR system has grown rapidly and is already the world’s most extensive, with 31,000 km being operational as of 2019. For instance, the world’s longest HSR service between Beijing and Guangzhou was inaugurated in December 2012, taking approximately 8 hours to link both cities. For China, the development of an HSR system was seen as a national priority because of growing mobility demands, the lack of transport infrastructure, and highly congested standard rail and air transport routes. India has several high-speed corridors planned, but high capital requirements and securing rights of way are serious challenges. - In **Europe**, urban density is average, with cities usually above 3,000 people per square km. The setting of HSR systems has gradually permitted a growing level of integration, particularly between the highly urbanized regions of France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany. The completion of the Eurotunnel in 1994 enabled to link London to the European HSR system. Northern European countries (Norway, Sweden, and Finland) have mostly developed their HSR system through the reconversion of existing lines. This strategy reflects the relatively short distances involved and lower population densities. As the European system is getting more integrated, HSR hubs connecting different corridors are emerging, notably Brussels. - In **North America**, urban density is low, commonly below 2,000 people per square km. Only one high-speed rail corridor is an operation in the high-density Boston – Washington corridor, but technical requirements limit the speed along several segments (the New York – Washington segment can be considered high speed). The setting of HSR corridors linking regional urban systems has been debated for more than two decades, with many corridor projects clearly identified and advocated (e.g. San Francisco-San Diego, Quebec-Toronto, Miami-Orlando-Tampa, or Vancouver-Seattle-Eugene). Yet, the prominence and relatively low cost of road and air transport have been factors playing against the development of HSR. The density of North American cities, including their central areas, is low, and it remains debatable if this density is sufficient to justify large-scale HSR projects. Another important impediment to the development of HSR systems in North America is the dominance of freight with the rail network owned and operated by private companies. This leads to right-of-way conflicts in the vicinity of major metropolitan areas, which also have important intermodal and bulk terminal facilities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/high-speed-rail-system-world/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Growth Poles Theory](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/growth-poles-theory/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/growth_poles_theory3.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Growth Poles Theory | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Growth Poles TheoryThe French economist Perroux outlined in the 1950s that economic development, or growth, is not uniform over an entire region but **takes place around a specific pole** (or cluster). This pole is often characterized by **core industries** around which **linked industries** develop, mainly through direct and indirect effects. Core industries can involve a wide variety of sectors, such as automotive, aeronautical, agribusiness, electronics, steel, petrochemical, etc. Direct effects imply the core industry is purchasing goods and services from its **suppliers** (upstream-linked industries) or providing goods and services to its **customers** (downstream-linked industries). Core industries can thus have relationships either as customers or as suppliers for linked industries. Indirect effects can involve the demand for goods and services by people employed by the core and linked industries supporting the development and expansion of economic activities such as retail and real estate. The expansion of the core industry implies the expansion of output, employment, related investments, as well as new technologies and new industrial sectors. Because of [scale and agglomeration economies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1530) near the growth pole, regional development is unbalanced. Transportation, especially [transport terminals](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3197), can play a significant role in such a process. The more dependent or related activity is to transportation, the more likely and robust this relationship is. At a later stage, the emergence of **secondary growth poles** is possible, mainly if a secondary industrial sector emerges with its own linked industries, contributing to regional economic diversity. The conceptualization of the growth pole theory relies on a series of assumptions. The main assumption is that leading (core) industries create multiplying effects on other firms that depend on realized economic opportunities. Another critical assumption is creating a series of complex links between the industries of the pole. These links can be forward or backward to the core industry, and the creation and expansion of these links are fundamental drivers of the economic dynamism of the pole. Then, growth poles are based on economies of agglomeration that can be considered the summation of the linkages and the proximity of the firms within the pole. Global supply chains have challenged several dimensions of the growth poles theory since growth and linkages generated by a core industry could concern activities located elsewhere. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/growth-poles-theory/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/growth-poles-theory/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/growth-poles-theory/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/growth-poles-theory/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Variations of the Central Places Theory](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-variations/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/central_places_variations.png?resize=900%2C350&ssl=1 "Variations of the Central Places Theory | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Variations of the Central Places TheoryIn central places theory, the k value is often used to define the geographical relationship between different orders. With a k=3 relationship, each market area of a higher order contains three market areas of a lower order. Several other values of k are possible in regional representations of urban hierarchy, but the most common are 3, 4, and 7: - **The marketing principle (k=3)**. The territory is covered by a minimum number of urban centers. Each center has three options to purchase goods and services of a higher order. - **The transport principle (k=4)**. In this distribution, as many centers as possible are along main transport lines. The system tends to be linear in orientation, which minimizes the distance between each settlement. With the transportation principle, towns not on major transportation routes are smaller than expected. Transportation routes attract business and allow more large towns to develop, such as those along a railroad. - **The administrative principle (k=7)**. The central place system is organized in such a way that there is a clear separation of all market areas. In the k=3 and k=4 principles, the border between market areas of a center of higher order is composed of lines between centers of lower order. Administratively, it does not make sense since all towns are part of a specific administrative division. According to this principle, the boundary of administrative divisions is located halfway between two centers of the same order. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-variations/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-variations/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-variations/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-variations/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Market Size / Area Relationships in the Central Places Theory](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-urban-system/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/market_size_central_place2s.png?resize=900%2C313&ssl=1 "Market Size / Area Relationships in the Central Places Theory | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Market Size Area Relationships in the Central Places TheoryThe importance of a central place is determined by the **order of goods and services being offered**. In other words, there is a hierarchy of service activities, ranging from low-order services found in every center to high-order services found only in major centers. Therefore, the **size of a market area is directly proportional to the size of its center**. The order illustrates the position of a central place in a hierarchy of central places. To support its activities, each urban center needs a threshold population that varies according to its size. Large cities have an important threshold, so there may be only of few of them on a specific territory, while there can be a large number of small villages. In his analysis of central places, Christaller established seven major orders, ranging from the state capital (Landstadt – **L**) with a population above 500,000 to the small market town (Marktort – **M**) with a population of 1,000. This structure was reflective of an era where transport costs were high, and mobility was relatively limited; a large hierarchy of centers was required to service a territory. The central places hierarchy can be simplified with three levels; A, B, and C. Level A centers have a large range and diversified goods and services (healthcare, shopping mall, finance, etc.). They correspond to large cities or metropolises and offer all the array of possible services. Level B centers are cities of medium size offering an intermediate range of services (banks, restaurants, etc.) over a more limited market area. Level C offers limited goods and services (gas station, convenience store) with a small range. A center of order A has activities of the 3rd order having the lowest range, 2nd order activities with a higher range, and 1st order activities with the highest range. For a center of B order, it only has 2nd and 3rd order market areas. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-urban-system/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-urban-system/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-urban-system/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-urban-system/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Central Places Theory (Market Principle)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-market-principle/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/central_places_theory2.png?resize=900%2C504&ssl=1 "Central Places Theory (Market Principle) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Central Places Theory Market PrincipleCentral places theory is derived from the work of the German geographer Walter Christaller who investigated the urban system of Southern Germany during the 1930s. He was mainly looking for relationships between the size, the number, and the geographic distribution of cities. Although his work is mostly empirical, the theoretical part had the most impact on geography. His observations enabled the elaboration of **this important theory of spatial structure and order**, which is mandatory in the study of urban, economic, and transport geography. Central places theory tries to explain the **spatial distribution of a system of cities**. This distribution is best understood by assuming a central place and its market area. A central place has the main function of supplying goods and services to the surrounding population. It specializes in selling various goods and services. The market area is the summation of consumers traveling to the central place, which is a part of a hierarchy with other central places. Its influence is a function of its market area, and the size of this market area will determine the nature of the spatial order. The above figure illustrates a system of central places according to the market principle with three orders of centers. In this case, the market area of a center of a higher order includes the equivalent of **three market areas** of centers of the next lower order. As a model of the regional spatial structure, central place theory has been the subject of numerous criticisms. The basic hierarchical rules can be questioned, partly because the theory relates only to the service sector. Settlements may develop due to other factors, such as the availability of natural resources or as a gateway in the transport system. The Christaller model holds such factors constant, assuming an even plain and uniform distribution of natural resources. The theory also assumes a uniform distribution of the population. This rarely occurs in practice since factors such as the landscape, soil fertility, and climate vary and distort the spatial structure. Also, the dominance of a large metropolitan center may create a “shadow effect”, inhibiting the growth of smaller centers nearby. As such, central place theory cannot provide an all-inclusive general theory, and there is a need to introduce other theories to explain agglomerations in many areas. Still, the central places theory is probably the most researched and well-known regional urban spatial structure model. It is a purely deductive theory of a highly simplified and abstract nature developed based on very idealized assumptions. It relates only to the service element of the regional economy, failing to explain distortions in the hierarchy caused by the location of the primary and manufacturing industry, which tends to group into clusters or agglomerations due to resource location. The theory is essentially static, explaining the existence of a regional spatial structure but failing to explain how that structure has evolved in the past and might change in the future. Still, it serves a useful role in identifying important concepts such as the interdependence of a city and its region, a hierarchy of functions and centers, and their market range and threshold populations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-market-principle/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-market-principle/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-market-principle/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/central-places-theory-market-principle/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Conceptual Corridor Development](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/corridor-development/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/conceptual_corridor_development.png?resize=900%2C540&ssl=1 "Conceptual Corridor Development | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Conceptual Corridor Development*Source: adapted from Taaffe, E.J., H.L. Gauthier and M.E. O’Kelly (1996) Geography of Transportation, Second Edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.* The development of transportation networks commonly leads to the creation of corridors through the spatial concentration of flows along a core axis. A corridor development model has been developed by Taaffe, Morrill, and Gould (1963) to explain this process in the Western African context (particularly Ghana and Nigeria). It can be applied elsewhere, such as in North America, but the timing of each phase may vary substantially depending on the region: - **Phase A (Scattered ports)**. A set of small trade ports is established along a coastline. They are connected to a wider network of trade and provide access to locally supplied resources. This process can take place over centuries, as it was the case for the global port system prior to the industrial revolution. - **Phase B (Penetration lines and port concentration)**. Trade corridors accessing the hinterland are constructed, permitting the development of new resources and/or markets. The ports to which they are connected grow in proportion to the new traffic generated. This is representative of the early stages of the industrial revolution, where the first canal and rail connections were established. - **Phase C (Development of feeders)**. The hinterland of penetrating lines is further expanded by the development of feeders. This represents the early stages of rail corridor developments. - **Phase D (Beginning of interconnections)**. The transport networks that have so far been developing independently gradually become interconnected. Intermediate centers also start to emerge along with the first road systems. The setting of rail corridors is peaking. - **Phase E (Complete interconnection)**. As the level of connectivity increases, traffic tends to concentrate in the most connected ports (often corresponding to the largest cities), implying that several less well-connected ports decline or disappear. This phase usually implies the rapid construction of highway systems supporting existing rail corridors as well as the setting of air connections between large city pairs. - **Phase F (Emergence of high priority links)**. Economies of scale favor the concentration of traffic along with the most efficient ports and links, supporting the emergence of transport corridors. Links having lower volumes can even be shut down. The regional transport system has thus reached a phase of maturity, and the structure of the network is unlikely to change unless of significant economic or technological developments. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/corridor-development/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/corridor-development/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/corridor-development/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/corridor-development/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Core-Periphery Stages of Development in an Urban System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/urban-system-core-periphery/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/core_periphery_stages_urban_system.png?resize=900%2C785&ssl=1 "Core-Periphery Stages of Development in an Urban System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Core Periphery Stages of Development in an Urban System*Source: adapted from Friedmann, J. (1966) Regional Development Policy: A Case Study of Venezuela, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.* The conventional core-periphery model of development tries to represent the emergence of a regional urban system in four major stages, which goes on par with the development of regional transport systems. From an initial process that favors the setting of spatial inequalities, these are eventually reduced, and a functionally integrated urban system emerges. - **Stage 1 (Pre-industrial)**. The pre-industrial (agricultural) society, with localized economies and a small-scale settlement structure. Each settlement is fairly isolated, activities are dispersed, and mobility is low. There are limited differences between spatial entities in terms of levels of economic development. - **Stage 2 (Transitional)**. The concentration of the economy in the core city begins as a result of innovation. capital accumulation and industrial growth. The specific reasons behind this concentration are often not too clear, with location (better access) being a significant factor. Still, the fact remains that a dominant center emerges within an urban system to become its growth pole. Trade and mobility increase, but within a pattern dominated by the core even if the overall mobility remained low. Among the numerous examples of such a phase are the early industrialization of Great Britain in the late 18th century or the beginning of the colonial incorporation of Latin America, Africa, and Asia. - **Stage 3 (Industrial)**. Through a process of economic growth and diffusion, other growth centers emerge. The main reasons for deconcentration are increasing input costs (mainly labor and land) in the core area. This diffusion is linked with increased interactions between elements of the urban system and the construction of transport infrastructures. - **Stage 4 (Post-industrial)**. The urban system becomes fully integrated, and spatial inequalities are reduced significantly. The distribution of economic activities creates a specialization and a division of labor linked with intense flows along high-capacity transport corridors. The factors that have favored spatial inequalities in the previous phases of development have structured dominant poles of the urban system and favored the setting of a large commercial gateway, usually a world city. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/urban-system-core-periphery/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/urban-system-core-periphery/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/urban-system-core-periphery/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/urban-system-core-periphery/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Delimitation and Variations in Market Areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/delimitation-market-areas/) **Published:** November 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/delimitation_market_areas2.png?resize=900%2C767&ssl=1 "Delimitation and Variations in Market Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Delimitation and Variations in Market Areas Market areas are an important component of regional spatial organization. The above figure considers a simple region composed of three equidistant cities along an axis (1, 2, and 3). In example A, it is assumed that the three cities are of the same size and economic composition, which means that they have the same level of attractiveness or influence. Because of implied **linear friction of distance**, the further away a location is from a city, the lower the level of influence. Each city has a cone of influence that decreases with distance, and at some point, this influence becomes negligible. City 1 has an influence extending in both directions (for simplicity, this influence is displayed on only one axis), which overlaps with the influence of cities 2 and 3. At some point, the influence of the other two cities becomes higher than its own. Consequently, the market area (or area of influence) of city 1 is bounded by x and y, which are known to be **points of indifference**; a location where the influence is the same. Market areas can vary in size for two main reasons: - The first is because one city has more influence (weight) than others; a larger city. - The second is because the friction of distance may not be uniform over a region, implying that some cities may be more accessible than others, and better serviced by transportation. In example B, city 1 is assumed to be more important than the two others, extending its market area from x to x’ and from y to y’. In example C, city 1 has a better accessibility (lower friction slope) than the two others, again extending its market area. Larger cities are usually more accessible, implying that both effects observed in B and C are playing. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/delimitation-market-areas/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/delimitation-market-areas/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/delimitation-market-areas/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/delimitation-market-areas/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World's 250 Largest Corporations by Head Office City](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/largest-corporations-head-office-map/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Fortune-250.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "World's 250 Largest Corporations by Head Office City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Worlds 250 Largest Corporations by Head Office City*Source: Fortune Magazine and United Nations.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Fortune-250_city.pdf) The location of multinational head offices is indicative of their primacy in the [global urban system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1427). A head office is only one component of the activity scale of a multinational corporation and usually depicts little about its level of involvement across the world. The above map illustrates the market value of the 250 largest corporations compiled by the city housing their head office and classification of the countries according to their human development index (HDI). The following elements are characteristic of the spatial structure of these corporations: - The head offices are dominantly located in North America and Western Europe; 173 head offices out of the 250 largest (69.2%) or 69.7% of the market value. Additionally, there is a high concentration of head offices in countries that have a high human development index (above 0.8); 194 head offices out of 250 (77.6%) or 76.5% of the market value. - Six cities alone account for 68 head offices or 29.2% of the market value; New York, London, Paris, Tokyo, Beijing, and Moscow. Unsurprisingly, they account for the more prominent global cities. - Several countries have a very high level of concentration of head offices in their capital cities. Beijing, London, Paris, Tokyo, and Moscow are almost the sole location of head offices in their respective countries. - The United States and Germany, to a lesser extent, have a good diffusion of head offices across their territory, illustrative of a regionally diversified resource, manufacturing, and financial base. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/largest-corporations-head-office-map/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/largest-corporations-head-office-map/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/largest-corporations-head-office-map/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/largest-corporations-head-office-map/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Components of Nodal Connectivity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/components-connectivity-geography/) **Published:** March 21, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/components_nodal_connectivity.png?resize=900%2C476&ssl=1 "The Components of Nodal Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Components of ConnectivityGlobal trade connectivity can be understood at three interdependent scales, each representing a component of connectivity. - The first component concerns what is known as **foreland connectivity**, forming a network of gateways and hubs. The network reflects the structure of international trade and its web of interactions. The main actors involved in this network are maritime shipping companies, with air freight playing a niche but strategic role. This network is organized according to the commercial strategies of the carriers that, at the same time, must service their customers and maximize their assets. For [maritime shipping](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2078), networks are mainly organized as inter-range services with transshipment hubs at [major intermediary locations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3462). For air carriers, this often leads to the setting of hub and spoke networks. - The second component concerns the connectivity taking place within main **gateways and hubs** articulating global trade flows (the connectors). Global connectivity is [articulated by specific locations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1416) that are very important commercial nexuses. For instance, the world’s 20 largest container ports handle about 46% of the world’s container trade. This connectivity is the outcome of geographical factors (e.g. good maritime accessibility) that were improved over time with investments in infrastructures such as transport terminals, local connectors, and logistics zones. - The third component concerns **hinterland connectivity** enabling each gateway to access its market area. This network is organized according to the setting of corridors and locations organizing flows within these corridors such as inland ports. Depending on the context, strategic rail, highway and fluvial corridors were established, enabling to improve the connectivity of entire regions and enabling them to participate more effectively to global trade. Hinterland connectivity is particularly important for remote regions and [landlocked countries](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2103). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/components-connectivity-geography/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/components-connectivity-geography/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/components-connectivity-geography/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/components-connectivity-geography/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Relevance of Connectivity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/relevance-connectivity/) **Published:** June 4, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relevance_connectivity2.png?resize=900%2C479&ssl=1 "The Relevance of Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Relevance of ConnectivityConnectivity is the extent to which passengers or freight flows from a node can reach other nodes **directly** (direct connection) or **indirectly** through another node or a series of nodes. It draws from conventional [graph theory](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=6043), which investigates the arrangement of nodes and links in networks. Therefore, connectivity is a **relative concept** since a node has a level of connectivity in relation to other nodes. While a node can represent many functional entities such as a corporation, a city, or a region, transportation and trade connectivity usually focus on terminals such as ports and airports that are fundamental nodes and the carrier services between them. There are three main types of connectivity effects: - **Economic**. Concerns interactions that connectivity makes possible between actors such as producers, retailers, or wholesalers. Thus, an increase in connectivity enables less costly commercial interactions, which results in more opportunities to trade. The outcomes of connectivity are often difficult to predict since commercial decisions about importing and exporting are made by numerous entities that make their own assessments and independently act upon them. - **Network**. Concerns the configuration of the transport services and the physical infrastructure between nodes with attributes such as capacity, reliability, and even resilience. Connectivity remains strongly dependent on transportation networks that provide the physical capability to reach places which can be done through a single or a [series of modes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=2545). The main actors are terminals that provide the intermodal handling of flows, the carriers that handle the movements between nodes, the shippers that organize the distribution of cargoes, and infrastructure managers (e.g. port authorities, transport ministries) that maintain and expand nodes and modal links. - **Spatial**. Connectivity is impacted by and impacts the spatial structure and is subject to policy interventions. Nodes are servicing spatial entities such as metropolitan areas or regions that act as their [hinterland](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3183), making connectivity a factor of spatial competitiveness. The outcome of differences in connectivity is usually the [clustering](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3197) of activities around the most connected nodes, which is associated with inequalities in development opportunities. Therefore, governments and civil society have an interest in maintaining and improving connectivity since it has direct welfare outcomes over their territories. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/relevance-connectivity/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/relevance-connectivity/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/relevance-connectivity/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/relevance-connectivity/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Poles of the Global Economy](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-economy-poles/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Poles-Global-Economy.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "Poles of the Global Economy | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Poles of the Global EconomyThree major poles, North America, Western Europe, and East Asia, dominate the global economy. Each of these poles has a non-exclusive sphere of influence, which is reflected in passengers and freight flows. For North America, this involves Latin American nations, closely linked to the American economy. Africa, Eastern Europe, and Russia (with many of the former Soviet Republics) are within the sphere of influence of Western Europe. JAKOTA (Japan, Korea, and Taiwan) represents the main pole of Pacific Asia, including China and the other newly industrializing economies of the region (Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand). Several regions, such as Oceania, South Asia, and the Middle East, are not within a specific area of influence but contribute significantly to global trade (petroleum for the Middle East, minerals, and food for Australia). It is possible to classify nations according to their levels of development and the role they play in the global economy. One such classification was proposed by the United Nations and divides economies into five major classes: - **Least developed**. Characterized by low levels of income, industrialization, and literacy. They are the least involved in the global economy, with exports dominated by raw materials. - **Developing**. Characterized by a very heterogeneous group of nations that have seen various levels of improvements in the welfare of their populations. They include former socialist economies (Russia and Eastern Europe), North Africa, and many Latin American countries. - **Newly industrializing**. Characterized by fast processes of industrialization and integration into the global economy, manufacturing goods account for more than 25% of the GDP and more than 50% of exports. However, there are strong disparities within this group as Latin American (Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina) growth is little compared with the growth taking place in East and Southeast Asia, especially China. - **Developed**. Characterized by a high level of economic development. These nations are at the forefront of the global economy. - **Rent**. Countries that derive the majority of their incomes from oil exports are labeled as rent economies, such as Saudi Arabia. Incomes are artificially high and subject to fluctuations in oil prices. Several nations, such as Algeria, Nigeria, Venezuela, and Iraq, are significant oil exporters, but they have a more diversified economy. The continent-sized countries of India and China are special categories on their own. They have low incomes, but the last decades, especially in China, have brought significant economic opportunities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-economy-poles/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-economy-poles/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-economy-poles/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-economy-poles/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Trade, Connectivity and Spatial Inequalities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/trade-connectivity-inequalities/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trade_connectivity_inequalities2.png?resize=900%2C618&ssl=1 "Trade, Connectivity and Spatial Inequalities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Trade Connectivity and Spatial InequalitiesA common economic development issue involves how a region can improve its participation in international trade, particularly if it is in a marginal and low connectivity situation. Under such circumstances, improvements in transport infrastructures (modal and intermodal) and the related increase in connectivity are perceived as strategies to foster trade and development. It is based on two main assumptions: - **Development of regional comparative advantages**. As connectivity increases, a region or a nation can improve its comparative advantages. Production can be located where inputs (such as land and labor) are lower, enabling better global competitive advantages. Outputs (parts and finished goods) can then be shipped to customers across the world, which increases trade intensity. - **Development of regional economies of scale**. A location can further develop economies of scale by having access to wider markets because of higher connectivity and associated lower transport costs. Even if other locations may have lower input costs, notably in terms of labor, these advantages may not initially be sufficient enough to compensate for the advantages of economies of scale. Considering the balance between the centrifugal effects of comparative advantages and the centripetal effects of economies of scale, globalization and its associated growth in connectivity promote more centripetal than centrifugal forces (more inequalities). However, this shift is linked with a **specific level of connectivity** beyond which inequalities may be reduced. Low connectivity characterizes relatively self-sufficient regional economies and fewer inequalities (A; as measured in GDP per capita). As transport costs are reduced through better connectivity, inequalities are likely to increase since economies of scale usually benefit core economies first (B). Since the core has a higher development rate than the periphery, a pattern of unequal trade can emerge, as was the case between the developed and the developing countries [up to the 1970s](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4125). Since then, further improvements in connectivity incited a more efficient use of comparative advantages, compensating for the initial economies of agglomeration advantages that advanced economies had regarding many developing economies. The outcome was a relocation (offshoring and outsourcing) of some economic activities in the periphery and better access to the markets of the core. This was associated with a decline in inequalities (C), with the most dynamic elements of the periphery becoming part of the core. For instance, many developing economies, especially in Pacific Asia (Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, and China), have experienced significant growth to become a [pole](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1397) (core) of the global economy. Since trade intensity is highly related to growing connectivity to the global economy (export-oriented development), transportation has been a significant factor in reducing inequalities globally. However, the impacts of connectivity on trade may vary with the level of connectivity. Regions with low connectivity levels would likely get derived trade benefits, while regions with higher connectivity levels would be more dependent on induced benefits. In the first case, connectivity is more a driver of trade, while in the second case, trade is more the driver for connectivity improvements. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/trade-connectivity-inequalities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/trade-connectivity-inequalities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/trade-connectivity-inequalities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/trade-connectivity-inequalities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Factors behind Empty Transport Flows](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/empty-back-haul-factors/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/factors_empty_transport_flows.png?resize=900%2C617&ssl=1 "Factors behind Empty Transport Flows | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Factors behind Empty Transport FlowsEmpty movements are among the most significant operational and commercial constraints in transportation, affecting both passengers and freight flows alike. They involve the repositioning of transport assets, which does not generate any income during the process, implying that this cost must be absorbed. For instance, about [20% of all containers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3477) are moved empty as they are being repositioned. Four main factors are explaining why several transport flows are empty: - **Imbalanced Flows**. The demand for transportation between two locations is almost never balanced, but there is reciprocity in these imbalances. For instance, international trade relations underline that some nations import more than they export, while it is the opposite for others (export-oriented economies). Similar patterns can be observed at the regional or local (urban) levels. Imbalances can also have temporal implications. While at an aggregate level, flows could appear to be balanced, they can be highly imbalanced for specific time periods. For instance, over a 24-hour period, commuting would appear to involve balanced flows as each commuter returns to the place of residence. However, commuting usually involves imbalanced movements between the central area of a city and its periphery, with the dominance of inbound movements in the morning and outbound movements in the afternoon. - **Cargo and Equipment Specialization**. Some types of cargo can only be transported with specialized modes and equipment. Thus, even if there is cargo available for a backhaul movement, the conveyance for the inbound haul may not be suitable. For instance, refrigerated vehicles and containers are not well designed to carry other types of cargo, implying that cold chain transportation usually has empty backhauls. Further, it is common in many bulk trades, such as petroleum, grains, and minerals, to have an empty backhaul because the ships are specialized carriers not designed to carry anything else. Containerization allows carrying a wide variety of cargo, being less prone to imbalances. - **Short Hauls**. Many transport flows are over short distances and cover a specific sequence, such as feeders or local deliveries. They may thus be unable to be available for backhaul cargo opportunities that could be further away. As such, the range of transport services imposes limitations on their market opportunities and the availability of backhaul flows. - **Regulatory Constraints**. Although there could be opportunities for backhaul movements, the regulatory context may prevent them. For instance, cabotage regulations prevent maritime shipping companies, airlines, and trucking companies from carrying cargo or passengers in many national markets. A foreign-flagged shipping company cannot carry cargo between two American ports, and an international airline cannot carry passengers between two American airports. In the taxi industry, a driver can only pick up customers in specific jurisdictions (e.g. a town or a city). Own account transporters (e.g. the transport branch of a large retailer) can only carry cargo for the corporation they are part of, often resulting in more empty hauls. There is limited effective mitigation to empty movements because many are the outcome of macroeconomic or spatial processes that cannot be readily influenced in the short term. Trade imbalances are mainly the outcome of differences in comparative advantages, such as labor costs or the availability of resources. Containerization has enabled a better mix of cargo, but the large commodity trades still depend on specialized conveyances. Regulatory changes, such as cabotage restrictions, could be alleviated, but national or regional markets are usually protected by special interest groups unwilling to forego the rent-seeking advantages that this implies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/empty-back-haul-factors/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/empty-back-haul-factors/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/empty-back-haul-factors/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/empty-back-haul-factors/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Footprint of Retail-Based and Distribution-Based Commercial Activities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/commercial-retail-footprint-distribution/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/footprint_retail_distribution_based-scaled.png?resize=900%2C544&ssl=1 "Footprint of Retail-Based and Distribution-Based Commercial Activities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Footprint of Retail Based and Distribution Based Commercial ActivitiesThe provision of goods to final consumers takes two channels; **retail-based,** where consumers travel to stores to purchase goods, and **distribution-based,** where the goods are delivered to the consumers’ residences from distribution centers. Both have a footprint in terms of the amount of allocated space since stores and distribution centers occupy land, but not necessarily at the same locations. However, for the same volume, retail-based activities have a larger footprint since goods are staked on shelves trying to maximize consumer visibility and access. In a distribution center, the goods are [efficiently stored](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4591) to minimize the warehousing space as well as make storage and retrieval an efficient process. In a retail-based system, accessibility to the final consumer is the dominant locational factor, while in a distribution-based system, it is accessibility to freight distribution capabilities. Thus, retail tends to occupy central locations while distribution tends to occupy more peripheral locations. Historically, retail-based commercial activities dominated, particularly in central areas. Their footprint was related to the population of their market areas and their development level, particularly in terms of income. Distribution-based commercial activities usually took the form of mail-order catalogs, be remained a marginal and niche activity that complemented retail. Goods were usually shipped either from a retail store or from a distribution center supplying stores. Demographic and income growth in developed economies in the latter part of the 20th century resulted in a substantial increase in the retail footprint, particularly in suburbia, where new commercial facilities such as shopping malls and mega-stores were built. Such a commercial landscape prevailed until the early 21st century and was adopted in many societies experiencing economic development. The diffusion of information technologies, particularly online shopping, is shifting part of commercial activities towards a distribution-based structure; the emergence of an “e-commercial” system. As more consumers adopt online shopping, the outcome is a change in the[ nature of distribution](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4524) and a decline in the total footprint of commercial activities in relation to total sales volume. The transition is also dependent on the type of retail activity and consumer preferences. While the consumer electronics sector has a high potential to become substantially distribution-based, the grocery sector is less prone to such a transition. Consumers prefer to select their groceries visually. Under such circumstances, it can be expected to see a decline in the retail footprint in advanced economies as this footprint is partially replaced by a less intensive distribution footprint. Several large retail stores have faced bankruptcy, such as Toys-R-us, one of the world’s largest toy retailers, which shut down all its stores in 2018. Retailers such as Macy’s and Sears are closing a large number of stores due to declining sales. At some point, it could even be possible that distribution-based commercial activities become dominant and thus account for the largest share of the commercial footprint. Meanwhile, a transition is still ongoing as online sales take a greater share of total retail sales. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/commercial-retail-footprint-distribution/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/commercial-retail-footprint-distribution/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/commercial-retail-footprint-distribution/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/commercial-retail-footprint-distribution/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Nature of a Supply Chain](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/supply-chain-nature/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/nature_supply_chain-scaled.png?resize=900%2C387&ssl=1 "The Nature of a Supply Chain | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Nature of a Supply ChainAn economic activity involved in manufacturing or distribution is linked to a complex system of suppliers and customers, which must be supported by a transport system. The system as a whole is known as a **supply chain**; a sequence of transportation and inventory management tasks. A supplier can be another’s customer, depending upon its position along the chain. Thus, a supply chain is a relative concept, but it is commonly applied to the whole sequence as an activity. Retailing usually acts as the final customer and represents the end of a supply chain. Actors such as manufacturers, distributors, or retailers place orders, and the fulfillment of these orders results in their transportation. A supplier maintains outbound inventory (parts or raw materials ready to be distributed), while a customer maintains inbound inventory (parts or finished goods ready to be transformed or consumed). A manufacturer also has an in-process inventory, which implies all the parts currently used in the fabrication process. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/supply-chain-nature/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/supply-chain-nature/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/supply-chain-nature/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/supply-chain-nature/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Monthly Retail Sales and Inventories, United States, 1992-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/monthly-retail-sales-united-states/) **Published:** December 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/retail_sales_inventory_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Monthly Retail Sales and Inventories, United States, 1992-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Monthly Retail Sales and Inventories United States 1992 2022*Source: United States Census Bureau. Monthly & Annual Retail Trade.* *Note: Excludes motor vehicles and parts.* Retailing is a core commercial activity that reflects the level of economic activity and factors linked to [income](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=584). It has a pronounced seasonality underlining a cyclical behavior with peak and through periods. The above chart underlines three aspects of this cyclical behavior in the United States (as well as in most developed economies); the long-term trend (decades), the cycles of growth and recession (6 to 8 years), and seasonality (annual). - **Retail sales**. Retail sales have steadily been increasing, more than doubling over the 1992-2013 period. A recessionary period between 2001 and 2003 is evident, with sales below the long-term trend. The 2005 to 2008 period is indicative of higher growth rates, with retail sales above the trend. The financial crisis of 2009 (also labeled the Great Recession) resulted in retail sales for the 2009 to 2011 period well below the trend. Retail sales have a clear annual cycle that begins with the January and February low sales period that gradually increases to reach the May and August higher sales months (summer and school purchases, respectively). Sales then decrease in September to gradually increase in October and November, particularly after thanksgiving. December is the most active month of the year, with a significant retail sales surge, which is clearly associated with the holiday season. The Covid-19 pandemic had substantial impacts on retail sales, with an initial decline, followed by a surge due to deferred demand and stimulus policies. - **End of month retail inventories**. Represents the value of all the commercial goods held at stores or distribution centers monthly. It is considered a leading indicator since inventory accumulation usually precedes sales. Retailers are stocking up in October and November (peak inventory accumulation period) in anticipation of the December retail surge, which depletes inventories that reach an annual low point in December and January. During the Covid-19 pandemic, supply chain stresses were associated with a decline in inventory levels. - **Ratio inventories/sales**. The trend clearly underlines a long-term decline in the ratio as retailers are more active in implementing tighter inventory management strategies, which means the inventory levels are getting more similar to sales levels. Amplitude has also been declining, implying that retailers are better at synchronizing distribution, inventories, and sales. Retail cycles have a close relation with [port activity](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=3411) since many goods are imported from foreign manufacturers and distributors. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/monthly-retail-sales-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/monthly-retail-sales-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/monthly-retail-sales-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/monthly-retail-sales-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Nominal GDP, 2000-21](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-nominal-gdp/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/world_nominal_gdp.png?w=900&ssl=1 "World Nominal GDP, 2000-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Nominal GDP 2000 2021*Note: Current US Dollars.* *Source: World Bank Development Indicators.* The global generation of wealth remains highly concentrated. The four largest economies, the United States, Japan, China, and Germany, alone accounted for more than 40% of the world’s GDP. Thus, nine countries (G8 + China) generated more than half the global economic activity. Still, the dynamism is shifting, with China overtaking Japan to become the world’s second-largest economy in 2010. Countries such as Brazil and India have also experienced remarkable growth. This commercial potential and dynamism shape global transactions, flows, and the associated transportation systems. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-nominal-gdp/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-nominal-gdp/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-nominal-gdp/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-nominal-gdp/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Automobile Production and Fleet, 1965-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/automobile-production-fleet-world/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_production_fleet.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "World Automobile Production and Fleet | The Geography of Transport Systems ")World Automobile Production and Fleet 1965 2021*Source: US Department of Energy, Transportation Energy Data Book.* The last decades have experienced a growing level of motorization, as reflected by the production of automobiles and the fleet of registered cars. Although car production has a behavior linked with economic cycles of growth and recession, there is a continuous growth of the fleet, with an annual car production of about 34-40 million vehicles in the 1990s, well above 40 million in the 2000s, and surpassing 60 million in the 2010s. Recessions, such as in the early 1980s and 2008-09, are associated with notable drops in production since cars are consumer goods whose purchases can be delayed. The Covid-19 pandemic substantially impacted car production with a substantial decline in 2020 as manufacturing plants were disrupted and as the demand cratered. By 2017, the number of registered automobiles exceeded 1 billion for the first time, twice 2000 figures and four times 1990 figures. While there are fluctuations in annual automobile production, the number of registration is steadily increasing. When car production drops, people keep their vehicles for longer durations. When car production increases, older vehicles are put out of circulation to be scrapped and recycled. Globally, there are, on average, 8 people for every car in circulation. A significant share of car production growth is attributed to the motorization of developing countries, especially in East and Southeast Asia. In 2003, more than 2 million cars were sold in China alone, and this figure exploded to more than 9 million in 2008, 22 million in 2013, and 26 million in 2021. Comparatively, car sales in the United States, which used to be the world’s largest market, have [stabilized](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7340) at about 15 million per year. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/automobile-production-fleet-world/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/automobile-production-fleet-world/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/automobile-production-fleet-world/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/road-transportation/automobile-production-fleet-world/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Drivers of Change in Manufacturing](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/change-manufacturing-drivers/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/drivers_change_manufacturing.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Drivers of Change in Manufacturing and the Transition Towards Added-Value | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Transition Towards Added Value*Source: Future of Manufacturing Council, World Economic Forum.* The manufacturing sector is subject to transitions as economies develop, and so do their capabilities. Three stages can be identified with a growing level of added value and complexity, each characterized by different manufacturing strategies and policies. - **Comparative advantages**. In the earlier stages, the concerns are about what comparative advantages a country already has because of its factor endowments. Some may be permanent (e.g., resources), while others may be temporary (e.g., low-cost labor). This stage tends to be factor-driven and can be implemented with limited capital investments and relatively low capabilities. The share of manufacturing in the national GDP increases rapidly. - **Competitiveness**. Later, the focus moves on improving comparative advantages through strategies to promote competitiveness (technology, infrastructure, education, finance, etc.). For instance, investments in infrastructures such as ports, rail, and highways generally promote the competitiveness of the area they are taking place in. This stage tends to be efficiency-driven and requires higher levels of capital accumulation and skilled labor. As a national economy matures, the share of manufacturing in the GDP levels off and may start to decline with the development of services. - **Capabilities**. In an advanced stage, maintaining and improving competitiveness in light of declining comparative advantages facing global competition becomes a priority. Some nations may be developing their own comparative advantages and competitiveness, undermining the competitiveness of others, and inciting them to develop new forms of added value. This stage tends to be innovation-driven and requires a convergence of corporate, government, and social interests to develop capabilities that are investment and skill intensive. Usually, a decline in the [GDP share of manufacturing](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=549) is observed. These stages are not necessarily sequential since a country can move directly to a higher stage. It can take place when a developing economy enables foreign investments that are able to bring in capabilities that otherwise would not be developed locally in the short or medium terms. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/change-manufacturing-drivers/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/change-manufacturing-drivers/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/change-manufacturing-drivers/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/change-manufacturing-drivers/?share=reddit) - --- ### [GDP Share of Manufacturing, Selected Countries, 1970-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-share-manufacturing/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/gdp_manufacturing-scaled.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "GDP Share of Manufacturing, Selected Countries, 1970-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")GDP Share of Manufacturing Selected Countries 1970 2021*Source: United Nations Statistical Division.* *Note: The sharp drop in the GDP share of manufacturing for China between 2003 and 2004 is the outcome of a statistical redefinition. In previous years manufacturing was included with mining and utilities. From 2004, manufacturing was reported independently.* The shift in the contribution of manufacturing to the economy cannot be effectively linked with a drop in manufacturing output or declining standards of living, At the global level, the share of manufacturing in relation to global GDP dropped from about 26.7% in 1970 to 15.6% in 2017. This decline must be nuanced by the following factors: - **Productivity growth**. Implies more output per worker so that, at the aggregate level, a similar level of production can be maintained with a declining number of workers. This is in part linked to higher levels of mechanization and capital investment. As the history of innovation in manufacturing underlines, manufacturing has consistently been more labor-saving than a job-creating endeavor. The goal is not to create employment but to increase output. While adding labor usually was the main means to achieve such a goal, mechanization and automation can be used to increase productivity without significant addition of labor. Consequently, the price of manufactured goods is getting lower in comparison to the price of services and income levels. - **Outsourcing**. The practice of having activities that used to be performed within a corporation subcontracted to external providers has substantially helped promote productivity by reducing costs. This also resulted from removing the outsourced activities, mainly related to management and services, that used to be included in the manufacturing input costs into the service sector. For instance, if a manufacturing corporation outsources a share of its human resources (e.g. payroll) to a specialized service firm, these input costs are essentially “transferred” to the service sector without any fundamental change in the manufacturing level. - **Offshoring**. The transfer of an organizational or production function to another country, whether the work is outsourced or stays within the same corporation. An economy can consume an increasing amount of manufactured goods while seeing little change, and even a decline, in the share of its manufacturing sector in the GDP. Also, a manufacturer could, through offshoring, double its output and sales while its contribution to the manufacturing output of its home country could decline. - **Added value**. The function of large manufacturing firms has substantially changed as production tends to take a lower share of the added value of a good. A growing share of the added value and the economic contribution of a contemporary manufactured product is derived from non-manufacturing activities. This is particularly the case for mass-market consumer goods, where the bulk of the economic contribution is derived from sales, distribution, and marketing. Personal computing devices, such as computers and mobile phones, are associated with a vast array of non-manufacturing activities contributing more to the GDP than their fabrication. Under such circumstances, the declining share of manufacturing among the world’s largest economies should be interpreted with caution as manufacturing is taking a dimension substantially different than its conventional role focusing on production. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-share-manufacturing/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-share-manufacturing/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-share-manufacturing/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/gdp-share-manufacturing/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Share of East Asia in the Value of World Merchandise Trade, 1980-2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/east-asia-share-global-trade/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/east_asia_world_merchandise.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Asia in the Value of World Merchandise Trade, 1980-2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of Asia in the Value of World Merchandise Trade 1980 2021*Source: WTO.* Since the 1980s, the contribution of East Asia to global trade has increased substantially, notably for its exports. From about 16% of the value of global exports in 1980, this share climbed to about 32% in 2010 and 36% in 2021. This trend can partially be explained by substantial investments that went into new export-oriented manufacturing facilities using the advantages of low production costs, notably in terms of labor. In the early 1980s, East Asia was a net importer, and as economic development accelerated in the late 1980s, the gap between exports and imports became negligible. The gap between exports and imports substantially increased after 1997, when currency devaluations made the region more competitive. Yet, as development occurs, East Asian economies are consuming (importing) increasing amounts of resources and finished goods. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/east-asia-share-global-trade/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/east-asia-share-global-trade/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/east-asia-share-global-trade/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/east-asia-share-global-trade/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Competitive Advantages](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/competitive-advantages-types/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/types_competitive_advantages-scaled.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Types of Competitive Advantages | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Competitive AdvantagesNations, regions, and economic sectors can develop competitive advantages over others. However, competitive advantages are usually not permanent since they can be gained and lost. There are three major dimensions over which competitive advantages can be challenged: - **Added value**. A high added value implies technical or managerial expertise that is very difficult to replicate and could even be protected by patents. This implies that a product is systematically offered at a lower cost or of higher quality than a competing product. - **Scarcity**. Often related to the existing market size or the resources sector. If a market for a good is relatively small and thus scarce, potential competitors may be unwilling to enter this market. A good with a mass-market (low scarcity) is also subject to intense competition. - **Imitation costs**. A simple product tends to have low imitation costs, and competitors can thus easily enter the market. A complex product, such as a high-tech device, is much more difficult to replicate and often protected by patents. Depending on the combination of these dimensions, an actor may find itself at some level of competitive advantage concerning its competitors. If the added value provided is high and the imitation costs are also high, an actor can be in a situation of **sustained competitive advantage** and achieve market dominance with high levels of profitability. On the other range of the spectrum, if a good has limited added value (cost parity or even a higher cost), it concerns a mass-market, and can easily be replicated. The concerned actors are facing a situation of competitive disadvantages that usually implies low profitability. Globalization has placed pressure on each of these dimensions by making a larger array of resources available (labor, parts, and raw materials) as well as a larger number of actors that can potentially compete. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/competitive-advantages-types/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/competitive-advantages-types/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/competitive-advantages-types/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/competitive-advantages-types/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Share of the World's GDP, 1CE - 2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-historical/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/world_gdp_evolution.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of the World's GDP, 1CE - 2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of the Worlds GDP 1AD 2020*Note: In 1990 Dollars, purchasing power parity.* *Source: Data compiled by A. Maddison, University of Groningen. Updated with World Bank GDP figures for 2010 and beyond.* Historically, the world’s balance of wealth (power) undertook two major divergences. The **first divergence** was triggered by the industrial revolution (early 19th century), and the **second divergence** was triggered by globalization (late 20th century). Before the industrial revolution, the economic size of a nation was directly proportional to its population, which was dominantly rural. Agricultural surpluses permitted an initial division of labor and were used to support various crafts, administrative, and service activities. Therefore, the capacity to grow food was the foundation of the wealth of nations because the greater the food surplus, the larger the population base for non-agricultural activities. Since China and India primarily relied on rice cultivation (the most productive form of agriculture) supported by extensive irrigation systems, they achieved the world’s largest population early in history and, correspondingly, the largest GDP. This weight endured for a long period of time; they jointly accounted for 50% of the world’s GDP up to the early 19th century. The mechanization of production brought about by the industrial revolution significantly changed the relationship between population and economic output. European countries and their offshoots (e.g. the United States), which historically had a modest share of the global GDP (the Roman Empire being a notable exception), became the world’s dominant economies, some projecting this influence through colonial empires. This came to be known as the **great divergence**, where western civilization undertook significant economic, cultural, and social development levels that did not occur elsewhere. By 1900, five industrial nations accounted for about 45% of the world’s GDP (United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, and Japan), with the share of China and India collapsing to less than 20%. By the 1970s, China and India jointly accounted for less than 9% of the world’s GDP despite their surging populations, while the share of the United States peaked at 22% of the world’s GDP. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a rebalancing of the world’s GDP began. By undertaking their industrial revolution within an integrated global economy, China and later India were able to gradually reclaim a share of the GDP more in line with their populations. By 2020, China reclaimed a share of global GDP similar to the one it held in the late 19th century. It could be postulated that once this rebalancing is completed, the global economy will reach a new equilibrium where the economic output will be correlated with population, as before the industrial revolution. This assumes an eventual homogeneity of living standards and income across the global population, which may not occur. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-historical/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-historical/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-historical/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-commercial-geography/world-gdp-historical/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Production per Car Manufacturer, 1998-2017](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/car-production-manufacturer/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/global_motor_vehicle_production_manufacturer.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Global Production per Car Manufacturer, 1998-2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Production per Car Manufacturer 1998 2017*Source: International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers* The automotive industry is the main industrial employer in the world, with more than 10 million workers and incomes of 1,000 billion US dollars. The North American and Western European markets are saturated and have mainly become replacement markets. Economic growth in developing countries, especially in Asia, provides some expectations for the demand for new vehicles as well as for new production capacities. It is estimated that an automotive constructor is profitable at 80% of the capacity. By 2000 the global production capacity reached 80 million vehicles while the market demanded only 60 million vehicles. Thus, the automotive production system worked at 75% of its capacity, which represents a major challenge for the four main manufacturers (General Motors, Ford, Volkswagen, and Toyota) that saw their share drop from 48% of the global production in 1998 and to 35% in 2017. The car manufacturers themselves are changing because of mergers and acquisitions. For instance, by 1999, several manufacturers merged, such as GM and Fiat, Daimler and Chrysler (the merger was broken in 2009), and Renault and Nissan. As a result, six manufacturers controlled about 75% of global car production. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/car-production-manufacturer/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/car-production-manufacturer/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/car-production-manufacturer/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/car-production-manufacturer/?share=reddit) - --- ### [US Household Penetration of Telecommunications, 1920-2015](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/household-telecommunications-united-states/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/us_household_telecommunications.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "US Household Penetration of Telecommunications, 1920-2015 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")US Household Penetration of Telecommunications 1920 2015*Source: adapted from US Department of Commerce & Nielsen Home Technology Report. US Census Bureau, (Table No. 1440. Selected Communications Media: 1920 to 1998). Telephone includes land lines and cell phones. Broadband includes Wi-Fi.* The diffusion of telecommunications follows a typical logistic curve from an early phase of adoption, a fast penetration of the technology in the consumer market, and then a slowdown phase as the market is saturated and the technology has achieved maturity and ubiquity. There is also the possibility of a phase of obsolescence where the technology is removed to be replaced by something more efficient. Although the telephone was introduced first, its wiring requirements led to its slow diffusion. Because of its wireless characteristics and simple technology, the radio diffused rapidly in the years (1920s and 1930s) it was introduced and remained a telecommunication system available in almost every household. A similar observation applies to television, which rapidly diffused in the 1950s and 1960s. Some communications standards, such as the VCR, are also marked by obsolescence since the standard has officially been abandoned, to be replaced by the DVD, which is being replaced by video streaming. The last VCRs were manufactured in 2016. Substitution is also gradually taking place concerning telephones. While having a high level of diffusion (more than 95% of households), fewer households are using landlines, but cellular phone services instead. An important element that favors the diffusion of media technology is the provision of content. To help radio sales in the 1920s, radio manufacturers such as RCA started to acquire radio stations and sponsor various entertainment shows. This eventually led to the development of “soap operas” as consumer products manufacturers recognized the advertising potential of the new media in the 1930s. A similar process took place with television in the 1950s and 1960s. Even with the digital revolution, the issue of providing content in order to sell devices remains fundamental. For instance, Apple started its digital store (iTunes) to support the sales of its iPod devices, which substantially expanded with the introduction of smartphones and tablet computers. This content availability is starting to impact the ownership of televisions, which has started to decline. People are now able to use mobile devices to view live or streamed media elements. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/household-telecommunications-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/household-telecommunications-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/household-telecommunications-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/household-telecommunications-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Moore's Law (Transistors per Microprocessor), 1971-2022](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/moore-law-transistors/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/moore_law_transistors.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Moore's Law (Transistors per Microprocessor), 1971-2022 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Moores Law Transistors per Microprocessor 1971 2020In 1965 Gordon Moore, co-founder of the microprocessor manufacturer Intel, predicted that the number of transistors per integrated circuit would double every 18 months. So far, his assumption remains reasonably true as microprocessors saw their number of transistor equivalent jump from 2,250 in Intel’s 4004 (1971) to 731 million in Intel’s Pentium iCore 7 (2008) and 2.6 billion for the Xeon (2011). Thus, a doubling every 24 months permitted the development of the information economy where massive processing power is required. There are, however, physical limits to this process since electric current cannot effectively flow once a size threshold is reached in miniaturization. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/moore-law-transistors/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/moore-law-transistors/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/moore-law-transistors/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/moore-law-transistors/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Wright Brothers First Flight, 1903](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/wright-brothers-flight-1903/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** John Bowen **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/1024px-First_flight2.jpg?resize=900%2C584&ssl=1 "Wright Brothers First Flight, 1903 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Wright Brothers First Flight 1903*Source: Library of Congress Photo 2A13.* Orville and Wilbur Wright of Dayton, Ohio, made rapid progress in developing the first airplane after writing to the Smithsonian Institution in 1899 asking for publications about flight. They soon developed a large kite using an innovative system of flight controls and wing-warping that made the kite more maneuverable. By 1900, the Wrights were testing a glider incorporating these breakthroughs at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The site was chosen for its wide open spaces, steady winds, and support from the local population. The Wrights returned to Kitty Hawk in 1901 and 1902, testing more and more sophisticated and controllable aircraft. Finally, on December 17, 1903, Orville Wright made the first flight with a self-propelled, heavier-than-air airplane. The flight lasted only 59 seconds and traversed just 852 feet (284 meters) in the air, but the event marked the beginning of modern aviation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/wright-brothers-flight-1903/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/wright-brothers-flight-1903/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/wright-brothers-flight-1903/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/wright-brothers-flight-1903/?share=reddit) - --- ### [United States Maritime Commission Cargo Ships, 1938-1947](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/usmc-cargo-ships/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/usmc_cargo_ships.png?resize=900%2C321&ssl=1 "United States Maritime Commission Cargo Ships, 1938-1947 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")United States Maritime Commission Cargo Ships 1938 1947*Source: adapted from B.J. Cudahy (2006) Box Boats: How Container Ships Changed the World, New York: Fordham University Press. p. 8.* The United States Maritime Commission was established by the Merchant Marine Act of 1936 to devise a merchant shipbuilding program to equip the United States with a fleet of 500 modern cargo ships. The goal was to replace the cargo vessels built in the wake of World War I (of a capacity of about 8,500 tons) with new ship designs that were faster, of greater capacity, and more energy-efficient. Several classes of ships were designed based upon the input from the industry and the US Navy, with the C (Cargo) and T (Tanker) classes of particular importance to maritime shipping. The Liberty Ships (Emergency Cargo class 2), with 2,710 laid up as part of a crash program, became the most important class of cargo ships ever to be mass-produced. They could be built in about 60 days and played an important role in ferrying supplies and troops across the Atlantic and the Pacific. An important consequence of these shipbuilding programs was the availability after WWII of a large number of surplus cargo ships that were purchased by several maritime shipping companies in the United States and abroad (e.g. Greece). It also permitted the beginning of containerization since the first containership launched in 1956 was a converted T2 tanker ([Ideal X](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1323)). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/usmc-cargo-ships/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/usmc-cargo-ships/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/usmc-cargo-ships/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/usmc-cargo-ships/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Length of the British Railway System, 1830-1860](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-rail-system-1830-1860/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/british_railways_19th_century.png?resize=900%2C401&ssl=1 "Length of the British Railway System, 1830-1860 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Length of the British Railway System 1830 1860*Source: adapted from G. Campbell, “The Dividend Mania: Stock prices and dividends during the Railway Mania”, Social Sciences Research Network, Working Paper Series.* The initial developments of railways in Great Britain were characterized by phases of booms and busts. Like all new technologies, the commercial potential of railways remained uncertain, which led to high expectations and temporary over-investment (bubble behavior). One revealing example was the railway mania of the 1840s, which culminated in 1846. By the 1860s, growth rates stabilized at around 5%. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-rail-system-1830-1860/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-rail-system-1830-1860/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-rail-system-1830-1860/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/uk-rail-system-1830-1860/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Erie Canal, New York, 1829](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/erie-canal-1829/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/eriecanal1829.jpg?resize=776%2C588&ssl=1 "Erie Canal, New York, 1829 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Erie Canal New York 1829*Source: View of Erie Canal by John William Hill, 1829. Watercolor on paper.* The Erie Canal, which opened between 1821 and 1825, represents one of the best examples of canal construction aimed at extending inland transport systems, of foremost importance in the development of the United States. At its completion, the 9 million dollars (1825 dollars) project was about 580 km long, 40 feet wide, and at least four feet deep. By linking New York to Albany to Buffalo, the Erie Canal initiated a new era of growth for inland freight transportation for East Coast ports. It reduced the cost of moving a ton of flour from Buffalo to New York from $120 to $6. It also reduced the transit time from three weeks to six days. At that time, New York was only the fifth largest American seaport, behind Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New Orleans. By 1850, New York evolved to become the most active port in the United States, and its primate city handling maritime traffic greater than Boston, Baltimore, and New Orleans combined. In its early stages, barges were towed upstream by horses walking along the towpath, as seen in the above painting. Barges going downstream used the current and a rudder for steerage. Later, diesel engine propelled barges were used. In 1918, the Erie Canal system was renamed the New York State Barge Canal. With the opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway in 1959, as well as because of a major shift of freight shipments to railways and roads, traffic on the canal declined substantially in the second half of the 20th century. Then, commercial traffic almost ceased, and the canal is used today mostly for leisure purposes. The system was renamed in 1992 as the New York State Canal System to reflect its new recreational function. The canal still serves a niche freight function and is occasionally used to move project and specialized cargo too large to fit on road or rail. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/erie-canal-1829/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/erie-canal-1829/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/erie-canal-1829/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/erie-canal-1829/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Bridgewater Canal, Manchester, 1767](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/bridgewater-canal-manchester-1767/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Barton-Aqueduct-1795-edited-for-web.jpg?resize=676%2C506&ssl=1 "Bridgewater Canal, Manchester, 1767 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Bridgewater Canal Manchester 1767*Source: unknown.* The Bridgewater Canal represents the first entirely artificial canal in Britain, constructed by the engineer James Brindley and mainly financed by Francis Egerton, Duke of Bridgewater (1736-1803), to haul coal from his mines to the growing industrial city of Manchester. Its construction is the earliest known attempt to respond to the imperatives of the industrial revolution, which began in Britain during that time. The no-locks canal linked the coal mines of Worsley to Manchester, 16 km (10 miles) away. Upon its completion in 1761, the cost of coal in Manchester was more than halved, favoring its wider use in burgeoning industrial activities. In 1776, the canal was extended by 50 km (30 miles) from Manchester to Liverpool. This canal and the others that were subsequently built established a network of inland waterways serving the Industrial Revolution in the half-century before the railway era, which began in the 1850s. New technology saw the introduction of locks, inclined planes, and lifts to cope with elevation changes. By the 1880s, the canal was gradually abandoned for commercial circulation, which endured until 1975. The canal is now used for recreational purposes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/bridgewater-canal-manchester-1767/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/bridgewater-canal-manchester-1767/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/bridgewater-canal-manchester-1767/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/bridgewater-canal-manchester-1767/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Dutch East India Company, Trade Network, 18th Century](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/dutch-east-india-company-trade-network/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/VOC_Trade_Network2.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Dutch East India Company, Trade Network, 18th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Dutch East India Company Trade Network 18th Century*Source: Parthesius, R. (2010) Dutch Ships in Tropical Waters: The Development of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) Shipping Network in Asia 1595-1660, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_VOC_Trade_Network.pdf) The Dutch East India Company (VOC; Verenigde Oost-indische Compagnie), founded in 1602, is often considered the **first truly multinational corporation**. From the 17th to the 18th century, trading companies such as VOC (and its British counterpart, the East India Trading Company), acted on behalf of European governments. As joint-stock companies, they were private mercantilist tools with a guaranteed trade monopoly in exchange for rights paid to their respective governments. They were almost states by themselves with their own ships (military and merchant) and military forces. Their initial goal was to develop trade links for prized commodities such as pepper. As time progressed, they became increasingly involved in controlling and developing their respective territories. In 1610, VOC gained a foothold in Batavia (Indonesia / Dutch East Indies) and conquered most of the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) by 1640, establishing the stronghold of Galle. The major trading hub of Malacca was taken from the Portuguese in 1641. By the mid seventeen century, VOC had replaced most local trading networks with their own with a series of **fortified trading posts acting as hubs**. Cape Town (South Africa) was also founded in 1652 as a crucial stage for the long Europe-Asia voyage. Later, plantations and the introduction of new forms of cultivation, such as coffee in West Java (1723), were established. It resulted in a growing quantity and variety of cargo being traded. The company essentially achieved a monopoly on nutmeg (meat preserver) and cinnamon trade for about a century and raked substantial profits. Most came from the “Spice Islands” in the Dutch East Indies. By 1750, VOC employed around 25,000 people and did business in 10 Asian countries. However, mainly due to corruption and mismanagement, the company faced bankruptcy in 1799, with its holdings transferred to the Dutch Crown. When VOC first came to Asia, ships made the long-distance trip back and forth from Europe. Later, a trade network composed of two layers was established, **reminiscent of a hub-and-spoke structure**. A regional trade network was serviced by smaller ships that called along coastal trading routes to various ports throughout the region. The goods were collected in large warehouses in protected strongholds; Batavia (Indonesia) and Galle (Sri Lanka) were the most significant. Traded commodities included textiles, pepper, and yarn from India, cinnamon, cardamom, and gems from Sri Lanka. Some were traded only over short distances, while others traveled greater distances, such as between Indonesia, China, and Japan. Other commodities, such as cinnamon and nutmeg, were mainly exported back to Europe. Much larger “return ships” of 500 to 1,000 tons were used for the long haul, including a stopover in Cape Town. The route and the season these ships traveled were configured to take maximum advantage of dominant winds. On the inbound route from Amsterdam, ships essentially crossed the Atlantic to reach the South American coast and catch the fast Westerlies that would bring them to Cape Town. From there, the Westerlies brought the ships straight across the Indian Ocean towards Australia and then turned north to Batavia or Galle. The return route was more direct and took advantage of the southeast-bound winter monsoon winds. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/dutch-east-india-company-trade-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/dutch-east-india-company-trade-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/dutch-east-india-company-trade-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/dutch-east-india-company-trade-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Early European Maritime Expeditions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/european-maritime-expeditions-16th-century/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-First-Explorations-15-16c.png?resize=900%2C485&ssl=1 "Early European Maritime Expeditions, 1492-1522 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Early European Maritime Expeditions 1492 1522Note: Does not include return trips except for Magellan due to circumnavigation. [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_First-Maritime-Explorers.pdf) Early European maritime expeditions in the late 15th and early 16th centuries were mainly the initiative of Portugal and Spain and came to be known as the **Age of Discovery**. Using [caravels](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1072), the main driver was to find a maritime route to Asia (China/India), which could be done either by sailing east or west from Europe. The process started in the early 15th century with the discovery of Atlantic islands off the coast of Africa, such as Madeira, the Azores, and the Canaries, which served as stepping stones for further explorations: - **Western maritime route**. Christopher Columbus, funded by the Spanish Crown (the expedition’s cost was estimated to be the equivalent of one million dollars in today’s money), was looking for a western route to Asia, but stumbled upon the Americas (in the Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola) in 1492, believing to have reached India. This was an outcome of a cartographic error overestimating the size of the Eurasian landmass and thinking that the earth’s circumference was about 25% smaller. Thus, according to Colombus, India was about 4,000 km west of Spain as opposed to 16,000 km in reality. The reason why the Caribbean was reached first, even if the coast of Labrador is closer, is related to prevailing winds and sea currents on the North Atlantic. In 1497, the explorer Ferdinand Cabot, funded by England, would also try to reach Asia, looking for a northern route. This venture was also unsuccessful, as the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador were reached instead. In 1519, Magellan embarked on an expedition to find the western maritime route to Asia. He reached the Pacific Ocean by rounding the southern tip of South America (1520) and by going through the strait that would later bear his name. After crossing the Pacific Ocean, he was killed in 1521 in Southeast Asia (Philippines). However, one of his ships made the trip back to Europe through the Cape of Good Hope and completed the first round-the-world journey in history (1522). This led Spain to conquer the Philippines between 1565 and 1571 and set their colonial capital at Manila. By using the isthmus of Panama as an overland route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the western maritime route to Asia was established. Being able to cross the Atlantic incited the Portuguese to look for an eastern maritime route. - **Eastern maritime route**. By the mid-15th century, Portuguese ships explored the western coast of Africa. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope, proving that Africa could be rounded and that India could be reached by sea route. Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope in his 1497-1499 expedition, becoming the first European to reach Asia (India) directly by sea. Portugal was able to trade with India without the traditional Arab intermediaries and gradually took control (forcefully) of all the trade routes between Europe and Pacific Asia. Because of superior naval military technology (faster and better-armed ships), most of the Arab merchant fleet was sunk by 1515. In 1511, Malacca, the most important commercial center in Southeast Asia, fell to the Portuguese. In 1513, Portuguese explorers reached Canton in China and were able to use Macao as a trade depot (1557). The eastern maritime trade route to Asia was thus established under the control of Portugal. Following the discovery of Columbus, Spain and Portugal met at Tordesillas, Spain, in 1494 to negotiate the claims of ownership of the new lands. An agreement, which was a renegotiation of a Papal decree made the previous year, was reached and named the **Treaty of Tordesillas**. It stated that all lands discovered west of a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands should belong to Spain, while new lands discovered east of that line would belong to Portugal (1 league equals about 4.8 km). An important aspect that incited exploration was issuing **patent letters** giving the entrepreneur special privileges such as a share of the taxation and trade benefits derived from the discovery of new lands (lands unknown to Europeans). This drove commercial initiatives and the setting of various trading companies seeking monopolies over territories and trade commodities. The **Treaty of Tordesillas** did not address the antimeridian and how newly discovered territories in the Pacific were to be divided. In the early 16th century, as Spanish and Portuguese explorers reached the Pacific and the “spice islands” (Moluccas), a new treaty was signed; the **Treaty of Zaragoza**. Under the treaty, Portugal could claim ownership of all territory east of the 142nd meridian. However, Spain did colonize the Philippines from 1565, mainly based on the claim Magellan first discovered it. A geographic division of the world was established. Other European powers, such as France and Britain, would not abide by these treaties and undertook their own ventures. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/european-maritime-expeditions-16th-century/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/european-maritime-expeditions-16th-century/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/european-maritime-expeditions-16th-century/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/european-maritime-expeditions-16th-century/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Historical Urban Location Factors](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/urban-defense-commerce/) **Published:** October 31, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/historical_urban_location_factors.png?w=900&ssl=1 "Historical Urban Location Factors | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Historical Urban Location Factors*Source: Adapted from M. Domosh, R.P. Neumann, P.L. Price and T.G. Jordan-Bychkov (2009) The Human Mosaic: A Cultural Approach to Human Geography, 11th Edition, Cranbury NJ: W.H. Freeman.* Historically, two factors impacted the location of cities; their defense and commercial capabilities. Defensive capabilities are more of a site issue since they rely on a defensible physical location that does not necessarily provide good access. At the same time, commerce is more a situation issue that expands the opportunities of a site by putting it on a broader framework of commercial relations. - **Defense**. An array of sites offer various defensive advantages that can be expanded by the building of fortifications. This mainly refers to cities established before the industrial revolution since defense was a prime consideration. River meander and island sites are good examples of defensible sites with cities with New Orleans and Paris as prime examples. For cities involved in maritime trade, the coastline also offers defensible sites such as a peninsula (or an offshore island), such as Boston and Hong Kong, or a sheltered harbor site such as New York and Rio de Janeiro. The presence of a promontory can further expand the defensive capabilities of any of the above sites. Modern forms of warfare, particularly artillery, rendered many defensive attributes, such as fortifications, irrelevant. - **Commerce**. With the industrial revolution, and in several cases, well before, trade relations became important location factors, with accessible sites along river systems particularly suitable. Bridge-point sites are locations where a bridge could more easily be constructed, such as a narrower river segment. For instance, London was the first suitable site along the Thames River where a bridge could be built. A confluence site benefits from the accessibility of two (or more) river systems, such as the case of Pittsburgh and Chongqing. Portage sites are established to link two river systems that otherwise would not be connected, such as Chicago (Great Lakes and Mississippi system). High land transportation costs prior to the industrial revolution underlined the importance of the head of navigation sites, which are the furthest convenient locations that could be reached. Montreal and Minneapolis are such examples. Improvements in engineering capabilities in the later stages of the industrial revolution would make the advantage of rivers for commercial sites of lesser relevance, particularly with the development of rail and highway systems. Still, once a location has been selected and capitalized upon, the city will remain even if the initial location factors are no longer highly relevant. Thus, a large share of the world’s urban agglomerations was set using some of the above location factors. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/urban-defense-commerce/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/urban-defense-commerce/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/urban-defense-commerce/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/urban-defense-commerce/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Spatial Structure and Transportation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/spatial-structure-transportation-components/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/spatial_structure_transportation2-1.png?resize=900%2C592&ssl=1 "The Spatial Structure and Transportation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Spatial Structure and TransportationSix core concepts relate the spatial structure and transportation: - **Location** implies the setting of an absolute system of reference (coordinate system) that can be reached by at least one mode of transportation. - **Distance** is a measure of the friction of space when a movement occurs and cannot be evaluated without at least two known locations. This friction can be expressed according to several factors such as length, time, cost, effort, energy, or even the psychological perception of distance as a deterrent. - **Fixedness**. Since locations are fixed (absolute), disparities are incurred because economic, technological, social, and political conditions change in space and time, whereas the geographical location remains the same. This is the main reason why different rates of change are observed across geography. - **Attributes**. All locations have different geographical attributes, which are all the characteristics relevant to a location. A core characteristic relates to available resources, such as land, capital, and labor (qualifications and costs). The fact that locations have different attributes is an important factor behind the generation and attraction of movements. - **Relativity**. All locations are relative since they must be considered in a wider context and since a location is often located by drawing reference to another. The importance of a location changes with regard to its importance relative to other locations and the scale at which the comparison is made (local, regional, or global). The relative position changes in time and with the development of activities. Locations that were considered peripheral can become central through socioeconomic changes (and vice versa). - **Dynamics** involves three major issues. First, changes at a location impact linked locations. Second, if a new link is created, the importance of locations bound to this link will change. Third, whatever the nature of the change, the effect will be positive or negative. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/spatial-structure-transportation-components/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/spatial-structure-transportation-components/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/spatial-structure-transportation-components/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/spatial-structure-transportation-components/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Oceanic Gyres and Sea Currents](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-oceanic-gyres-currents/) **Published:** October 29, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Map-World-Sea-Current-Gyres.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Major Oceanic Gyres and Sea Currents | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Oceanic Gyres and Sea Currents[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_World-Sea-Current-Gyres.pdf) The global oceanic system has five major sea current gyres that act as large conveyor belts. These gyres are also correlated with [dominant wind flows](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=386) where they rotate clockwise north of the equator and counterclockwise south of the equator. During the era of [sailship navigation](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1083), these gyres had a strong impact on navigation and trade flows. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-oceanic-gyres-currents/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-oceanic-gyres-currents/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-oceanic-gyres-currents/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/transportation-and-space/world-oceanic-gyres-currents/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Forces of Geographical Concentration and Dispersion](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/concentrationdispersionforces/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/centrifugal_centripetal.png?resize=900%2C416&ssl=1 "Forces of Geographical Concentration and Dispersion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Forces of Geographical Concentration and DispersionTwo contradictory forces are playing in the dynamics of the poles (or clusters): - **Centripetal forces**. Are the outcome of factors promoting the efficiency and competitiveness of economic activities and therefore incite the attractiveness of a pole. They include market size (economies of scale), the availability of labor, and many external economies linked with agglomeration (similar inputs and/or outputs). - **Centrifugal forces**. Are the outcome of many factors, such as high prices and congestion, which may undermine the competitiveness of some activities and incite economic activities to seek alternatives elsewhere. Since several factors of production, such as land and natural resources, are immobile, it may incite a relocation as they become scarce. This is particularly the case for land, as resources can be transported. Transportation is an important factor in this process as it concomitantly supports centrifugal and centripetal forces. Transportation could be a centripetal force favoring the convergence of activities in a cluster because of the accessibility this cluster can have to a broader distribution system. This is particularly the case when a cluster has an intermodal facility such as a port, an intermodal rail terminal, or an airport. Transportation could also be a centrifugal force if savings compensate the supplementary costs imposed by longer distances from major markets in production factors (labor, land, taxes, etc.) and access to new resources. Under such circumstances, transportation can incite relocation away from an existing cluster. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/concentrationdispersionforces/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/concentrationdispersionforces/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/concentrationdispersionforces/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/concentrationdispersionforces/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Global Net Migration (2010-2015)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-net-migration/) **Published:** November 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Migration.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Global Net Migration (2010-2015) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Global Net Migration 2010 2015*Source: UNEP (2018): The UNEP Environmental Data Explorer, compiled from World Population Prospects, the 2012 Revision (WPP2012), United Nations Population Division. United Nations Environment Programme.* Net migration is the difference between immigration and emigration. A positive number implies that more people are immigrating than emigrating. The factors behind these migrations are complex, but a negative net migration is generally associated with negative economic, social, and political conditions, inciting people to seek opportunities and a better quality of life elsewhere. The global net migration pattern underlines that North America and Western Europe remain the most prevalent immigration destinations. The Middle East, particularly the United Arab Emirates, has also been a destination. The net providers of immigrants remain Mexico, India, China, the Philippines, and Indonesia, a pattern that has endured over the last two decades. There are also geopolitical events impacting migration. For instance, the Syrian civil war incited migration out of Syria towards adjacent countries, particularly Turkey. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-net-migration/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-net-migration/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-net-migration/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/global-net-migration/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The North American Landbridge](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/north-america-landbridge/) **Published:** December 25, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-NA-Landbridge.png?resize=900%2C666&ssl=1 "The North American Landbridge | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The North American Landbridge[PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Landbridge.pdf) Rail freight in North America has experienced remarkable growth since deregulation in the 1980s. A significant share of this transformation concerns the emergence of long-distance rail freight corridors linking the two major gateway systems of North America; Southern California and New York/New Jersey via Chicago. The North-American Landbridge represents the most efficient Landbridge globally, which reduces distances between the East and the West coasts, including a Canadian (Vancouver-Montreal-Halifax) and a Mexican section (Salina Cruz-Coatzacoalos). Several connectors linking specific regions and networks are to be considered. As opposed to the Eurasian landbridge, the American landbridge has the advantage of providing a transcontinental link through a single country (Canada, USA, or Mexico). Thus, the North American landbridge is mainly the outcome of the growing transpacific trade and has undergone the containerized revolution; container traffic represented approximately 80% of all intermodal rail moves. Landbridges are particularly the outcome of cooperation between rail operators eager to get lucrative long-distance traffic, maritime shippers eager to reduce shipping time and costs, particularly from Asia, and freight forwarders looking at options to serve the needs of their customers. With the North American landbridge, an alternative to freight shipments across the Panama Canal is thus available. For instance, a container from Singapore takes 36 days to reach New York using the Panama Canal sea route (the average figure is about 21 days between Asia and the East Coast). The same journey takes 19 days if the Landbridge is used (Double-stack rail transport using the Seattle-Chicago-New York rail chain). On average, transport services between the East Coast of the United States and Pacific Asia are reduced from 6 days to 2 weeks, depending on the case. The North American Landbridge is also competing for a market share of the traffic between Europe and Asia. It requires maritime shippers, on average, from 5 to 6 weeks to service the harbors of Tokyo and Rotterdam. With the Landbridge, this time is reduced to about 3 weeks with a 6 days railway journey across North America. This option is not much used as post-Panamax containership using the Suez Canal is the most cost-effective and reliable option to service European markets. It takes about 3.8 days to connect Los Angeles and Chicago and an additional 2.8 days to connect Chicago to New York. Alternatively, the Vancouver – Chicago connection takes about 6 days, with the new Prince Rupert – Chicago link can be done in about 4 days because of the lack of congestion, both at the port and along the long-distance rail corridor. With the landbridge service, several maritime companies abandoned the Panama Canal and shifted to post-Panamax class containerships for trans-pacific services. Their productivity increased, and long-distance shipping costs were reduced proportionally as maritime shippers could use larger ships with a higher level of frequency of services. A higher capacity can thus be achieved with the same number of ships. The landbridge is facing challenges as labor and capacity issues along the West Coast have incited maritime shipping companies to rely more on the all-water route to service East Coast ports. The expansion of the Panama Canal is also expected to impact the North American landbridge by using East Coast ports to service the hinterland more cost-effective. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/north-america-landbridge/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/north-america-landbridge/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/north-america-landbridge/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/transportation-bottlenecks/north-america-landbridge/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Absolute and Relative Distance in a Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/absolute-relative-distance-network/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/absolute_relative_distance_network2.png?resize=900%2C412&ssl=1 "Absolute and Relative Distance in a Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Absolute and Relative Distance in a NetworkIn an **absolute context**, distance in a network is a fixed attribute that does not change. For instance, the absolute distance between New York and Boston is about 310 km. The location of the nodes of such a network is also absolute and fixed. In a **relative context**, distance is a variable attribute that depends on numerous factors, such as the mode being used, its efficiency, regulations (e.g. speed limits), and congestion. Under such circumstances, some nodes of the network are “closer” when that are considered from a relative distance perspective instead of an absolute distance. So, while it took about 44 hours to travel [between New York and Boston](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=455) around 1800, by the end of the 20th century, this figure was just above an hour using air travel (excluding time to go to and from airports). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/absolute-relative-distance-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/absolute-relative-distance-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/absolute-relative-distance-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/absolute-relative-distance-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Modes of Territorial Occupation by Transport Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/territorial-occupation-transportation-networks/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/mode_territorial_occupation_transport.png?resize=900%2C453&ssl=1 "Modes of Territorial Occupation by Transport Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Modes of Territorial Occupation by Transport NetworksTransportation networks have three main footprints: - **Clearly defined and delimited**. Road and rail networks are the most relevant examples of this mode of territorial occupation, with well-established land ownership (rights of way) along their paths. This implies only one exclusive use, and other functions are not possible. Access is only available to the modes using the network. - **Vaguely defined and delimited**. Most maritime and air corridors are vaguely defined, as they often involve only a right of way. Multiple uses of that space are thus permitted. For instance, a maritime corridor can overlap a fishing zone. However, air and port terminals have specific and exclusive land ownership serving one dominant function. - **Without definition**. In many telecommunication networks, overlapping is frequent, and the only authorization required is the right to broadcast from a specific location using a specific frequency. Most cellular networks are established by building a number of broadcast points, each creating its own telecommunication “cell”. The overlay of all these cells creates the illusion of a contiguous service. “No service” zones are also possible. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/territorial-occupation-transportation-networks/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/territorial-occupation-transportation-networks/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/territorial-occupation-transportation-networks/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/territorial-occupation-transportation-networks/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Network Topology and Connectivity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-topology-connectivity/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/topology_network_connectivity2.png?resize=900%2C600&ssl=1 "Network Topology and Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Network Topology and Connectivity*Source: Adapted from William Black (2000) “An Unpopular Essay on Transportation”, Douglas Fleming lecture, Presented at the meeting of the Association of American Geographers, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.* Several alternatives, each having a specific topology, are possible to establish a level of service through a transportation network. Each topology is reflective of a level of network connectivity: - **(A) Minimum network**. Represents the simplest configuration possible to link a set of locations, but also has the longest average path length. - **(B or C) Intermediate network**. Represents a network topology seeking to find a compromise between the shortcomings of minimalism and the excess of redundancies. Hub-and-spoke networks are an attempt to rationalize services using a specific network topology (C). Mesh-like networks are also intermediate forms of connectivity. It is usually the maximum level of connectivity that a physical transport network can take. - **(D) Complete network**. A highly redundant network with a complex topology that has an average path length close to the geographic barrier; the lowest possible average path length. These are usually abstract networks such as social networks and are very rare because of the complexity that this high level of connectivity would entail. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-topology-connectivity/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-topology-connectivity/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-topology-connectivity/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-topology-connectivity/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Rates and Network Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure-transport-rates/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/transport_rates_network2.png?resize=900%2C425&ssl=1 "Transport Rates and Network Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Rates and Network StructureThe network structure can influence transport rates since it shapes the quantity of traffic transiting through links and nodes and, therefore, the potential for economies of scale along these routes. The above example represents locations with similar characteristics (e.g. population) and generating the same amount of traffic. The transport rates will be influenced by the network structure: - **Diffused network**. An extended service would be characterized by low frequencies and smaller shipments, resulting in high rates on many segments of the network. This is particularly the case for peripheral nodes. - **Centralized network**. A centralized network structure (right side) has fewer links and consolidation of flows at hubs. It results in lower rates on several segments that have a higher frequency of service, notably those between hubs. The peripheral nodes have fewer direct connections but are subject to lower rates. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure-transport-rates/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure-transport-rates/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure-transport-rates/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure-transport-rates/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Network Topologies](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typenettopo-2/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/network_topologies2.png?resize=900%2C619&ssl=1 "Network Topologies | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Network TopologiesA network topology is related to the arrangement of nodes and links, particularly how each node is linked with the others: - **Mesh networks**. Networks where there are at least two nodes with two or more links between them. - **Hub-and-spoke networks**. Networks where peripheral nodes are connected to a central node; the hub. - **Linear networks**. Networks where there is only one link between each node pair and where each node has a maximum of two links. - **Tree networks**. Networks that are converging to one node from a hierarchy of other nodes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typenettopo-2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typenettopo-2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typenettopo-2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/typenettopo-2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Impacts of Integration Processes on Networks and Flows](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/spatial-integration-networks-flows/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/integration_networks_flows-scaled.png?resize=900%2C616&ssl=1 "Impacts of Integration Processes on Networks and Flows | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Impacts of Integration Processes on Networks and FlowsTransport networks reflect the political context, namely the capacity to trade. Economies with a high level of economic integration tend to have well-connected networks, while economies with a low level of economic integration tend to have poor connectivity. Before an economic integration process (such as a free trade agreement), networks are structured to service their respective national economies with flows representing this structure (limited crossborder flows). With economic integration, the structure of transportation networks is modified with new cross-border linkages. Flows can also be modified and see their reorientation. In some cases, there could be a relative decline in national flows and a comparative growth of cross-border flows. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/spatial-integration-networks-flows/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/spatial-integration-networks-flows/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/spatial-integration-networks-flows/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/spatial-integration-networks-flows/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Detour Level in a Hub-and-Spoke Network](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/detour-hub-and-spoke-network/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/detour_level_hub_network.png?resize=900%2C903&ssl=1 "Detour Level in a Hub-and-Spoke Network | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Detour Level in a Hub and Spoke NetworkOne of the consequences of a hub-and-spoke network structure is a potentially high level of detour depending upon the origin, destination, and their respective position in relation to the hub. The above hub-and-spoke network is subdivided into four equal quadrants (A, B, C, and D). The level of detour is a direct function of the quadrant of origin and destination. For instance, a connection from node 1 (quadrant A) to another node must go through the hub. Depending on the quadrant of the node of destination, a level of detour is involved. If the destination is in the same quadrant (A in this case), the level of detour is very high. For adjacent quadrants (B and D), the level of detour is average. In contrast, for the opposite quadrant (C) the level of detour is low since the destinations are almost at a right angle in relation to the node of origin. This taxonomy may have important ramifications for transport systems relying on a hub-and-spoke network structure, namely for air transportation. Passengers whose destination airport is in the same quadrant as their airport of origin may find the extra travel time a nuisance and may elect for another mode instead (e.g. driving). The choice of an airline may thus be influenced by the level of detour their hub(s) may impose between the origin and the destination. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/detour-hub-and-spoke-network/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/detour-hub-and-spoke-network/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/detour-hub-and-spoke-network/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/detour-hub-and-spoke-network/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Structural Components of Transport Networks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transport-network-structural-components/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/components_transport_network.png?resize=768%2C324&ssl=1 "Structural Components of Transport Networks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Structural Components of Transport NetworksThe main structural components of transport networks are: - **Node**. Any location that has access to a transportation network. - **Link**. Physical transport infrastructures enabling two nodes to be connected. - **Flow**. The amount of traffic that circulates on a link between two nodes and the amount of traffic going through a node. Flows can thus be modal, intermodal (between modes) and transmodal (between components of the same mode). - **Gateway**. A node that is connecting two different systems of circulation that are usually separate networks (modes) and which acts as a compulsory passage for various flows. An intermodal function is performed so that passengers or freight are transferred from one network to the other. - **Hub.** A node that is handling a substantial amount of traffic and connects elements of the same transport network, or different scales of the network (e.g. regional and international). - **Feeder.** A node that is linked to a hub. It organizes the direction of flows along a corridor and can be considered as a consolidation and distribution point. - **Corridor.** A sequence of nodes and links supporting modal flows of passengers or freight. They are generally concentrated along a communication axis, have a linear orientation and connected to a gateway. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transport-network-structural-components/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transport-network-structural-components/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transport-network-structural-components/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/transport-network-structural-components/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Network Structures](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure/) **Published:** October 30, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/network_structures2.png?resize=900%2C328&ssl=1 "Network Structures | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Network Structures*Source: Adapted from U. Blum and L. Dudley (2001) Report of the 109 round table on transport economics, Transport and Economic Development, European Conference of Transport Ministers.* Transportation networks are designed to offer a level of service which is related to their structure. Conceptually, three basic network structures can be designed to link the same locations: - **Centralized**. One center has high accessibility and thus represents the dominant element of the network and the spatial structure it supports. This is the common characteristic of hub and spoke networks. - **Decentralized**. Although the center is still the point of highest accessibility, the network is structured so that sub-centers also have significant levels of accessibility. - **Distributed**. No center has a level of accessibility significantly different from the others, which implies a high connectivity level and redundancy. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/geography-of-transportation-networks/network-structure/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Risks in Global Supply Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/supply-chain-risks/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/risks_global_supply_chains2.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Risks in Global Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Risks in Global Supply Chains*Source: adapted from Manuj, I. and J.T. Mentzer, (2008) “Global supply chain risk management strategies”, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 192-223. World Economic Forum (2012) New Models for Addressing Supply Chain and Transport Risk.* The complexity of supply chains requires assessing the types of risks involved and the related factors that may cause them. The risks are interrelated: - **Supply Risks**. Impacts inbound supply, implying that a supply chain cannot meet the demand in terms of quantity and quality of parts and finished goods. The outcome is labeled as a **supply disruption**. - **Demand Risks**. Impacts elements of the outbound supply chain where the extent or the fluctuation of the demand is unexpected. This is labeled as **demand disruption**. - **Operational Risks**. Impacts elements within a supply chain, impairing its ability to supply services, parts, or finished goods within the standard requirements of time, cost, and quality. **Transportation disruptions** are one of the most salient operational risks. The most significant factors impacting supply chain risks are environmental, geopolitical, economic, and technological. Each factor has a probability of causing disruptions within global supply chains (expressed by a survey of 400 executives performed by the World Economic Forum and Accenture), ranging from high to low. There is also a level of mitigation associated with each factor, ranging from uncontrollable, where an actor has no influence on an event and must thus assume the consequences, to controllable, where an actor has a good level of influence on the event itself and may thus able to mitigate more effectively some of its aspects. The main factors are: - **Environmental**. Considered to be factors that have the highest probability of occurrence and that can be the least effectively mitigated since they tend to be uncontrollable. Natural disasters (e.g. earthquakes) and extreme weather are within this category, including potential sea level rises. [Pandemics](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8869) are low probability events, but once they occur, they become high-impact events. - **Geopolitical**. Several geopolitical factors tend to have a high probability, namely conflicts and trade restrictions. Still, supply chain actors have a level of influence on the outcome by electing locations that are less prone to these risks and by influencing policy. - **Economic**. The most significant economic factors relate to demand shocks, often associated with sudden political or economic changes. Price volatility is also a concern since it has an important impact on input costs. Like geopolitical factors, supply chain actors have a level of influence on the outcome. For instance, trade restrictions arbitrarily imposed by governments can have important impacts. Still, the industry is able to either comply or put pressure to have these restrictions changed if they are judged to be unacceptable. - **Technological**. Transport infrastructure failures are fairly rare, so the most salient technological concern involves ICT disruptions. As supply chain management increasingly relies on information technologies for its management and operations, any information system failure has important ramifications. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/supply-chain-risks/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/supply-chain-risks/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/supply-chain-risks/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/supply-chain-risks/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation Infrastructures and their Constraints](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-infrastructures-constraints/) **Published:** December 1, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_infrastructures_constraints2.png?resize=900%2C432&ssl=1 "Transportation Infrastructures and their Constraints | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Infrastructures and their ConstraintsThe construction, maintenance, and operation of transportation infrastructures are subject to five major types of constraints. - **Physical and environmental**. Conventional physical constraints, such as topography and hydrography, have enduring impacts on transport infrastructure. They impose [absolute and relative barriers](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=353) that have shaped the development of transportation infrastructure for centuries. Any physical constraints impose higher construction and maintenance costs that can only be justified by higher economic and social opportunities the infrastructure may confer. Transportation network density and connectivity are usually at their highest in areas having low physical constraints, underlining the standard geographical influence on mobility and productivity. Climate constraints and weather disruptions are also constraining transportation infrastructure by increasing their construction and maintenance costs as well as impairing operations. - **Demand**. Transport infrastructures are designed to meet a specific demand level by offering a defined capacity and level of service. For instance, a road segment can handle a specific number of vehicles per hour, or a port has the capacity to transship a defined quantity of cargo per work shift. Variations in the demand, often linked with seasonality, can create bottlenecks as parts of the network are not able to support additional volumes. Peak periods of traffic activity are often above the design capacity of the supporting infrastructure, creating delays. This also concerns accidents creating disruptions that have a higher probability to occur at high-traffic locations within the transport network. - **Financing**. Transportation infrastructures are capital intensive, and securing financing can constrain their development or even their maintenance. Allocating scarce resources for transportation infrastructure requires careful consideration of the expected economic and social benefits. If these benefits are uncertain, infrastructure development could be impaired, which is particularly the case for peripheral areas. For some infrastructure, such as rail, airports, and port terminals, the private sector is willing to commit capital since the return on investment can be estimated. For other infrastructures, namely roads, the public sector can invest using a taxation base but with limited expectations of direct recovery of invested funds as the infrastructure is provided on the ground of public service. The joint availability of private and public funding can be a constraint in the development of transport infrastructure. - **Construction and maintenance**. The construction and maintenance of transport infrastructure are intensive in construction, maintenance, and repair activities. These activities create disruptions in existing operations by reducing the available capacity (e.g. lane closure) and reducing operational speed. They require the organization of labor, equipment, and material resources that may not be readily available on-site and would require to be brought in, which comes at a cost. This is particularly the case in remote areas or developing economies where labor, equipment, and materials cannot be sourced locally. - **Regulations**. Regulations impose restrictions on how transport infrastructure can be developed, owned, and operated, namely through compliance. Compliance with environmental regulations has become an important constraint in infrastructure development, adding costs and delays. Pressures from advocacy groups that increasingly see transport infrastructure negatively also impose additional costs, delays, and even the abandonment of transport infrastructure projects. The promoter of a transport infrastructure project may therefore face a multiplicity of regulations and advocacy groups. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-infrastructures-constraints/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-infrastructures-constraints/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-infrastructures-constraints/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-spatial-organization/transportation-infrastructures-constraints/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Passengers Mobility Transition](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mobility-transition-passengers/) **Published:** December 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/passenger_mobility_transition.png?resize=900%2C499&ssl=1 "Passengers Mobility Transition | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Passengers Mobility TransitionEconomic development, which usually involves a transition from a rural, to an industrial and post-industrial society, is also linked with transitions in passenger mobility. A core aspect of this transition concerns moving from non-motorized (mainly walking) to motorized forms of transportation. The above figure represents a generic model of this transition regarding the respective share of collective versus individual mobility and non-motorized versus motorized mobility. The initial stage involves the development of collective forms of transportation (tramways, subways, buses), while individual forms of transportation (mainly the automobile) become prevalent at a later stage of economic development. This is particularly linked with the growth of individual incomes, where at some point, individual motorized mobility becomes affordable to a large share of the population. While in developed economies (e.g. North America and Western Europe), this transition took place over several decades, if not a century, many developing economies are experiencing a fast mobility transition, which is placing pressure on their transport systems. It remains to be seen how the balance between individual and collective, as well as motorized and non-motorized, will pan itself out in the future. It is expected that collective and non-motorized forms of mobility will play a greater role in an increasingly urbanized world where sustainability issues are more prevalent. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mobility-transition-passengers/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mobility-transition-passengers/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mobility-transition-passengers/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/mobility-transition-passengers/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Digital Mobility as a Service](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mobility-as-a-service/) **Published:** June 3, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mobility_as_service2.png?resize=900%2C484&ssl=1 "Digital Mobility as a Service | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Digital Mobility as a Service*Source: adapted from International Transport Forum (2018) Blockchain and Beyond: Encoding 21st Century Transport, Paris: OECD.* The term **mobility as a service** (or the **digitalization of mobility**) is used to label the bundling of transportation services to users through an information technology platform. Conventionally, transportation service providers tended to operate within their respective silos, and it could be difficult for a user to move across different modes (services). Each developed its own information systems to manage its operations and related activities. These systems were designed for intra-agency use, but the information was not usually shared with other stakeholders. Thus, each transportation service provider was trying to optimize its services and market share even if more efficient transport alternatives could be available in some cases. This standard model is being challenged. Urban congestion, difficulties in providing additional transport infrastructure, inflexible and regulated public transit agencies, and the [diffusion of ICT](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1713) created an environment suitable for the digitalization of mobility. It includes three major layers: - **Transportation service providers**. They include operators of transportation and distribution assets supporting mobility, namely government agencies maintaining roads and bridges and collecting tolls. Transit agencies are also a core component because of the diversity of assets they operate, such as buses, rail systems, and subways. Parking represents an important asset, including the public control of curb parking and privately owned parking facilities. Trucking companies involved in urban deliveries are of growing importance, particularly in the context of e-commerce and home deliveries (the digitalization of retail). The most complex transportation service provider is individual automobile users, which outside taxi and ride-sharing services are highly disorganized but with predictable behavior (e.g. commuting). They represent one of the most significant assets to be digitalized with navigation assistance and automation. - **IT (data and communication) service providers**. They include the physical infrastructure of ICT, such as servers, cable, and wireless networks. Through these networks, relevant information such as services, fares, schedules, origins, destinations, and capacity can be retrieved. Application Programming Interface (API) defines communication methods that enable retrieving public or permissioned information in real-time according to pre-defined standards. Large cloud-stored datasets (big data) can therefore be made available. A challenge remains the willingness of transportation service providers to make this information available to third parties. - **Mobility service providers**. By accessing the large multimodal datasets, mobility service providers are third parties able to construct customized solutions based upon virtual agents that query options based on time, modal, locational, and price constraints. The mobility service provider aggregates the information available from transportation service providers in a digital platform that is able to provide relevant choices for its users. These users can be individuals looking for solutions for their own mobility, corporations looking for larger-scale mobility solutions for their workforce, but also for the freight deliveries they generate. Public authorities can also use mobility service providers as part of their regulatory function, to monitor performance, plan infrastructure, collect taxes and assess safety and compliance. One of the earliest forms of implementation of mobility as a service involved tolls, where different toll agencies collaborated to develop common toll collection systems across their network, mainly with the use of RFID tags. Air travel was also disrupted when online travel aggregators started offering online platforms where users could book their own tickets, a service that travel agents dominated until then. This form of disintermediation was far-reaching for the competitiveness of air travel. Bicycle-sharing services were also widely implemented in large metropolitan areas as niche support for mobility. So far, [ride-sharing services](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1649) have been the most effective form of mobility digitalization since they pool a large number of vehicles across entire metropolitan areas. The digitalization of mobility has focused on a single mode (e.g. air travel, ride-sharing). The impacts of mobility as a service paradigm across several modes remain to be seen since they are facing a vast array of challenges. The most salient remains data collection and availability from transportation service providers as well as the coordination of this information into a usable platform. Further, the additional value that can be derived for users of mobility as service platforms remains unclear. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mobility-as-a-service/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mobility-as-a-service/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mobility-as-a-service/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/information-technologies-and-mobility/mobility-as-a-service/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Public / Private Partnership Options for Building Transportation Facilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-options/) **Published:** January 23, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pubic_private_partnership_options.png?resize=900%2C396&ssl=1 "Public / Private Partnership Options for Building Transportation Facilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Public Private Partnership Options for Building Transportation Facilities*Source: adapted from US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (2007) Financing Freight Improvements, Publication #FHWA-HOP-06-108.* The main forms of Public / Private Partnerships (PPP) include: - **Design-Bid-Build**. In the first stage, a contract is awarded to an engineering design firm to set a clear guideline regarding the potential costs, materials, and equipment required to complete a public works project. Then, private contractors are invited to bid on the proposed specifications, which are reviewed by the public entity. The winning contractor then undertakes the construction phase, and once completed, the public sector will perform management and maintenance. All steps are financed by the public sector. - **Private Contract Fee Services**. A common contract structure where the public sector transfers the responsibility of specific services, such as operation and maintenance of public infrastructures, to the private sector. A variety of private firms have specialized in providing services to transport infrastructure, particularly in terms of maintenance, repairs, and upgrades. - **Design-Build**. Similar to the design-bid-build partnership with the exception that they are combined with a single contract. As usual, the public sector owns the infrastructure and bears the responsibility for its financing, operation, and maintenance. - **Build-Operate-Transfer**. While the public sector is responsible for the financing of the infrastructure, a private entity provides for construction and operation. It is also known as a “turnkey” PPP since, after a specified amount of time, the public sector takes over the infrastructure. It can be decided to extend the operation contract to the same operator or have it up for bid. - **Design-Build-Finance-Operate**. The responsibilities for designing, building, financing, and operating the infrastructure fall in the hands of the private sector, but ownership remains public. However, there is some flexibility in the PPP as the respective shares of the financing could come from a pool of public and private interests. Flexibility also takes form in terms of the nature of the financing, which can be capital or in-kind (e.g. land). The expectation is that the contracted debt used to finance transport infrastructure will be recovered by future revenues, which implies that user fees will be applied and that debt (such as bonds) is leveraged by future revenues. - **Build-Own-Operate**. The design, development, financing, building, operation, and maintenance of infrastructure fall completely under the responsibility of the private sector, and this for the duration of the concession, which is dominantly long term. Public sector involvement is limited to the general regulatory framework and assures compliance with the contract terms. One of the purpose of PPP is to [share risks](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8725) about a capital intensive project. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-options/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-options/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-options/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/financing-transportation-infrastructure/public-private-partnership-options/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The North American Intermodal Rail System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-north-america/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Intermodal_System.png?resize=900%2C750&ssl=1 "The North American Intermodal Rail System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The North American Intermodal Rail System*Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. BTS. American Association of Port Authorities.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_NA_Intermodal_System.pdf) The North American rail transport system has a high level of geographical specialization, with large rail carriers servicing substantial regional markets. Each carrier has its own facilities and, thus, its own markets along the segments it controls. The rail system is the outcome of substantial capital investments occurring over several decades with the accumulation of impressive infrastructure and equipment assets. However, such a characteristic created issues about continuity within the North American rail network, particularly in the United States. Mergers have improved this continuity but a limit has been reached in the network size of most rail operators. Attempts have been made to synchronize the interactions between rail operators for long-distance trade with the setting of intermodal unit trains. Often bilateral, trilateral, or even quadrilateral arrangements are made between rail carriers and shipping companies to improve the intermodal interface at the major gateways or points of interlining between major networks. Chicago is the largest interlining center in North America, handling around 10 million TEUs per year, a location at the junction of the Eastern, Western, and Canadian rail systems. Starting with the setting of NAFTA in 1994, rail mergers resulted in the involvement of Canadian and American operators offering cross-border services. Canadian National and Canadian Pacific acquired lines in the United States, enabling better connections with the Chicago hub as well as with New Orleans when CN purchased the Illinois Central Railroad in 1998. Also, in 1998 Kansas City Southern purchased Transportacion Ferroviaria Mexicana to form Kansas City Southern de Mexico, which links the port of Lazaro Cardenas to Kansas City and passes through the main economic centers of Mexico (Mexico City, Monterrey). The outcome is a more integrated North American rail system; the world’s most intensive freight distribution system. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-north-america/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-north-america/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-north-america/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/rail-transportation-pipelines/intermodal-rail-north-america/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Resilience Building Process](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transport-resilience-building-process/) **Published:** December 17, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_resilience_process.png?resize=900%2C446&ssl=1 "Transport Resilience Building Process | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Resilience Building Process*Source: Adapted from UNCTAD (2022) Building Capacity to Manage Risks and Enhance Resilience: A Guidebook for Ports, UNCTAD/TCS/DTL/INF/2022/3.* Devising and implementing a strategy to enhance preparedness and resilience in the face of disruptive events requires five action-oriented steps, involving: 1. The **identification of hazards** from a wide range of natural and anthropogenic disruptions that are specific to the transport system being considered. 2. **Assessing vulnerability and potential impacts** by identifying specific risks, levels of exposure to risks, and the potential consequences of a hazard. 3. **Elaborating response and mitigation measures** involving infrastructure and processes related to management and operations. These measures can aim for prevention and preparedness (before the event), or be responsive and adaptive (after the event), with both aiming to speed up the recovery. 4. **Prioritizing response and mitigation measures** that had been elaborated using prioritization analysis, such as cost-benefit analysis and resource allocation for finance, labor, and other resources. This step will help to focus on the most important strategies. 5. **Implementing response and mitigation measures** that have been prioritized and elaborated through their deployment. Once these measures have been implemented, a **review** process should follow to assess their effectiveness and make any required adjustments that may be required. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transport-resilience-building-process/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transport-resilience-building-process/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transport-resilience-building-process/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/transport-resilience-building-process/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Response Options to a Transport Disruption](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/response-options-transport-disruption/) **Published:** December 17, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/response_options_transport_disruption.png?resize=900%2C461&ssl=1 "Response Options to a Transport Disruption | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Response Options to a Transport Disruption## a. Monitoring and assessment In any unusual emergency, situational information is crucial. Those involved can develop their own solutions or alternatives, such as postponement, modal shift, or merely forfeiting a trip if it is discretionary. If properly informed, consumers and supply chain managers tend to act rationally, which may lessen additional disruptions, damage, and even injuries and the loss of life. Depending on the risk factors involved, it remains fundamental to monitor the situation and assess which parts of the system can be brought partially or wholly online as soon as possible. This, combined with accurate information releases, institutes public confidence that the crisis is well managed while conveying patience and goodwill from those impacted. Even the admittance that limited information is available can be useful as it conveys the message that a disruption has complex ramifications. However, transportation infrastructure operators can be unwilling to share information about the impacts of disruption on their capacity and operations since it can underline existing weaknesses and have competitiveness implications. ## b. Support impacted actors This strategy applies mostly to passenger transportation. For commuting, there should be short-term alternatives to having to commute to a location that is now difficult to access. This can involve teleworking strategies, the postponement of non-essential work tasks, or the setting of alternative work locations. Freight mobility is concerned to the extent that those impacted are likely to need basic supplies, shelter, and fuel. For long-distance movements, particularly for intercontinental flights, there will be stranded passengers with no alternatives, at least in the short term, to head back home. Many may be facing financial difficulties as their travel was budgeted, accommodations paid in advance, and thus have limited means to cope with the additional costs involved. An alternative lodging market should be made available so that those with stretched means can opt for simpler accommodations, down to a cot provided for free in an airport terminal corridor. ## c. Removal of discretionary demand Disruptions, complete or partial, always result in much more transport demand than supply. This should imply a sharp rise in fares, leaving those willing to pay such a high price able to travel or having only the most critical freight being carried. However, since airfares or containership slots are booked in advance at a locked price, discretionary travel may remain even when the system is disrupted, particularly when the disruption is over. However, demand is still facing severe backlogs. Incentives should be provided to remove as much discretionary demand from the system as possible while the disruption and its consequences last. An effective strategy concerns creating a capacity-swapping market, particularly with the help of information technologies. For instance, an airline could contact ticket holders for specific flights and ask them if they could purchase their tickets back at a higher price (or in exchange for a voucher for a future comparable trip) and then resell those tickets at a much higher price on the current market. Those willing to travel at the current market price would thus be able to bid for a seat, and those traveling for discretionary purposes are compensated for opting out. Airlines would thus be able to recover some of the substantial losses in revenue they incur during such disruptions by maximizing their revenue on existing flights. For humanitarian reasons, such as reuniting families or accommodating persons with medical conditions, seats can also be made available by swapping arrangements between high-priority passengers and those being more flexible. A swapping market can also spontaneously emerge through online social networks. ## d. Modal shift Ideally, passengers or freight mobility should shift towards modes that have a higher capacity and resiliency. However, if a public transit system is shut down because of a disruption, it can take several days to be brought back online. Meanwhile, those seeking to commute may be forced to use their automobiles (and carpool), where they would be using public transit under normal circumstances. This exacerbates congestion and may even lead to fuel shortages. For air transport, since most movements remain regional in scale (city pairs of less than 1,000 km apart), it can be expected that passengers will switch to alternative modes, which can be ill-prepared to deal with the sudden demand surge. The market for alternative modes mostly concerns the automobile, rail, buses, and even ferries where the situation warrants. Those alternative modes must react quickly by adding as much capacity as possible, which may occur more effectively if those contingencies are planned in advance. A convergence of passengers towards terminals (rail and bus stations) can create undue crowding and queuing, which could be mitigated by using satellite travel arrangement facilities where passengers could be offered a range of multimodal options that could be booked. Then, a passenger would only need to show up at the terminal before boarding time. There is also a substantial opportunity to remove discretionary travel on alternative modes by creating swapping markets for passengers willing to trade their tickets in exchange for a monetary sum or a voucher valid for future travel. There is, therefore, an opportunity for the alternative mode to gain market share once the crisis is over. For freight, modal shifts over long distances are possible strategies, particularly if it concerns more resilient modes such as rail or maritime transport. For short distances, such as deliveries or terminal hauling, modal shift is less likely since there are limited alternatives. Therefore, deliveries need to be postponed, consolidated, and prioritized. The outcome can be a lack of several consumption goods in local markets. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/response-options-transport-disruption/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/response-options-transport-disruption/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/response-options-transport-disruption/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/response-options-transport-disruption/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Percentage of Respondents Reporting Disruptions to Specific Incidents, 2021](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/respondents-reporting-disruptions-incidents/) **Published:** December 16, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/BCI_respondents_disruptions.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Percentage of Respondents Reporting Disruptions to Specific Incidents, 2021 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Percentage of Respondents Reporting Disruptions to Specific Incidents 2021*Source: Business Continuity Institute (BCI), Supply Chain Resilience Report 2021.* A survey of supply chain managers underlined that in 2021, about two third of the respondents stated that Covid-19 remained a source of supply chain disruption, with human illness as the most common disruption (with 83% of respondents reporting). The loss of talent and skills remains a prevalent issue as employees retire or quit to work for another company. Transport network disruptions are mainly associated with the impacts of demand surges on supply chains that resulted from congested infrastructure such as port terminals. A third of the respondents reported a disruptive cyberattack or a data leak in the prior twelve months. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/respondents-reporting-disruptions-incidents/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/respondents-reporting-disruptions-incidents/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/respondents-reporting-disruptions-incidents/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transportation-and-disasters/respondents-reporting-disruptions-incidents/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Closure of the North American Airspace, September 11, 2001](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/closing-airspace-september-11/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** *Note: Video is provided through YouTube.* At 9:45 AM, Eastern Standard Time, an hour after the first hijacked plane collided with the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York, a complete closure of the North American airspace was ordered. This was the first time in history that the American, as well as the Canadian airspaces, were closed. Domestic flights were ordered to land at the nearest airport. However, this created difficulties for inbound international flights. At that time, the first westbound transatlantic flights were starting to enter the Canadian and American airspaces and could not head back to Europe, lacking enough fuel to do so. About 235 international flights thus landed in Canada, the great majority at Gander, Halifax, and St. John’s, as well as Vancouver for inbound transpacific flights. The airspace was reopened on September 13. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/closing-airspace-september-11/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/closing-airspace-september-11/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/closing-airspace-september-11/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/closing-airspace-september-11/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Security Measures](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-measures/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_security_measures.png?resize=900%2C539&ssl=1 "Transport Security Measures | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Security Measures*Source: adapted from M. van de Voort and A. Rahman (2004) “Securing Global Supply Chains”, Port Technology International, 24th Edition, pp. 67-70.* Implementing transportation security measures requires the following considerations: - **Procedural security measures**. Ensuring that the introduction and removal of cargo from the supply are recorded and can be verified. A similar process applies to passenger transportation, where for the manifest of conveyances such as airplanes and trains is monitored. It also includes the various measures along the transport chain to maintain security, such as cargo and passenger monitoring. - **Physical security measures**. Ensuring that the infrastructures, namely the modes and terminals, are secure in terms of access. - **Employee security measures**. Ensuring that the personnel involved, from management to cargo handling, have been screened and subjected, depending on the sensitivity of the concerned transportation modes, to background checks. - **Cybersecurity measures**. Since the data involved in the management of supply chains has commercial value, it is important that the information and telecommunication systems are secure. Additionally, a tier access structure to the information must be established based upon which information is relevant to whom. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-measures/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-measures/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-measures/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-measures/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Security Dimensions](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-dimensions/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_security_dimensions.png?resize=900%2C544&ssl=1 "Transport Security Dimensions | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Supply Chain Security Dimensions*Source: adapted from M. van de Voort and A. Rahman (2004) “Securing Global Supply Chains”, Port Technology International, 24th Edition, pp. 67-70.* The security of transport systems involves several dimensions: - **Contents**. Ensuring that the cargo being carried is what is stated on the bill of lading or that passengers being carried are those on the manifest. Inspections by custom agencies are commonly undertaken with a variety of methods ranging from a simple direct visual inspection, a random check of cargo elements, or a remote inspection involving scanning (e.g. gamma rays) or sensors (air sample analysis). Discrepancies are likely to trigger additional inspections and further delays. Another quick method is the cross-referencing of the stated cargo contents to identify unusual cargo based on the origin, the carrier, and the destination, which requires a rule-based expert system. International and national security agencies are also maintaining lists of passengers and passenger profiles subject to risks. - **Integrity**. Ensuring that the contents of the cargo remain unchanged between the origin and the destination, which involves ways to detect unauthorized access. Through the usage of locks, alarms, or sensors, unauthorized access is prevented and recorded when taking place. - **Route**. Ensuring that the routing follows the scheduled route and that it remains within secure modes and locations, such as terminals and distribution centers. An unexpected deviation from the route can be subject to an alarm and warrant scrutiny. - **Information**. Ensuring that the information about the cargo or passengers is authenticated and verifiable. This means that critical information cannot be accessed or modified without credentials. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-dimensions/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-dimensions/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-dimensions/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/transport-security-dimensions/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Main Sources of Cyberattacks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/main-sources-cyberattacks/) **Published:** December 15, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sources_cyberattacks.png?resize=900%2C515&ssl=1 "Main Sources of Cyberattacks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Main Sources of Cyberattacks*Source: Adapted from IAPH (2021) Cybersecurity Guidelines for Ports and Port Facilities, Version 1.0, International Association of Ports and Harbors, Tokyo.* Cyberattacks are undertaken by various agents, each having its own motivations and objectives. The core motivation remains financial gains undertaken by specialized criminal groups with the use of ransomware on the rise. Using emails sent to accounts within an organization, the goal is to trick at least one recipient into opening an attachment or opening an embedded link. Once this happens, the malware is activated and tries to propagate through the internal network, infecting as many computers as possible. For ransomware, files on infected computers are encrypted, leaving the system unable to function with a message that offers decryption if a payment is made to a specific cryptocurrency wallet. Other emerging forms of cyberattacks are by activist groups that try to disrupt the IT system of a target organization judged to be representative of a cause it wishes to fight for. This can involve denial of service (DoS) attacks where a server is overwhelmed with multiple requests. In this case, the motivations are not financial, but to damage the reputation of an organization and even disrupt its operations. Since cyberattacks continue to evolve in nature, an organization must continuously adapt to new threats, train personnel, and upgrade its information technology systems. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/main-sources-cyberattacks/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/main-sources-cyberattacks/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/main-sources-cyberattacks/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/main-sources-cyberattacks/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location, World, 2019](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-location-world/) **Published:** December 15, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/thefts_cargo_location_world.png?resize=900%2C373&ssl=1 "Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location, World, 2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location World 2019*Source: BSI & TT Club Cargo Theft Report 2020.* Cargo theft during the transportation process is an enduring issue, in developed and developing economies alike. While the median value of thefts was around $80,000 in North America, it was around $12,000 in Asia. This difference mainly reflects the reported commercial value of the stolen goods. Goods that have an immediate value and a market appeal, such as food and beverage, electronics, and alcohol, are the most common target. In terms of location, in-transit is the most common event, particularly in developing economies where trucks can be hijacked. Theft in rest areas or while the vehicle is parked often represents opportunistic events. Thefts taking place in a warehouse or a freight facility are more complex and require a level of planning. Many thefts are associated with the complicity of a worker, underlining the importance of screening employees. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-location-world/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-location-world/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-location-world/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-location-world/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location, United States, 2016](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-united-states/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/thefts_cargo_location_usa.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location, United States, 2016 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Thefts by Type of Cargo and Location United States 2016*Source: FreightWatch International.* Most of the cargo theft in the United States takes place in gateway areas, particularly around Los Angeles, New York / New Jersey, and South Florida. Electronics and Food / Beverages account for the majority of thefts since this type of cargo readily finds purchasers on the black market. The average theft value is about $500,000 per incident, but this varies by the type of cargo. For instance, pharmaceuticals have the highest theft value per incident, more than $3 million. Truck stops and unsecured facilities account for the dominant locations where thefts take place. Surprisingly, secured parking facilities account for one-quarter of the incidents, underlining a higher level of organization and planning and, on some occasions, the complicity of personnel. Most of the thefts in the United States involve non-violent means where the cargo is stolen as its custodians (e.g. driver, warehouse personnel) are not present or distracted. However, in countries such as Mexico, violent hijacking account for more than 70% of cargo theft incidents. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-safety-security/thefts-type-cargo-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Vicious Circle of Congestion](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/vicious-circle-congestion/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/vicious_circle_congestion.png?resize=900%2C489&ssl=1 "Vicious Circle of Congestion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Vicious Circle of CongestionUrban transportation is a highly dynamic system where one component impacts others, with retroactive (feedback) effects also to be expected. Congestion is a classic example of a feedback loop through **induced demand**. Pressures to transport infrastructure managers (usually the public sector) by different user groups being impacted by congestion may often result in adding new capacity, such as new or wider roads. This new capacity often results in lower friction to mobility, and this may impact urban sprawl as people may trade more space for a similar amount of time. The outcome is likely to be an increase in trip lengths, more trips, and eventually more congestion. Consequently, users, through their modal choices, are recursively influencing the development of the urban transport system. Several motorized cities found themselves in a vicious cycle that triggered an increasing reliance on road transportation and the automobile. This vicious circle can be mitigated if urban population and economic growth stabilize, lifestyles and preferences change, or alternatives such as public transit are more readily available. Irrespective of the location, this vicious cycle remains a challenge for urban planners worldwide. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/vicious-circle-congestion/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/vicious-circle-congestion/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/vicious-circle-congestion/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/vicious-circle-congestion/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Rationale of Transport Privatization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/rationale-transport-privatization/) **Published:** December 13, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rationale_transport_privatization.png?resize=880%2C268&ssl=1 "Rationale of Transport Privatization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Rationale of Transport Privatization*Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. (2013) “Transport Policy Instruments“, in J-P Rodrigue, T. Notteboom and J. Shaw (eds) The Sage Handbook of Transport Studies, London: Sage.* ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/rationale-transport-privatization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/rationale-transport-privatization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/rationale-transport-privatization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/rationale-transport-privatization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Time Horizon and Decision Structure of Transport Planning](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/time-horizon-decision-structure-transport-planning/) **Published:** December 13, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/time_horizon_structure_transport_planning.png?resize=900%2C282&ssl=1 "The Time Horizon and Decision Structure of Transport Planning | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Time Horizon and Decision Structure of Transport Planning### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/time-horizon-decision-structure-transport-planning/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/time-horizon-decision-structure-transport-planning/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/time-horizon-decision-structure-transport-planning/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/time-horizon-decision-structure-transport-planning/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Transport Planning Process](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/the-transport-planning-process/) **Published:** December 12, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_planning_process.png?resize=900%2C491&ssl=1 "The Transport Planning Process | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Transport Planning Process*Source: adapted from Meyer, M. and E. Miller (2000) Urban Transportation Planning, Second Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill.* ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/the-transport-planning-process/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/the-transport-planning-process/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/the-transport-planning-process/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/transport-planning-governance/the-transport-planning-process/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Common Flaws in Forecasting](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/flaws-forecasting/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/common_flaws_forecasting.png?resize=900%2C461&ssl=1 "Common Flaws in Forecasting | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Common Flaws in ForecastingForecasting may not only provide [inaccurate estimates](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1625), but it may also support flaws leading to incorrect interpretations. When forecasting is used to support investment decisions for infrastructure developments, these flaws can be far-reaching in consequences such as fewer returns than expected and longer amortization. The goal is obviously to be able to provide capacity in line with the expected traffic level. There are three conventional flaws in forecasting, particularly when such an exercise takes place within a standard cyclical growth pattern that includes the phases of introduction, acceleration, peak growth, and maturity: - **A. Under-estimation bias**. Forecasting is usually using a reference year from which future trends are extrapolated. Over the short term, there are likely to be limited differences between the forecasted and actual traffic, leading to the impression that the trend is accurate. However, as the growth enters a phase of acceleration, a negative forecasting gap emerges where the level of activity is higher than expected. These biases are common at the beginning of business cycles and are the outcome of a lack of understanding of the growth potential, mostly because of uncertain market conditions. When the forecasting gap becomes too acute, congestion and capacity shortages take place. New forecasting attempts are usually made, which often leads to an overestimation bias. - **B. Over-estimation bias**. During phases of acceleration and peak growth, positive outcomes are expected in the long term concerning the continuation of this growth. However, as growth enters a phase of maturity, a positive gap emerges, leading to less activity than expected. The usage of compounded annual growth forecast methodologies further exaggerates the bias since they assume exponential growth patterns. The over-estimation bias is usually the most far-reaching in consequence since it often leads to an over-investment in capacity. It is supported by the enthusiastic perception of managers and planners that future outcomes and growth are highly positive. - **C. “Return to normal” bias**. On occasion, forecasts are made in a low growth context but assuming a growth trend that took place during peak growth. Such an approach is more of a cognitive dissonance issue with a refusal to see the new context because it is contradictory to institutional or stakeholder interests. The identified flaws are difficult to avoid since, as always, forecasting involves assessing future trends based on incomplete information and uncertain market developments. Yet, recognizing that there are biases may lead to a more pragmatic view of how forecasting fits transportation infrastructure development. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/flaws-forecasting/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/flaws-forecasting/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/flaws-forecasting/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/flaws-forecasting/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Prediction of Future Outcomes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/prediction-future-outcomes/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/prediction_future_outcomes.png?resize=900%2C561&ssl=1 "The Prediction of Future Outcomes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Prediction of Future OutcomesForecasting is contingent upon **predictability,** where a result is expected to be consistently observed, and **uncertainty**, which is the level of potential deviation from expected results. The prediction of a future outcome, such as the traffic level (e.g. port or airport terminal, transit ridership) logically experiences a decline in predictability and a proportional increase in uncertainty as longer time frames are being considered. This exercise falls into three main dimensions: - **Forecasting**. Commonly using a trend of past observations and trying to infer this trend into the future. It assumes that the parameters related to an outcome remain constant and, as such, that its extrapolation is a relatively simple exercise using time series methods (e.g. moving average and compounded annual growth). These models also express uncertainty as growing confidence intervals. Once uncertainty reaches a level that is higher than predictability, forecasting ceases to be a relevant exercise, which requires scenario building. Depending on the level of predictability of what is being forecasted (some trends are more volatile than others), a timeframe of 5 years is usually considered within the realm of reasonable forecasting. In addition, forecasting is subject to [biases](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1629) that can under or over-estimate trends. - **Scenario building**. Tries to predict future outcomes by changing an array of parameters, with each change part of a specific scenario. A common strategy is to present the future within the realm of low, medium, and high growth scenarios and apply these scenarios to forecasting by changing the annual growth rate. Scenario building does not remove uncertainty but may improve predictability by considering a set of possibilities. There is no formal time frame for scenario building, but 10 to 15 years can be considered acceptable. - **Speculations**. At some point, the level of uncertainty is such that any prediction enters the realm of speculation. Quantitative methods lose much of their relevance, and under such circumstances, the future must be seen mainly as a speculative exercise about what may or may not take place. A common problem is that forecasting often makes predictions within a speculative time frame using a quantitative methodology to claim a high level of predictability while this predictability is very low. Any forecast looking more than 10 years into the future should be considered speculative. **Scale** has an important impact on predictability as forecasting traffic for a single terminal is much more uncertain than for a region. Some outcomes are obviously easier to forecast than others as they have shown a greater level of stability and predictability in the past. For instance, demographic trends tend to be stable, shifting slowly and not subject to radical changes. An important challenge resides in the planning time frame of megaprojects such as port or airport infrastructure. The delay between the decision to go ahead with the construction and the beginning of operations can easily last 5 years or longer. During that time, traffic expectations assumed by forecasting may have substantially changed. Further, the lifespan of most transport infrastructures can span decades, making predictions about their future use speculative. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/prediction-future-outcomes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/prediction-future-outcomes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/prediction-future-outcomes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/conclusion/future-transportation-systems/prediction-future-outcomes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Common Problems Linked with Government Intervention](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/common-problems-intervention/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/problems_government_intervention.png?resize=900%2C638&ssl=1 "Common Problems Linked with Government Intervention | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Common Problems Linked with Government InterventionGovernment policy is often the object of criticism over several types of issues associated with a level of dysfunction and the burden it imposes. For instance, bureaucracies may impose administrative burdens and have a regulatory reflex with the perception that most problems can be fixed by an appropriate policy. When policies lead to unintended consequences, governments tend to avoid taking responsibility or blame and use administrative complexity to diffuse accountability. Policies tend to create market distortions and misallocations that divert capital into non-productive assets such as regulatory and compliance mechanisms. Corruption can also be an issue with the abuse of public power to coerce and confiscate. An emerging form of corruption concerns the relations between governments and large politically connected firms that are using these relations to gain benefits such as large government contracts or the control of the regulatory process to prevent or undermine competition. The outcome can be large rent-seeking schemes with the purpose of extracting as much revenue as possible while limiting innovation and quality improvements. The relations between large financial firms, central banks, and governments are reflective of this form of corruption. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/common-problems-intervention/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/common-problems-intervention/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/common-problems-intervention/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/common-problems-intervention/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Improving Urban Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-urban/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_urban_logistics.png?resize=900%2C572&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Improving Urban Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Improving Last Mile LogisticsThere are several tools behind the setting of national logistics policies. Improving last-mile logistics with city logistics strategies is a neglected element of a national logistics policy. Many final deliveries are taking place in congested contexts with difficulties accessing the final destination, including parking. The most common strategies involve: - **G.1. Rationalization of deliveries**. Change the conditions where urban deliveries occur, such as the time of day (to avoid peak hours and even during the night) and access to on-street parking. This improves the use of existing transport assets in highly congested areas. Building routes and delivery schedules so that there is a better match of pickups and deliveries. However, rationalizing urban deliveries comes with additional delivery costs and delays. - **G.2. Urban freight facilities**. Facilities adapted to urban freight distribution and where consolidation, sorting, and deconsolidation activities are performed in high-density urban areas, close to the points of final delivery. In addition to improving the efficiency (time and energy consumption) of urban deliveries, the supports as well the development of e-commerce that leans toward home deliveries. This strategy also comes with additional delivery costs and delays. - **G.3. Modal adaptation**. The use of vehicles more suited for urban deliveries, such as smaller vans and even cargo bicycles. The higher the density, the smaller the load unity, but the greater the frequency. This can also involve converting to alternative sources of energy, such as compressed natural gas or electric vehicles, to reduce congestion, pollution, and energy consumption, as well as reducing disruptions (such as noise) in local communities. This strategy also involves additional delivery costs and delays. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-urban/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-urban/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-urban/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-urban/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Supporting Digitalization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-information/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_digitalization.png?resize=900%2C572&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Supporting Digitalization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Supporting DigitalizationThere are several tools behind the setting of national logistics policies. Digitalization strategies such as freight portals (single windows) and port community systems provide crucial support to the decision-making process. The most common strategies involve the following: - **F.1. Electronic documentation**. Complex business processes support the transaction-rich environment related to freight distribution, which conventionally generates large amounts of paper documents. Many internal business processes have been digitalized (e.g. inventory management), leading to productivity improvements along supply chains. The fast growth of the data handled lend to the setting of electronic data exchange protocols, within the branches of corporate entities, but the requirements to more efficiently convey information between the actors involved led to more open standards such as EDI. Blockchains are an evolution of this concept by enabling the setting of digital ledger systems that are unalterable. - **F.2. Freight platforms**. Creates an exchange market for logistics services, which improves the interactions between the providers and consumers of logistics services. Transport assets and facilities should be more efficiently used, with, for instance, fewer empty backhauls. A freight portal also enables the participation of small and medium-sized firms since the barriers of entry are less cumbersome. The main risk involves the creation of a two-tier market if large providers of logistics services do not take part or are using their own platforms. Port community systems represent a specific freight portal generally used through the jurisdiction of a port authority. It makes available logistical information among the actors involved in port-related freight distribution, which should promote competitiveness in port-related services and coordination between the major actors. Its efficiency is mainly derived from the integration of customs procedures with port terminal operations, with the transactions taking place under a single window. It is possible to track cargo and transport assets. A risk in implementing port community systems is related to cybersecurity since commercial and customs transactions can be the object of fraud. - **F3. Automation**. Automation can involve vehicles and terminals. Vehicles such as trucks, delivery vans, trains, and ships can be equipped with sensors reporting a wide array of attributes related to their operations (location, speed, engine condition). Routing and navigation are particularly notable forms of digitalization as they enable much improved operations considering existing constraints such as congestion and the temporal availability of terminal capacity. A more complex step in digitalization involves vehicle automation. Infrastructure includes the physical support of transportation activities such as roadways, terminals, and distribution centers. They can be equipped with sensors to monitor their use and condition, which allows for more effective traffic management systems to optimize their scarce capacity. Terminal automation, such as for ports and distribution centers, is an ongoing digitalization paradigm. Among the core benefits of automation are improved productivity through longer and more consistent asset utilization and improved safety. - **F.4. Freight tracking and visibility**. Cargo or their load units (such as containers) can be equipped with various tracking and reporting devices. This can range from a simple bar or QR code that can be scanned, to RFID tags that can be queried continuously by an array of sensors providing real-time information about the location (GPS) and conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure, humidity). The development of sensor networks such as Position, Navigation, and Timing systems (PNT) and Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). This revolution is particularly relevant for the container, which is a unit that needs to be monitored along complex intermodal transport chains. Effective tracking and visibility allow supply chain managers to manage capacity more effectively and synchronize supply chain segments. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-information/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-information/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-information/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-information/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Promoting Sustainable Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-niche/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_promoting_sustainable_logistics.png?resize=900%2C572&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Promoting Sustainable Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Promoting Sustainable LogisticsThere are several tools behind the setting of national logistics policies. Developing sustainable niche logistics activities with infrastructures and services promoting unique comparative advantages, including green logistics strategies, often represents an overlooked potential. The most common strategies involve: - **E.1. Green logistics standards**. Assist the certification of firms and products to global environmental standards and certification schemes, which opens new market opportunities as well as improves the environmental impacts of the logistics sector. Common approaches concern the certified carriers (fewer emissions; energy efficiency) and certified distribution facilities (energy efficiency; lower footprint). All of the above reduces the material and energy losses associated with logistics but implies additional compliance and certification costs that could undermine competitiveness. - **E.2. Decarbonization**. A generic strategy focusing on removing carbon emissions by the transportation sector, mostly through a shift to fuels that emit less carbon, such as natural gas, or carbon-free fuels, such as hydrogen or electricity. Common approaches concern supporting research and development of low-carbon transport technologies, subsidizing preferred low or non-carbon fuels, supporting the setting of alternative distribution and fueling networks, and scaling out high-carbon emission fuels and vehicles through regulations. This risk is that the desired option is picked up by policy, which may turn out to be unsustainable and could impose high costs and regulatory burdens. - **E.3. Circular economy / Reverse logistics**. Develop recycling and reuse capabilities within supply chains, enabling the recovery of recycled materials. This can help expand the national recycling industry and meet sustainability goals. However, recycling usually implies additional costs that may be uncompetitive with national or international resource providers. A circular economy approach is more complex as it tries to support, particularly through regulations, the sharing of assets, and the reuse and recycling of components as part of a comprehensive sustainable strategy. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-niche/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-niche/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-niche/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-niche/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Developing Logistics Capabilities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-capabilities/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_logistics_capabilities.png?resize=900%2C572&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Developing Logistics Capabilities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Developing Logistics CapabilitiesThere are several tools behind the setting of national logistics policies. Developing human resources in logistics by expanding labor and logistical services skills is of high importance to support national capabilities. The most common strategies involve: - **D.1. Labor training and certification**. A common concern in the logistics industry is a lack of labor, both in numbers and qualifications. The goal is to promote logistics as a career path and expand the capabilities of the labor through various technical training schemes responding to the needs of the industry. This labor pool should address the expected demand and qualifications that are recognized by the industry, particularly at the international level. In return, the improvement in labor productivity and skills is expected to provide incentives to attract logistics firms and their multiplying effects. As always, in the labor market, the risk is not being able to provide the required labor, particularly in terms of capabilities. Further, the transport and logistics sector is competing with other segments of the labor market to attract talent, implying difficulties in recruiting, particularly for information technologies. - **D.2. Research centers and incubators**. Creating research capabilities to address supply chain challenges is an important foundation for national logistics policies, particularly over the long term. It helps identify trends, gaps, and opportunities in the sector and better inform stakeholders. The availability of a pool of researchers, consultants, and managers would be able to provide logistical innovations suitable for the national market. This requires a level of collaboration with logistics firms so that the research can both help improve the level of scientific knowledge, but as well be of practical use to the industry. The risk usually involves politically biased research that focuses on issues of a limited number of stakeholders. Another strategy is developing small and medium-sized logistics firms taking advantage of opportunities the market is slow to provide. This usually takes place by developing entrepreneurial capabilities, particularly for new firms, including access to technologies and investment capital. It is expected that the provision of specialized logistics services, such as 3PLs and 4PLs, will be expanded, improving the competitiveness of the national logistics market. The risk would be biased towards developing sectors favored by policy instead of those with actual market potential. - **D.3. Monitoring and data collection**. The performance of logistics systems and informed public policy relies on the accurate collection and analysis of key performance indicators (KPIs). The collection of such data can be undertaken by an agency mandated by the government (or an office of the government), which can be monitored and reported. KPIs can be used for benchmarking the industry, setting performance expectations, and assessing the effectiveness of logistics policies. This also enables better coordination better research and policy since reliable data is available for analytical purposes. Inaccurate or biased information could represent a risk, and the industry could respond to benchmarking by organizing its operations to optimize the preferred criteria. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-capabilities/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-capabilities/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-capabilities/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-capabilities/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Providing a Footprint for Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-land-base/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_footprint_logistics.png?resize=900%2C573&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Providing a Footprint for Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Providing a Land Base for Logistics Infrastructure and ActivitiesThere are several tools behind the setting of national logistics policies. Logistics requires a footprint and the location of this footprint plays a significant part in their efficiency. Providing a land base for logistics infrastructures and activities involves setting logistics zones and inland ports as well as other supportive activities. The most common strategies involve: - **C.1. Logistics park**. Develop zones supporting logistics activities, particularly through the principle of economies of agglomeration. This lowers operational costs (e.g. joint infrastructures and utilities) and promotes the setting of logistics services firms. However, the setting of logistics parks has been a strategy followed by many jurisdictions with the expectation of job creation and economic growth, leading in many cases to an oversupply of logistics zones, many with a low occupancy level. Another risk is that the designed function of the logistics park may not meet market demands. - **C.2. Port-centric logistics zone**. Develop logistics zones adjacent to port terminal facilities to use the scarce port real estate more effectively. This facilitates imports and exports since the zone has direct access to the port terminal, often not requiring to use of terminal gates. Since much of the freight does not need to enter the local transport system, this can help reduce congestion. However, the land base nearby port facilities usually has higher land values, which can put some pressure on the returns on investment and the type of activities that can be located. - **C.3. Inland / dry port**. Develop inland terminal facilities co-located with logistics zones to service a regional market more effectively. They can promote a modal shift if the facility is connected by rail or barge services. This may also reduce port terminal congestion if some port-related logistical activities are relocated inland. An important aspect relates to the setting of economies of scale along the corridor, enabling the inland facility to be serviced more efficiently. Similar co-location benefits to those observed at port-centric logistics zones are taking place at inland ports. Like logistics zones, there is a risk of the duplication of inland ports and having many facilities underused. - **C.4. Inland container depot**. Develop facilities for users to pick up and drop containers outside terminals, including chassis. This helps provide a pool of containers for exporters, potentially reducing port congestion since import containers do not need to be brought back to the terminal facility. The main risk involves an unsuitable location for the inland container depot, leading to longer drayage costs. There may also not be enough demand to support such a facility, which is more suitable when a terminal (port) reaches a high level of activity. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-land-base/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-land-base/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-land-base/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-land-base/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Improving the Connectivity of Logistics](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-global-interface/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_improving_connectivity_logistics.png?resize=900%2C573&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Improving the Connectivity of Logistics | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Improving the Global Interface of LogisticsThere are several tools behind the setting of national logistics policies. One relates to improving the global interface of logistics with gateways, corridors, and hinterland accessibility strategies. If this interface is improved, it is expected that the national economy is more competitive and can attract international investments. The most common strategies involve: - **B.1 National gateways**. Develop gateways as locations of national strategic interest by improving the capacity and throughput of main terminal facilities such as ports, airports, and (intermodal) rail yards. This requires identifying and coordinating transport infrastructure investments in the gateway area, particularly where are the main physical bottlenecks, and how they could be remediated. The stated goal is often to facilitate modal shift (to modes that are judged to be of higher performance, such as rail and barge) and effective inland freight distribution. The risk usually involves competing national gateways vying for public capital, which can lead to the duplication of infrastructure investments. - **B.2. Terminals/Distribution centers**. Support physical and operational developments of transportation terminals and distribution centers, such as through direct investments, subsidies, and regulations. This allows the coordination of regional transportation more effectively since terminal operators can undertake strategic alliances and ventures with hinterland transport operators and distributional facilities. Further, operational attributes such as operating hours can be improved. The productivity of terminal operators and distribution centers is also associated with a reduction in employment since they tend to be more mechanized and automated. - **B.3. Intermodal regulations**. Open logistical infrastructures such as terminal facilities to global investments, which is a strategy that often takes place when some of the infrastructures are publicly owned and operated. The goal is to improve operational productivity by allowing private firms that would provide investment in infrastructure, equipment, and automation, as well as deliver more effective management. The ownership of some infrastructure can remain public, particularly if important to support national interests (such as ports, airports, and key highways). Deregulation often results in better efficiency and connectivity, as the focus of private transport and logistics firms is profit-driven and less politicized. The risk involves a potential loss of control in terminal development since they are managed by private interests. Deregulation or privatization enables the entry of new providers that may be more innovative and competitive. The drawback is that there is a likely reduction in employment due to efficiency improvements. The profits made from private operations may be expatriated and invested elsewhere. The balance between the strategies of global logistics firms and national interests over the level of control, and influence on supply chains requires constant monitoring. - **B.4. Corridors and connectors development**. Develop or expand key road and rail transport connectors between gateways and the logistical activities they service. This goes beyond capacity issues but also includes coordination and performance. Key capacity bottlenecks are improved by coordinating the operations and investments of various stakeholders. Corridor development focus on improving hinterland transport capacity, efficiency, and reliability with the expectation that economic opportunities will arise. Along corridors, better asset utilization and modal shift are expected to occur, but there is a risk of duplication of connectors if several jurisdictions are involved. The setting of national gateways is often coordinated with corridor development strategies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-global-interface/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-global-interface/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-global-interface/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-global-interface/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Improving Trade Facilitation](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-trade-facilitation/) **Published:** December 16, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/national_logistics_policies_trade_facilitation.png?resize=900%2C573&ssl=1 "Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies: Improving Trade Facilitation | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Coordination and Implementation of National Logistics Policies Improving Trade FacilitationThere are several tools behind the setting of national logistics policies. One concerns improving trade facilitation through simplifying, harmonizing, and standardizing trade procedures and setting free zones. The most common strategies involve the following: - **A.1. Customs and cross-border management**. At the main ports of entry, improve the effectiveness of customs operations with single window initiatives where traders can use a single platform to manage all the customs-related procedures electronically. The expected benefits concern faster clearance for international trade and improved time performance of supply chains. Supply chain security has remained an ongoing issue with an evolution of the risks. The most visible emerging form of security threat is cybersecurity, to which transportation infrastructures, carriers, and terminal operators are particularly vulnerable since it is a transnational issue. Using various scanning and sensing technologies can also improve supply chain security and the accuracy of the levied customs duties. In the case a land border is involved, there is a possibility to develop cross-border logistics, particularly since cross-border flows tend to be at a larger scale and atomized (individuals and vehicles) than flows handled by ports (single ships with large consignments). This, however, brings the risk of cybersecurity and hacking of the platform. - **A.2. Trusted trader program**. Coordinate customs operations with trusted importers and exporters that are assessed to present a lower security risk. Becoming a trusted trader requires meeting a series of standards and is subject to auditing. The main benefits are reduced inspections for imported cargo and faster clearance (fast lane), and exemptions from random non-intrusive inspections. The outcome is an improved level of service for customs since they can focus on traders and cargoes that may present a higher risk. This may create a two tiers system in customs clearance between those who are ‘trusted’ and those who are not. If the auditing process is not recurrent, there could be a decline in the level of compliance of the trusted traders with the risk of losing such a status. - **A.3. Free zones (Foreign trade zones)**. The creation of special customs zones that are under a different customs regime. This has been a common strategy used for the promotion of exports since it enables a level of flexibility in the use of national customs regulations. The common aspect is to reduce or eliminate duties on goods traded and manufactured within the free zone as long as they are exported. The expectation is to attract internationally-focused logistics activities using the free zone as a base of operation. The main risks concern the loss of customs duty income and the potential for infractions in customs regulations since the zone is subject to less oversight. - **A.4. Customs corridors**. Expand the ease of moving cargo between customs entities within the same country (ports of entry, free trade zones), particularly when a large amount of transshipment is involved. This supports a better level of integration between major gateways such as ports and airports and enables additional flexibility in supply chain management since cargo can be repositioned without the administrative burden of going through customs and having to pay duties for simply being in transit. This is particularly relevant in supporting the function of a transshipment hub for maritime or air cargoes. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-trade-facilitation/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-trade-facilitation/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-trade-facilitation/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policies-trade-facilitation/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Logistics Policy Bottlenecks](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policy-bottlenecks/) **Published:** September 11, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/logistics_policy_bottlenecks.png?resize=900%2C724&ssl=1 "Logistics Policy Bottlenecks | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Logistics Policy BottlenecksAn approach to logistics policies is to mitigate critical bottlenecks. Because bottlenecks occur at specific locations or jurisdictions (such as a port authority) and over a specific function (e.g. customs clearance), they involve challenges that can be identified and mitigated, therefore promoting logistics performance. They represent key areas (in a geographical and functional sense) of investment and policy intervention involving different stakeholders and levels of government. - **Capacity bottlenecks**. The lack of transport infrastructure investment in response to international trade growth (or in anticipation of trade growth) is a common issue, particularly in developing economies. Like most transport networks, congestion tends to be specific to some locations, like access to a key terminal facility or strategic road intersections. This leads to opportunities to identify these bottlenecks and provide additional capacity. The port has been a recurring capacity bottleneck, particularly in developing economies. The most common issues concerning port capacity bottlenecks are insufficient port facilities, the inability of port infrastructure to keep up with the demand, or in some cases, there is sufficient port capacity, but the lack of effective connectors to the hinterland. Connectors are a particularly salient issue. The focus on the development of road infrastructure is leading to more reliable inland accessibility, but this is only one component of a more comprehensive infrastructure strategy. Rail transportation, particularly intermodal, offers high-capacity connectors, but requires substantial investments in infrastructure and stable volumes. With a few exceptions (e.g. North America), rail networks tend to be geographically fragmented and focusing on traditional sectors such as natural resources and their exports. The lack of intermodal and/or co-modal vision in the development of infrastructure is likely to create capacity bottlenecks as trade volumes grow and as hinterland logistics become more sensitive to capacity and reliability issues. - **Operational bottlenecks**. A gap between the increasingly stringent logistical requirements of the private sector seeking the optimization of its supply chains and the capabilities of infrastructure, service providers (e.g. transport, warehousing, customs brokerage), and public policy to cope with these requirements. This is particularly the case in sectors that involve time-sensitive planning of production and distribution, such as the automotive industry and perishable products (cold chain). There are operational performance standards in terms of time and reliability that need to be met. Ports having operational limitations (e.g. crane movements, yard management, and gate operations) impose bottlenecks on the supply chains they service through additional costs and delays. Efficient port management and operation are underlined as core factors of logistical performance. - **Institutional bottlenecks**. The institutional setting and mindset are often creating a bottleneck in the development of logistics activities. Institutions are often ill-prepared to cope with the requirements of supply chains, global firms, private entrepreneurs, and foreign investments. National institutional attention tends to focus on trade facilitation but usually overlooks the logistical challenges they may create, such as improved performance requirements. Freight logistics are not part of national strategy or policy, which is reflected in public sector visions that are generally unimodal or focusing on a single large project (known as the silo effect). This often reflects a lack of coordination and cooperation among institutions having oversight on elements of transport and logistics chains. - **Skills bottlenecks**. The lack of training and qualification of the labor force is a recurring issue that impairs the growth of logistics. Logistics employment opportunities involve a wide range of functions and skills that are often not provided by available technical training programs. Although many firms provide on-the-job training, the possibility to tap a more qualified labor pool and establish partnerships with local educational institutions is a common strategy benefiting both the private and public sectors. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policy-bottlenecks/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policy-bottlenecks/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policy-bottlenecks/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/applications/logistics-policies/logistics-policy-bottlenecks/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Shift in Public Transport Policy Perspective](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/shift-transport-policy/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/public_transport_policy_perspective.png?resize=900%2C586&ssl=1 "Shift in Public Transport Policy Perspective | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Shift in Public Transport Policy Perspective*Source: adapted from I-95 Corridor Coalition.* The private sector plays a significant role in changing public policy, which is mimicking the changes that have taken place in the strategies of private transport corporations. The public policy environment is thus shifting towards the consideration of transport as a set of interacting modes instead of independent modes (silo mentality). There is a growing recognition that the scale at which economic processes are taking place is regional and global, as well as approaches seeking a consensus among stakeholders. Coalitions where private and public stakeholders related to a transport system are established to ensure consensus about proper policies are increasingly common. Yet, the public financing of transportation infrastructure is getting problematic, implying that different forms of public/private partnerships are being sought for additional revenue generation. Over this issue, each case can implies a different balance of public and private actors, so different financing approaches have to be considered. Since privatization has been the dominant paradigm, users are increasingly seen as customers to whom mobility is subject to market forces. This implies a certain level of service at a price structure subject to accountability. Users reflect a public subsidy perspective, while customers are elements of a revenue generation strategy. A plan-based policy approach, which has commonly failed to capture the correct market and technological trends, is being replaced by a more liberal market approach where deregulation leaves transportation more subject to price signals. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/shift-transport-policy/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/shift-transport-policy/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/shift-transport-policy/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/shift-transport-policy/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Regulations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/transport-regulations/) **Published:** December 15, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_regulations2.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Transport Regulations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport RegulationsThere are three major types of transport regulations: - **Economic regulations**. Mainly impact issues related to capital allocation and pricing in terms of who is responsible for the construction and maintenance of transport infrastructures and assets. Can also involve the routes that transport operators are allowed to use, which ports of entry are available for international flows, and various price controls concerning the inputs of the transport sector. Rules can also be applied concerning barriers of entry, what can be owned, and competition. - **Operating regulations**. Mainly impact issues related to the operation of the transport system, including speed limits and permits. Cargo and passenger security is also an important aspect commonly falling under the jurisdiction of the public sector. - **Environmental regulations**. Mainly impact the externalities of transport operations, such as noise and the emission of pollutants. Carbon emissions have taken a more central role with a focus on decarbonization. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/transport-regulations/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/transport-regulations/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/transport-regulations/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter9/nature-transport-policy/transport-regulations/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Bullwhip Effect on Supply Chains](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/bullwhip-effect-supply-chains/) **Published:** November 25, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bullwhip_effect.png?resize=900%2C464&ssl=1 "The Bullwhip Effect on Supply Chains | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Bullwhip Effect on Supply ChainsA common risk in a supply chain is referred to as the “**bullwhip effect**“, where demand can back-propagate and create an undue level of procurement; an amplification. For instance, a customer may order 10 units of a product from a retailer. The retailer may order 12 units from a distributor to ensure additional inventory (and anticipate higher future demand). In turn, a distributor may order 15 units from a manufacturer, which could order components from suppliers to make 20 units. In this case, a 10-unit order has resulted in the procurement of 20 units. The bullwhip effect can have an important effect during a supply chain disruption, as uncertain conditions may incite much higher orders than the actual long-term demand, which are amplified further upstream the supply chain. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/bullwhip-effect-supply-chains/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/bullwhip-effect-supply-chains/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/bullwhip-effect-supply-chains/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/bullwhip-effect-supply-chains/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Supply Chain and its Cycles](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/supply-chain-cycles/) **Published:** April 19, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/supply_chain_cycles.png?resize=900%2C261&ssl=1 "The Supply Chain and its Cycles | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Supply Chain and its CyclesA simplistic representation of a supply chain involves a sequence of five stages, from suppliers to the final customer. Each of these stages has its own cycle, which is a sequence of operations and transactions taking place between two stages. - A **customer order cycle** takes place when orders are processed, prepared, and shipped. For retail, the customer is often picking orders from the store inventory (shelves), which represents the point of final demand. In a [pull logistics system](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4443), customer order cycles are particularly important since they are the driver of further cycles upstream of the supply chain. - The **replenishment cycle** concerns the steps involved to re-supply outlets from distribution centers and wholesalers. Each outlet places orders to distributors based on its own fluctuation of demand. It involves inventory that has already been manufactured and stored in different locations and parts of the supply chain. - The **manufacturing cycle** concerns the scheduling of production in light of the demand from distributors. - The **procurement cycle** involves the scheduling of the components required in the manufacturing of a good. The frequency of the cycles varies, which is reflected in their respective inventory levels. Usually, retailers have significant fluctuations in their inventory levels since stores only carry a limited amount of inventory (on shelves and in the limited back store area). Once the inventory reaches a critical level, a new inventory is ordered from the distributor, which triggers a replenishment cycle. Since distributors have a higher level of inventory, the replenishment cycle tends to fluctuate less. This is even more so for manufacturers since they tend to have a relatively stable output due to the fixed capabilities of their equipment, labor, and tools. Still, flexible manufacturing systems are able to accommodate higher fluctuations. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/supply-chain-cycles/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/supply-chain-cycles/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/supply-chain-cycles/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/supply-chain-cycles/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transit Fare for the New York City Subway, 1904-2015 (inflation adjusted)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/subway-fare-new-york/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transit_fare_new_york.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Transit Fare for the New York City Subway, 1904-2015 (inflation adjusted) | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transit Fare for the New York City Subway 1904 2015 inflation adjusted*Source: New York Transit Museum. Note: Inflation adjusted figures are not available before 1913.* Since it was opened in 1904, the New York City subway operated on a flat fare structure, implying that fares are irrespective of the distance traveled. Adjusted to inflation, fares have substantially increased over the years, the 2015 base fare ($2.75) being about three times the fare structure that was prevailing until the 1950s ($0.75 2015 dollars). Still, most users are not paying the full base fare, but get various discounts, namely the monthly unlimited rides plan. In the history of the New York City subway, 1947 was the lowest year for fare adjusted to inflation, as users paid the equivalent of $0.53 in 2015 dollars (the fare was 5 cents, the same since the opening of the system in 1904). Then, in the 1950s and 1960s, the fare structure was around $1.25 2015 dollars (15 to 20 cents). Although fares were increased several times in the 1970s and 1980s, these increases only permitted the fare to keep up with the high inflation rates that prevailed around that time. The fare structure remained around $1.75 in 2015 dollars for that period. From the 1990s, the pattern changed as fare increases systematically surpassed the rate of inflation. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/subway-fare-new-york/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/subway-fare-new-york/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/subway-fare-new-york/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/subway-fare-new-york/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Farebox Recovery Ratio, Selected Transit Systems](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/world-farebox-ratio/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-World-Farebox-Ratio.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Farebox Recovery Ratio, Selected Transit Systems | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Farebox Recovery Ratio Selected Transit Systems*Source: Adapted from Wikipedia.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_World-Farebox-Ratio.pdf) Very few public transit systems worldwide generate enough revenue from fares to cover operating expenses. This is even more challenging if capital costs, such as infrastructure investments, are considered. The profitability of a transit system is usually measured using the farebox recovery ratio, which is the difference between the revenue collected as user fares and operating expenses. A ratio above 1 underlines that more fares are collected than operating expenses, implying that the transit system is profitable. A ratio under 1 underlines that the transit system has to be subsidized. Because of their low farebox recovery ratios, most transit systems rely heavily on government subsidies, even in a transit-friendly environment such as Europe. Asian transit systems usually have a high farebox recovery ratio, mostly because of high urban densities and a greater share of commuting assumed by public transit. North American and European transit systems have lower farebox recovery ratios and have thus highly subsidized transit systems. Transit systems in a highly car-dependent setting usually have ratios below 0.25. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/world-farebox-ratio/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/world-farebox-ratio/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/world-farebox-ratio/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/world-farebox-ratio/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Average Daily Commuting Time, Selected Countries, 2015 (in minutes)](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/average-commuting-time/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/daily_commuting_time_minutes.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Commuting Time (One Way), Selected Metropolitan Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Average Commuting Time One Way Selected Metropolitan Areas*Source: OECD.* The average commuting time in most European countries is 38 minutes, as opposed to 25 minutes in the United States. This figure goes as high as 45 minutes in the United Kingdom, the most congested commuting in Europe. However, in Asian cities, the daily commuting time tends to be the highest, mainly the outcome of associated high congestion and density. Paradoxically, commuting times tend to be higher when public transit has a higher share of total trips. Public transit commuting trips are, on average, 30 to 40% longer time-wise compared to automobile trips. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/average-commuting-time/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/average-commuting-time/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/average-commuting-time/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/average-commuting-time/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Recurring Congestion](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/recurring-congestion/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/recurring_congestion.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Recurring Congestion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Recurring CongestionA typical daily urban commuting profile involves two peak hours, morning and afternoon, which are recurring, particularly on weekdays and less so on weekends. Under normal circumstances, the transport system has a fixed capacity that remains constant throughout the day. This capacity is an outcome of road characteristics, such as the number of lanes and operational constraints, such as the mix of vehicles and speed limits. Congestion occurs when the amount of traffic exceeds the design capacity, which is commonly the place during the morning and the afternoon peak hours. An issue relates to the level of capacity that should be provided considering the daily distribution of traffic. High capacity would be expensive to provide, although it would offer the benefits of limited congestion. Limited capacity would be linked with enduring congestion and negative economic externalities. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/recurring-congestion/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/recurring-congestion/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/recurring-congestion/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/recurring-congestion/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Major Sources of Recurring and Non-Recurring Congestion](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/sources-congestion-recurring/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/recurring_non_recurring_congestion2.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Major Sources of Recurring and Non-Recurring Congestion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Major Sources of Recurring and Non Recurring Congestion*Source: ECMT (2007) Managing Urban Traffic Congestion, ISBN 978-92-821-0128-5.* Outside capacity issues related to recurring transportation (commuting) the majority of congestion sources are linked to non-recurring and difficult-to-predict events, namely accidents and weather conditions. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/sources-congestion-recurring/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/sources-congestion-recurring/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/sources-congestion-recurring/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/sources-congestion-recurring/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Parking Accumulation by Land Use by Time of the Day](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-land-use/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/parking_accumulation_land_use.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Parking Accumulation by Land Use by Time of the Day | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Parking Accumulation by Land Use by Time of the Day*Source: Meyer, M.D. (1997) A Toolbox for Alleviating Traffic Congestion and Enhancing Mobility, Institute of Transportation Engineers, ISBN: 0935403124.* The activity pattern of each land use is linked with the temporal usage of parking facilities. Residential parking usage is lower during working hours as many workers drive to their workplaces. Office and retail parking show a level of usage corresponding to peak commuting hours and restaurant parking use peaks during the evening. The challenge is to provide enough parking spaces for peak use, which will not be used for the majority of the day. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-land-use/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-land-use/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-land-use/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-land-use/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Traffic Index, Selected Metropolitan Areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-index-metropolitan-areas/) **Published:** May 12, 2020 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Urban-Congestion.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Traffic Index, Selected Metropolitan Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Traffic Index Selected Metropolitan Areas*Source: TomTom Traffic Index. Note: The traffic index is the percentage of additional time a road trip takes due to congestion. It is estimated from base travel time under uncongested conditions within the same metropolitan area.* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Global_Urban_Congestion.pdf) Road traffic conditions vary substantially across cities, with the sample underlining an average congestion level of 32%. This means that it takes, on average, 32% more time to travel within metropolitan areas due to congestion than under uncongested conditions. The most congested cities tend to have higher densities, but this factor alone is insufficient to explain the variations. Congestion is not necessarily a function of the level of motorization as many American cities are highly motorized but have lower congestion levels than their European and Asian counterparts. An important factor is the capacity of the metropolitan area to cope with the growth of motorization, which can be impeded by the existing urban spatial structure, inefficient urban planning, and the lack of capital for investments in infrastructure. Therefore, large metropolitan areas in many developing economies, such as India, Mexico, and Thailand, have among the world’s worst traffic conditions, as their infrastructure did not keep up with the sharp rise in car ownership. Paradoxically, congestion is often an expression of economic growth as rising incomes allow urban residents to afford an automobile, adding vehicles to an urban road system designed for a much lower load level. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-index-metropolitan-areas/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-index-metropolitan-areas/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-index-metropolitan-areas/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-index-metropolitan-areas/?share=reddit) - --- ### [GDP Per Capita and Congestion Index, Selected Cities](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/urban-density-speed/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/gdp_capita_congestion_index.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "GDP Per Capita and Congestion Index, Selected Cities | The Geography of Transport Systems ")GDP Per Capita and Congestion Index Selected Cities*Source: ITF Transport Outlook 2017, Chapter 5, Mobility in Cities. Note: A congestion index of 0.5 implies that a driver loses 50% more time during morning peak hours because of congestion. Cities are those of more than 300,000 people, which includes 1,335 cases.* There is a strong relationship between economic development and urban congestion levels. Low-income economies have fewer resources available to provide infrastructures such as highways and public transit systems, which is associated with high congestion levels. As income levels increase, more collective resources are available, which improves the quality and efficiency of urban transport infrastructure, implying that large cities with high-income populations have a transit system There is also the matter of density and congestion. As the urban setting becomes denser, congestion tends to impair circulation with average driving speed a good indication of congestion. While densities lower than 50,000 people per square km tend to have a limited effect on driving speed, as soon as this threshold is reached, driving speeds substantially decline. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/urban-density-speed/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/urban-density-speed/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/urban-density-speed/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/urban-density-speed/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Travel Time Index per Year, Selected American Cities, 1982-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states-2/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/time_travel_index_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Travel Time Index, Selected American Cities, 1982-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Travel Time Index per Year Selected American Cities 1982 2020*Source: Texas Transportation Institute. The Urban Mobility Study.* The Travel Time Index (TTI) is the ratio of the travel time during peak hours over the time it takes to undertake the same trip under normal conditions. A value around and above 1 is indicative of recurring congestion levels since the travel time is above the average. TTI is [related to the urban population](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5117), implying that the larger the population, the higher the congestion level. In the 1980s and the 1990s congestion significantly deteriorated in major American cities. Major factors linked with this deterioration were related to urban sprawl, a growing fleet of trucks and automobiles, and the difficulty in providing additional road infrastructures. Commuters were spending an [increasing amount of hours](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5180) in congestion. However, since the mid-2000s, the TTI has leveled off and has declined in some cases. This underlines a saturation in vehicle ownership and use. The Covid-19 pandemic impacted travel time as congestion levels were reduced due to fewer commuting flows. The index dropped by 11%. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states-2/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states-2/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states-2/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states-2/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Average Number of Hours of Delay per Auto Commuter per Year, Selected American Cities, 1982-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-delays-united-states/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/delay_auto_commuter_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Hours of Delay per Motor Commuter, Selected American Cities, 1982-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Average Number of Hours of Delay per Motor Commuter per Year Selected American Cities 1982 2020*Source: Texas Transportation Institute. The Urban Mobility Report.* Due to congestion, most large American cities have experienced increasing delays since the 1980s. Traffic delays are commonly measured by comparing the actual/observed travel time (dominantly during commuting) with the theoretical travel time, which is the amount of time it would take if there were no delays. The difference equals the amount of time lost because of traffic delays. On average, motor commuters in large metropolitan areas in the United States lost 54 hours due to congestion in 2019, the equivalent of 6.5 workdays of 8 hours. While traffic delays have been stabilizing in the majority of the largest cities between 2000 and 2008, the last decade has seen ongoing growth in the average delay per motor commuter. For instance, for Washington, this figure used to be 86 hours in 2008 and went down to 105 hours in 2019. This is in part due to an improvement in economic conditions, particularly lower employment rates. Other factors are also at play such as the aging of the population and fewer suburban developments. The COvid-19 pandemic had dramatic effects on congestion in cities across the world. Lockdown measures and work-from-home schemes removed large volumes of commuting traffic. In the United States, yearly delay per auto commuter declined by a factor of 50%. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-delays-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-delays-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-delays-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/traffic-delays-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Automobile Dependency and Urban Spatial Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/level-automobile-dependency/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/automobile_dependency_structure.png?resize=900%2C434&ssl=1 "Automobile Dependency and Urban Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Automobile Dependency and Urban Spatial StructureWhen automobile trips exceed 75% of all personal trips (such as commuting and shopping), a situation of high automobile dependency is observed. In the [United States](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5169), 76% of all commuting trips are done using an automobile. Automobile dependency ranges from low where a set of transportation alternatives (transit) are available to high where little if no alternatives outside automobile use are possible. Automobile dependency is also linked with the urban spatial structure as cities with a low level of car dependency tend to be centralized with high levels of density, while cities with a high level of automobile dependency are dispersed. Low density and high automobile dependency are therefore interrelated. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/level-automobile-dependency/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/level-automobile-dependency/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/level-automobile-dependency/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/level-automobile-dependency/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Land Use Footprint in Selected Central Areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-footprint-central-areas/) **Published:** March 31, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/land_use_footprint.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Land Use Footprint in Selected Central Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Land Use Footprint in Selected Central Areas*Source: Adapted from C. Gardner (2011) Old Urbanist. Density on the Ground: Cities and Building Coverage.* *Refers to density within city limits. Includes open parking areas. The larger share of parks in New York is attributed to Central Park.* The footprint occupied by urban activities is reflective of their importance and priority. The ratio between built-up areas and roads (which includes outdoor parking areas) shows notable variations among cities. This is mainly attributable to historical factors, particularly if the road grid was planned before the diffusion of the automobile as well as the share of public transit systems, such as subways, in central areas. A city with more than 35% of its surface devoted to roads and parking lots is defined as a highly motorized city. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-footprint-central-areas/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-footprint-central-areas/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-footprint-central-areas/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-footprint-central-areas/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Factors Contributing to the Growth of Driving](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/factors-driving-growth/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/growth_factors_driving_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Factors Contributing to the Growth of Driving in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Factors Contributing to the Growth of Driving in the United States*Source: Texas Transport Institute.* A set of factors have converged to explain the growth in the usage of the automobile in the United States and for most contexts where motorization is occurring, as measured in vehicle-miles: - **Demographic growth** is a straightforward factor as the more people, the more potential drivers and thus of vehicles. - The **increase in trip length** as well as the **number of trips** often relates to changes in the urban spatial structure. Particularly, suburbanization involves longer trips. - A **decrease in vehicle occupancy** is commonly linked with limited opportunities for carpooling and trip chaining. This leads to a large number of trips taking place as single occupancy. - In view of **limited alternatives** or the low convenience of public transit, many will switch to driving. Switching to driving is also the outcome of rising standards of living, where a larger segment of the population reaches an income level where an automobile becomes affordable. Similar factors apply in other countries, but the proportions would be different. For instance, in developing economies the increase in population and income would be among the most significant factors explaining the growth in vehicle-miles. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/factors-driving-growth/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/factors-driving-growth/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/factors-driving-growth/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/factors-driving-growth/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Geographical Paradoxes behind Urban Transport Challenges](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/geographical-paradoxes-urban-transport/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/paradoxes_urban_transport_problems.png?resize=900%2C301&ssl=1 "Geographical Paradoxes behind Urban Transport Challenges | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Geographical Paradoxes behind Urban Transport ChallengesMotorization leads to three main paradoxes: - **Spatial specialization**. The differentiation between land uses resulting from high specialization levels generates passengers and freight flows. For instance, a central business district focuses on administrative, institutional, and commercial activities, which depend on passengers and freight flows generated by other land uses, such as residential districts. Thus, the more complex and specialized the land use patterns across an urban area, the more complex their associated movements. Also, efficient and affordable transportation will enhance the differentiation of land uses and favors traffic growth. - **Spatial agglomeration**. Since cities benefit from agglomeration economies, adjacent activities benefit from increased interactions, which also decrease transport costs. As the level of agglomeration increases, transport externalities tend to decline. However, at some level, agglomeration induces congestion, which increases the costs of mobility. This can reach a point where the advantages of agglomeration are overthrown by the costs of congestion. - **Road footprint**. The main goal of transportation is obviously to overcome the friction of distance by providing a level of mobility. However, transportation, like any urban function, has a spatial footprint. While space is scarce (and consequently valuable) in urban areas, transportation requirements are at their highest levels. A compromise is thus sought between the available transportation footprint and the desired level of mobility. While low levels of road footprint may be linked with a prevalence of urban transit, high levels of road footprint are linked with automobile dependency. The above figure illustrates externalities related to three simplified urban settings of specialization, agglomeration, and road imprint: - A **motorized city**, such as in North America, tends to have a high level of specialization as most land uses are mono-functional. The level of agglomeration is low, which implies that many streets are underused and that distances between activities are on average significant. The road footprint is high, especially compared to the level of density, implying a high level of automobile dependency. - A **hybrid city**, such as in Europe, is fairly multifunctional with different economic functions sharing the same space. Typically, residential and locally oriented commercial functions are closely integrated. This is linked with a good level of agglomeration, enabling a significant share of movements to occur locally either by walking or by public transit. This characteristic implies a lower level of road footprint as movements occur on more spatially efficient urban transportation modes. - A **transit-oriented city** shares several commonalities with East Asian and European cities in terms of the level of specialization. However, higher levels of agglomeration tend to imply higher levels of congestion which is reinforced by a lower road footprint. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/geographical-paradoxes-urban-transport/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/geographical-paradoxes-urban-transport/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/geographical-paradoxes-urban-transport/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/geographical-paradoxes-urban-transport/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Pedestrian Fatalities, United States, 1990-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatalities-united-states/) **Published:** March 3, 2019 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/pedestrian_fatalities_united_states.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Pedestrian Fatalities, United States, 1990-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Pedestrian Fatalities United States 1990 2020*Source: Governors Highway Safety Association.* Like in many developed economies, the number of pedestrian fatalities has been steadily decreasing in the United States, particularly because of better vehicle design and road safety (e.g. more pedestrian crossings and speed limits in high-risk areas). However, since the late 2000s, the trend has reversed, and pedestrian fatalities are on the rise. Although there is no single factor behind this trend, the following elements can be brought forward: - Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs) account for a [growing share](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7340) of vehicles in circulation, implying a sharp rise in pedestrian fatalities involving an SUV (50% of all cases). Since SUVs are larger and take more time to stop, they are more likely than cars to kill pedestrians if a collision occurs. - A larger share of the population is living in suburbia, where there are fewer amenities for pedestrians and where the average driving speed is higher. - More difficult to assess are the distractions conveyed to both pedestrians and drivers by portable devices such as smartphones. Although the usage of portable devices while driving is forbidden by most laws, transgressions are common. Further, pedestrians are increasingly distracted while walking by using their devices. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatalities-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatalities-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatalities-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/pedestrian-fatalities-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Principles of Modal Shift](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-shift-principles/) **Published:** November 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/principles_modal_shif2t.png?resize=900%2C469&ssl=1 "Principles of Modal Shift | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Principles of Modal ShiftA modal shift occurs when one mode has a comparative advantage in a similar market over another. Comparative advantages can take various forms, such as costs, capacity, time, flexibility, or reliability. Depending on what is being transported, the importance of each of these factors varies. For some, time is of the essence, and a modal shift will occur if the new mode offers time improvements or if new capacity is no longer available, while for others, it is mostly a matter of costs. The outcome is a series of decisions made by firms (for freight) or individuals (for passengers) to shift to another mode if **comparative advantages** are significant. Comparative advantages can involve the difference in cost, time, level of service, comfort, or reliability between two modes. The higher it is, the more there is an incentive to switch from one mode to another. Modal shift often takes place over three phases: - **Inertia phase**. Initially, a strong level of inertia makes modal shift a process that is slow and sometimes difficult to perceive. Only a few users may experiment with modal shift, often as part of a publicly subsidized initiative (e.g. government providing the initial funding to develop services). Inertia implies that the modal shift is often much less significant than expected, leading to a situation of underperformance. The reasons behind inertia are linked to accumulated investments and assets in the existing mode and its terminals. Thus, a corporation will be reluctant to relinquish those assets even if the comparative advantages of the other mode are significant. Management preferences also play a role as expertise was developed to manage flows in the previous mode, and may be difficult to adapt to the new mode. The negotiation of new procedures and contracts are tasks corporations are unwilling to undertake if the benefits are not readily apparent. The fact that the existing mode has proven reliability, even if costly, will also play in delaying modal shift. This may incite **modal rationalization**, implying that, given the existing (or perceived) competition, additional efforts will be made to more effectively use the assets of the existing mode. Supply chain management can also contribute to this inertia since a modal shift is likely to result in a change in the load unit, the frequency, and the time performance of freight flows, which requires an adjustment in practices. The early adopters of a modal shift are thus likely to be new transport ventures willing to risk testing an unproven distribution system for the potential rewards of being the first. Enterprises already facing high transport costs on the existing mode, or entities receiving government subsidies (or being regulated) to do so are also potential early adopters. - **Modal shift phase**. This phase represents a fast transition from one mode to another as the industry acknowledges its advantages. The new transport mode evolves from a situation of underperformance to one of overperformance. As inertia involved a modal shift taking place at a rate lower than expected, the transition rate is faster than expected during the modal shift phase. This can take users and authorities by surprise with a rush to cope with additional infrastructure investments. A significant drop in comparative advantages triggers the end of this phase, as the new mode gets increasingly congested and as the previous mode loses traffic (closing of some routes, rationalization, price-cutting, etc.). - **Maturity phase**. At this point, the market potential is reached with a new equilibrium in modal shares. Their respective comparative advantages are of lesser variance, implying limited incentives to shift cargo or passengers. The focus becomes modal rationalization; using modal assets more effectively. A modal shift takes place in a context where from a macro perspective, there are changes in the transport supply. From a micro perspective, the decisions (behavior) of individuals (passengers) and firms (mostly for freight) are also changing. It is bound to endogenous factors (decisions by users and transport providers) as well as exogenous factors (cost factors, regulations, and policies). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-shift-principles/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-shift-principles/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-shift-principles/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter5/transportation-modes-modal-competition-modal-shift/modal-shift-principles/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Road Fatalities per 100,000 People, Selected Countries](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/road-fatalities-selected-countries/) **Published:** December 5, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/road_fatalities_countries.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Road Fatalities per 100,000 People, Selected Countries | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Road Fatalities per 100000 People Selected Countries*Source: OECD/ITF.* Worldwide, more than 1 million people are killed, and several million are injured each year due to transport accidents. Still, since the 1970s, the fatality rate has substantially declined. In many cases, the fatality rate has been cut by more than half (five times less in some instances, such as France and Germany). Road accidents are complex phenomena where several variables often interact (alcohol, network quality, speed, meteorological conditions, driver behavior, etc.). It is possible, however, to group these variables into three major factors: the vehicle, the user, and the environment (infrastructure and traffic). Road safety is an important social stakeholder, and insecurity is a major and often disregarded problem. Therefore, progress occurs in matters of health (emergency) and technology (roads, vehicles). However, the risk itself is not contained because mobility has increased. Drivers generally tend to underestimate the probability of accidents or overestimate their ability to avoid them. Risk perception becomes a compromise between regulation, psychological tendencies, and the social values of individuals. Other variables must be considered, such as those which diminish awareness and reflexes; aging, fatigue, medicine, drugs, alcohol, etc. Speed is also a factor in road accident risk. The greater the speed, the greater the driving difficulties and the corresponding risk to the driver’s (and other users’) safety. Human factors can be attributed to no less than 85% of accidents. It would thus be impossible to transform the road into a completely safe transport medium. Given the complexity of the issue with regard to the people, location, and causes implied in accidents, there cannot exist a single all-encompassing approach. Regulation of vehicles, infrastructure, and behavior (education, prevention, awareness, and repression) is commonly perceived as a tool to achieve such a purpose. Road safety acts can influence the consequences of accidents. For example, speed limits, better public transit management, restricted time periods for automobile access in specific neighborhoods, and lanes are methods assumed to have an impact. It is important to remember that the amount of accidents is proportional to mobility, and it is impossible to reduce one without directly impacting the other. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/road-fatalities-selected-countries/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/road-fatalities-selected-countries/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/road-fatalities-selected-countries/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter3/transportation-and-society/road-fatalities-selected-countries/?share=reddit) - --- ### [City Size and Travel Time Index, United States, 1982-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/city_size_tti_usa.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "City Size and Roadway Congestion Index, United States, 1982-2020 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")City Size and Roadway Congestion Index United States 1982 2020*Source: Texas Transportation Institute, The Urban Mobility Report.* The Travel Time Index (TTI) is a congestion measure developed by the Texas Transportation Institute and applied to a sample of 101 American cities on a yearly basis since 1982. The TTI is the ratio of the time a trip takes during rush hour over the same trip in regular conditions. A value around and above 1 is indicative of recurring congestion levels. Still, it should be interpreted with caution as it applies to the city-wide area and that congestion tends to occur at specific locations. Additionally, it does not reflect the level of operational efficiency a city may have for its congestion management such as high occupancy lanes or accident management schemes. The above graph plots all the sample cities for all annual observations (1982-2020), implying that each city has 42 observations. There is a relationship between the urban population and TTI (R2 of 0.45). For several cities, the TTI has deteriorated at a faster rate than the population growth over the sampled period. The sample also reveals that around a threshold of 1 million inhabitants a city starts to face recurring congestion. This threshold must be interpreted with caution since cities have a wide range of local characteristics that may impair (e.g. bridges and tunnels) or improve (e.g. a grid of highways) circulation. Inferring this threshold to other cities around the world is also hazardous since they have different densities and modal preferences. Still, it can be assumed that the population threshold could be relatively similar as, for instance, European and Asian cities have higher population densities but lower density of road transport infrastructures than their American counterparts. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/travel-time-index-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Central Business District Monthly Parking Rate, 2011](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-rate-cbd/) **Published:** December 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cbd_parking.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Central Business District Monthly Parking Rate | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Central Business District Monthly Parking Rate 2011*Source: adapted from Colliers International (2011) Global Central Business District Parking Rate Survey.* Several factors contribute to high parking rates in central business districts: - First, the **lack of space** puts pressure on the availability of parking slots. On-street parking is limited and actively discouraged. Providing parking spaces is expensive since it requires setting purposely designed facilities such as underground lots or parking towers. This is a standard land economics supply/demand issue. - Second, the **demand for parking spaces** is even higher in central areas, with financial cities having higher parking rates than other cities, in part because of a larger pool of drivers able to afford personal parking spaces. London is the most expensive city in the world to park into, mainly because of the scarcity of parking spaces and because of the pronounced financial function of the city. - Third, **regulatory constraints** are more extensive in central areas, such as street and off-street parking restrictions, particularly their enforcement. This further places restrictions on the availability of parking spots. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-rate-cbd/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-rate-cbd/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-rate-cbd/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-transport-challenges/parking-rate-cbd/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Suitability of Travel Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/suitability-of-travel-modes/) **Published:** October 26, 2022 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/suitability_travel_modes.png?resize=900%2C558&ssl=1 "Suitability of Travel Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Suitability of Travel Modes*Note: Micromobility refers to modes such as bicycles, e-bikes, and scooters.* ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/suitability-of-travel-modes/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/suitability-of-travel-modes/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/suitability-of-travel-modes/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/suitability-of-travel-modes/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transit and Urban Land Use Impacts](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-land-use-impacts/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transit_urban_land_use.png?resize=900%2C544&ssl=1 "Transit and Urban Land Use Impacts | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transit and Urban Land Use ImpactsThree land use dimensions are impacted by public transit, namely transit access points. These are influenced by the level of transit use: - **Accessibility**. The sole purpose of a transit stop is to provide accessibility to the transit system, such as stops along a bus route or subway station. Land use impacts for the stops are often minimal, if non-existent, with basic facilities to accommodate waiting time, such as shelters. Accessibility defines the local market area of transit service. For instance, for a new residential area, a minimum catchment area of 400 dwelling units or 1000 residents, beyond a 450-meter walking distance (5 minutes) to a transit stop, is often required for an extension of service. In a low transit use environment, accessibility to a transit stop has little if no impact on land use as access is a mere matter of convenience. As the level of transit use increases, accessibility significantly impacts local land use by favoring band-like developments along transit lines, since a growing share of the local population uses transit as a factor of urban mobility. - **Convergence**. This generally applies to more important transit stops, notably rail and subway stations with terminal structures, including waiting areas and basic services. The transit station is a point of convergence of local traffic and often serves more than one mode. The impacts on land use are varied, ranging from park-and-ride facilities to activities that take advantage of flows, such as restaurants and convenience stores, and possibly office activities. The stations have to consider the nature and scale of the generated mobility. Convergence in a low level of transit use implies walking from the vicinity, basic park-and-ride possibilities, and occasional drops and pickups by passenger vehicles. Transit subsystems, such as local buses, rarely converge to stops/terminals in a low transit use environment, since the demand would not justify them. As transit use increases, the convergence function may become significant, with substantial park-and-ride facilities and dedicated local transit routes collecting passengers for the stop/terminal. - **Integration**. Are large, multi-level terminals with well-integrated high-density planning designs. Local land use is consequently highly linked with the transit system, which supports a large share of mobility. The terminal acts as a local central place with its implied hierarchy of land use with adjacent commercial activities. Medium and low-density residential areas are located further away. There are different possible levels of integration, from simple terminal design with little local impact to high integration to local land use where transit is dominant. Significant transit terminals offer opportunities to integrate local land use into transit accessibility. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-land-use-impacts/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-land-use-impacts/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-land-use-impacts/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-land-use-impacts/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Accessibility along a Transit Line](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/accessibility-transit/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/accessibility_transit_line2.png?resize=900%2C420&ssl=1 "Accessibility along a Transit Line | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Accessibility along a Transit LineAssuming a willingness to commute for 30 minutes, a gradual decline in accessibility along a transit line can be observed. If a travel distance of 5 minutes is assumed between each transit stop, then the accessibility radius around the first stop (Ra) will include a 25-minute access time by any mode (walking, public transit, driving, cycling). Each subsequent stop implies a decline of this radius by a factor of 5 minutes. The last stop (e), which is 25 minutes away, would have a radius of 5 minutes. For instance, a commuter wishing to have a commuting time of 30 minutes or less would need to live within a radius of Rc to access stop c. Extending the willingness to commute time will expand the radius around each stop. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/accessibility-transit/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/accessibility-transit/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/accessibility-transit/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/accessibility-transit/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Weekly Distribution of Transit Scheduled Trips and Uber Pickups, Los Angeles](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/weekly-distribution-transit-trips-uber-pickups-los-angeles/) **Published:** April 1, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/uber_trips_los_angeles.png?resize=900%2C228&ssl=1 "Weekly Distribution of Transit Scheduled Trips and Uber Pickups | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Weekly Distribution of Transit Scheduled Trips and Uber Pickups Los Angeles*Source: LA Metro, General Transit Feed Specification GTFS Data. Note: Data is normalized and volumes are not comparable.* There are complex relationships between conventional public transit systems and emerging on-demand ride-sharing services in terms of demand patterns. Ridership for the transit system is reflective of [commuting patterns](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5045), with demand peaks in the morning and afternoon that have the same pattern for each workday. During the weekend, ridership drops, and peak hours are no longer present. Ride-sharing services (here represented as Uber pickups) have relatively different trip demand behavior. During weekdays, they do have a concordance with peak hours, implying that such services are used for commuting, but with a slight lagging effect. The major difference becomes evident as the week progresses, with ride-sharing ridership increasing in the evening (e.g. on Thursdays and Fridays). Saturday evening represents the weekly peak ridership. Therefore, the ridership patterns of ride-sharing services appear more related to social activities than work-based activities. The main factor is that social activities are more spatially diffused, taking place outside peak hours, and less cost-sensitive than commuting. Ride-sharing services are **both competing and complementary** to public transit. They have been particularly [disruptive to the taxi industry](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1649) since they compete over similar mobility patterns. Several large metropolitan areas are implementing strategies to integrate ride-sharing services with public transit, particularly in suburban areas where they can complement mobility and feed public transit (e.g. rail) stations from nearby low-density residential areas. It remains to be seen which mobility pattern ride-sharing services are going to service and how they will fit within urban transport planning strategies. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/weekly-distribution-transit-trips-uber-pickups-los-angeles/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/weekly-distribution-transit-trips-uber-pickups-los-angeles/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/weekly-distribution-transit-trips-uber-pickups-los-angeles/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/weekly-distribution-transit-trips-uber-pickups-los-angeles/?share=reddit) - --- ### [BTS Skytrain, Bangkok](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/skytrain-bangkok/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Bts Skytrain Bangkok](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/bts_skytrain_bangkok.jpg?w=900&ssl=1 "BTS Skytrain, Bangkok | The Geography of Transport Systems ")*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2001.* Many developing economies experienced fast-paced urbanization but were not serviced by a subway system. By the 1980s, the need to develop a rail transit system in Bangkok became urgent as the city’s roadway system became increasingly congested. The Bangkok Mass Transit System, which is an elevated rail system (Skytrain), began operations in 1999. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/skytrain-bangkok/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/skytrain-bangkok/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/skytrain-bangkok/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/skytrain-bangkok/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Components of an Urban Transit System](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/components-urban-transit/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/components_urban_transit_system.png?resize=900%2C390&ssl=1 "Components of an Urban Transit System | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Components of an Urban Transit SystemThe above figure represents a hypothetical urban transit system where each component is designed to provide a specific array of services conferring mobility. Among the defining factors of urban transit services are capacity, frequency, flexibility, costs, and distance between stops: - **Metro (subway) system**. A heavy rail system, often underground in central areas (parts above ground at more peripheral locations), with fixed routes, services, and stations. Transfers between lines or to other components of the transit systems (mainly buses and light rail) are made at connected stations. The frequency of services tends to be uniform throughout the day but may increase during peak hours. Fares are commonly access driven and constant, implying that once a user has entered the system, the distance traveled has no impact on the fare. However, with the application of information technologies in many transit fare systems, zonal/distance-driven fares are becoming more common. - **Bus system**. Characterized by scheduled fixed routes and stops serviced by motorized multiple-passenger vehicles (45 – 80 passengers). Services are often synchronized with other systems, mainly metro and transit rail, where they act as feeders. Express services (or bus rapid transit), using their own right of ways, and only a limited number of stops, can also be available, notably during peak hours. Since the same transit authority often manages metro and bus systems, the user’s fare is usually valid for both systems. - **Transit rail system**. Fixed rail comes into two major types. The first is the tram rail system, which is mainly composed of streetcars (tramways) that are mostly operating in central areas. The second is the commuter rail system, which are passenger trains mainly developed to service peripheral/suburban areas through heavy (faster and longer distances between stations) or light rail systems (slower and shorter distances between stations). The frequency of services is strongly linked with peak hours and traffic tends to be imbalanced because of the influence of commuting. Fares tend to be separate from the transit system and proportional to distance or service zones. - **Shuttle system**. Composed of a number of privately (dominantly) owned services using small buses or vans. Shuttle routes and frequencies tend to be fixed, but can be adapted to fit new situations. They service functions such as expanding mobility along a corridor during peak hours, linking a specific activity center (airport, shopping mall, university campus, industrial zone, hotel, etc.), or aimed at servicing the elderly or people with disabilities. - **Paratransit system**. A flexible and privately owned collective demand-response system composed of minibuses, vans, or shared taxis commonly servicing peripheral and low-density zones. Their key advantage is the possibility of a door-to-door service, less loading and unloading time fewer stops, and more maneuverability in traffic. In cities in developing economies, this system tends to be informal and often services central areas because of the inadequacies or high costs of the formal transit system. - **Taxi system**. Comprises privately owned cars or small vans offering an on-call, individual demand-response system. Fares are commonly a function of a metered distance/time, but sometimes can be negotiated. A taxi system has no fixed routes but is rather servicing an area where a taxi company has the right (permit) to pick up customers. Commonly, rights are issued by a municipality and several companies may be allowed to compete on the same territory. When competition is not permitted, fares are set up by regulations. Information technologies have enabled new forms of on-demand taxi services with demand-matching systems accessible through mobile devices. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/components-urban-transit/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/components-urban-transit/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/components-urban-transit/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/components-urban-transit/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Light Rail Transit, Lyon, France](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/light-rail-lyon/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![Lrt Lyon France](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/IMG_6752.JPG?w=900&ssl=1 "Light Rail Transit, Lyon, France | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Light Rail Transit Lyon France*Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2011.* Light rail transit systems emerged in the 1970s as a replacement and overhaul of streetcar systems that were becoming obsolete. While servicing similar high-density urban areas than their streetcar predecessors, they have the advantage of being longer, faster, and able to carry more passengers, with increased comfort. They commonly use dedicated rights of way and have stations for passengers to embark and disembark. It is common in central areas for light rail lines to share the road with pedestrians and vehicles. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/light-rail-lyon/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/light-rail-lyon/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/light-rail-lyon/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/light-rail-lyon/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Mobility Gaps in Urban Areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/mobility-gaps-urban/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/mobility_gaps_urban_areas2.png?resize=900%2C500&ssl=1 "Mobility Gaps in Urban Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Mobility Gaps in Urban AreasMany cities have two mobility spaces, one which is transit-oriented and usually in central areas with extensions along transit corridors, and the other which is car-oriented and peripheral areas. This duality in mobility can be seen as a mobility gap and can have important impacts on employment opportunities. A mobility-constrained individual (without a car) has access only to employment within reach of public transit. This commonly corresponds to central urban areas that are better serviced by transit. Still, central areas tend to have a large labor market, but deconcentration and suburbanization have resulted in higher employment growth in peripheral areas, some of which are accessible by public transit. A mobile individual (with a car) has access to a wider array of jobs and thus has more choices and opportunities, but parking a vehicle in a central area could incur additional costs. Consequently, accessibility can be a factor of spatial opportunity as jobs may be available, but not easily accessible to a segment of the population. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/mobility-gaps-urban/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/mobility-gaps-urban/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/mobility-gaps-urban/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/mobility-gaps-urban/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Daily Person Miles of Travel per Person by Age and Gender, 2017](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/travel-age-gender/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/person_miles_age_gender.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Daily Person Miles of Travel per Person by Age and Gender, 2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Daily Person Miles of Travel per Person by Age and Gender 2017*Source: US DOT, FHWA (2017) National Household Travel Survey.* There are mobility gaps according to age and gender. The peak mobility age is around 40 years when individuals tend to be in their most productive years and fully employed. Males tend to travel further than females, a gap that can be linked to vocational differences as well as a more conventional role assumed by women in several households. This gap is however less acute among younger age groups where women travel longer distances than men during their college years. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/travel-age-gender/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/travel-age-gender/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/travel-age-gender/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/travel-age-gender/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Urban Travel by Purpose and by Time of the Day in a Typical City](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/urban-travel-trip-purpose/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_travel_purpose.png?resize=880%2C412&ssl=1 "Urban Travel by Purpose and by Time of the Day in a Typical City | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Travel by Purpose and by Time of the Day in a Typical City*Source: adapted from Barber, G. (1995) “Aggregate Characteristics of Urban Travel”, in S. Hanson (ed) The Geography of Urban Transportation, 2nd Edition, New York: The Guilford Press, p. 92.* The above figure is a typical representation of urban travel by purpose and by the time of the day typical city in an advanced economy. It depicts the daily share of each trip by purpose by the time of the day. There are two prevalent peak hours corresponding to home-to-work trips, the morning peak hour around 8h00 (18.5% of all daily work trips), and the afternoon peak hour around 17h00 (13.5% of all daily work trips). Shopping trips mostly occur during the afternoon (11.4% of all daily shopping trips take place around noon), while social and recreational trips mainly occur in the evening (17.5% of all social and recreational trips take place around 21h00). This unequal distribution of movements is often creating [congestion during peak hours](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5207) since the demand will likely exceed the capacity of the urban transport system. Four major strategies can be implemented to alleviate this problem: - **Flexible Work**. Altering the times at which people are arriving and leaving work would level out the distribution of trips. This strategy is difficult to implement for several activities, such as retailing since they require synchronized work shifts and fixed opening hours. - **Land Use Modifications**. Changing the distribution of employment to alleviate traffic in most congested areas and spread the traffic around. Since the 1950s, several activities have been relocated to suburban areas, notably nearby highway interchanges. However, in several instances, this only increased or moved congestion problems elsewhere. Further, the distribution of employment is influenced by economic and accessibility factors. - **Constraining Transport**. Private cars can be denied access to some areas, such as the central business district, or tolls (congestion pricing) can be used to influence behavior. In a number of cities, traffic is getting increasingly controlled, but these measures are usually not highly effective. Therefore, despite possible mitigation strategies, the distribution of urban trips by the time of day has not changed much. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/urban-travel-trip-purpose/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/urban-travel-trip-purpose/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/urban-travel-trip-purpose/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/urban-travel-trip-purpose/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Typical Activity Space of an Urban Working Adult](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/activity-space-adult/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/typical_activity_space_urban.png?resize=900%2C367&ssl=1 "Typical Activity Space of an Urban Working Adult | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Typical Activity Space of an Urban Working AdultUrban trips have a wide [variety of purposes](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5033). The above figure illustrates a typical set of daily trips associated with one employed individual with a child; an activity space (daily spatial behavior). Although the individual is directly involved in passenger movements (in this case as the driver), freight trips are also derived from all these daily activities. - **Passengers trips**. The first trip is concerned with commuting to the place of work. It is combined with dropping off a child at school and then driving to work. At lunchtime, a walking trip to a nearby restaurant is generated. Then, a drive back home and a trip to a shopping mall in the evening where consumption (grocery) and leisure activities are taking place. - **Freight trips**. Many freight trips can be derived from daily home-based and work-based activities. The great majority of these trips are not associated with the activities of a single individual, but usually reflect the aggregate demand of many. For instance, garbage can be picked up from residences, and parcels can be dropped and picked up from an office building, both of which occur along a route. The function of consumption also generates substantial freight flows. For instance, restaurants and shopping malls have to be resupplied, often on a daily basis. The growth of e-commerce has resulted in more home deliveries of parcels. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/activity-space-adult/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/activity-space-adult/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/activity-space-adult/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/activity-space-adult/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Average Annual Person Trips per Household by Trip Purpose, United States, 1983-2017](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/person-trips-household/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/annual_household_trips_united_states.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Annual Person Trips per Household by Trip Purpose, United States, 1983-2017 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Average Annual Person Trips per Household by Trip Purpose United States 1983 2017*Source: US DOT, 2017 National Household Travel Survey.* Each trip is undertaken to satisfy the purpose and the nature of this purpose is illustrative of a very specific mobility context in terms of the time of the day and even to mode used. The above graph provides a breakdown of the main categories of household trips by purpose in the United States. Since most of the population is urban, this distribution reflects the purpose of urban trips. While from the 1980s to the 1990s, the number of trips per household was increasing, reflecting growth in mobility, the number of trips has since then receded. This is particularly the case for shopping and personal trips, which are influenced by. changes brought by the availability of online information and e-commerce. Although different urban settings will have different trip compositions, most of the trips undertaken in urban areas across the world are **work-based**: - **Work**. Commutes performed towards the workplace, which represent approximately 17% of daily commutes. - **Business (work)**. Trips from the workplace to a business destination. - **Personal**. Trips related to personal activities such as restaurants, the library, or the post office. - **Shopping**. Commutes towards any store regardless of its size, merchandise, or whether or not any purchases are made. These commutes represent approximately 18% of all daily travel. - **Social and recreational**. Social trips are related to activities such as visiting family and friends. Recreational trips are performed with the intention of recreation such as cultural or sports events. These trips represent about 27% of daily commutes. - **Education**. Commutes towards a learning establishment by those seeking any type of training, regardless of the level of learning. These commutes represent 10% of the daily travel total. The accumulated total of commutes terminates at home since every commute involves a round trip back home. This is referred to as the **symmetry assumption**; any trip from home is usually accompanied by a corresponding return trip at the end of the day or given activity. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/person-trips-household/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/person-trips-household/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/person-trips-household/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/person-trips-household/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Income and Urban Transport Demand](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/income-urban-transport-demand/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/income_urban_transport_demand2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Income and Urban Transport Demand | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Income and Urban Transport DemandVariations in the urban transport demand by purpose are observed according to income levels. The higher the income, the more trip generated, but each type of trip has a different elasticity. Work-related trips tend to have little elasticity since they are the most fundamental forms of mobility, irrespective of income. As income increases, trips related to less essential purposes, such as shopping, social interactions, and business, increase substantially. Thus, the mobility of people in higher-income ranges has a wider variety of non-work-related trips. The above graph is a synthetic representation of the number of trips per person per day according to income level. Such aggregate figures vary substantially according to whether mobility occurs in a developed or a developing economy. For instance, in the United States, the higher income groups will generate about 13 trips per person per day, while the lowest income groups would generate about seven trips per person per day. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/income-urban-transport-demand/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/income-urban-transport-demand/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/income-urban-transport-demand/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/income-urban-transport-demand/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Trips by Public Transport in the United States, 1903-2019](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-ridership-united-states/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/trips_public_transport_united_states2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Trips by Public Transport in the United States, 1903-2019 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Trips by Public Transport in the United States 1903 2019*Source: adapted from American Public Transportation Association, Public Transportation Fact Book.* The impacts of individual mobility and motorization on urban transportation have been significant. The outcome was a substantial decline in the share of public transit in urban mobility to less than 2% of the passenger miles in the early 21st century. The 1920s saw a dramatic drop in the share of public transit in urban motorized mobility as the automobile reached mass production. The only reversal of this trend was during World War II, when austerity measures (e.g. rationing gasoline) forced urban residents back to urban transit. As soon as the war ended, the trend resumed. In the first half of the 20th century, the number of passenger miles increased despite a declining share of public transit due to the large urban population growth. However, since the 1970s, there have been virtually no changes in the level of public transit ridership in the United States. After a significant decline from the 1950s to the 1970s, transit ridership has shown limited growth in the United States, despite continuous investments and improvements. Variations in ridership are linked with economic cycles of growth and recession. It is mainly the poorest segment of the population that relies the most on public transit, and this segment is also the most vulnerable to economic downturns. From being the dominant form of urban transit before World War II, light rail systems have experienced a comeback. Many metropolitan areas tried to implement those systems as less costly transit solutions for lower densities. This indicates that most of the urban development occurred in suburban areas, which are poorly serviced by transit systems. Still, the overall impact of light rail is negligible at best, and ridership figures are comparatively very small and are likely to remain so. Heavy rail systems (subways) have fared better, with a ridership that remained constant from the 1960s to the 1980s and has increased since then. The question remains about the share of public transit in future urban mobility. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-ridership-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-ridership-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-ridership-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-ridership-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transit Technology and Urban Development, Late 19th - Early 20th Century](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-technology-urban-development/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transit_technology_urban_development2.png?resize=900%2C393&ssl=1 "Transit Technology and Urban Development, Late 19th - Early 20th Century | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transit Technology and Urban Development Late 19th Early 20th CenturyThe introduction of urban transit systems in the mid-19th century permitted the first forms of separation between the places of work and residence. By the middle of the nineteenth century, higher-income households relocated to relatively rural locations and commuted by rail into the city center. The “commutation” of fares to lower prices when purchasing tickets in monthly quantities introduced the term “commuter” to the English vocabulary. During the second half of the nineteenth century, **public transport improvements fundamentally changed accessibility**, which in turn extended the diameter of the city and changed the shape of cities from a more-or-less circular structure to a [star-shaped structure](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4720). Trackside suburbs developed at railway stations that were located up to 30 km away from the city center, and linear strips of medium-density, mixed land use occurred along electric streetcar routes, creating in essence the first commercial strips. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-technology-urban-development/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-technology-urban-development/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-technology-urban-development/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-mobility/transit-technology-urban-development/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Dynamics of Urban Change](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/dynamics-urban-change/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/dynamics_urban_change2.png?resize=900%2C526&ssl=1 "Dynamics of Urban Change | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Dynamics of Urban Change*Source: adapted from Wegener, M. (1995) “Current and Future Land Use Models”, Paper presented at the Land Use Model Conference, Texas Transportation Institute, Dallas.* The complexity of urban dynamics is expanded by different temporal rates of change among its main components. Usually, land use and transportation networks are very slow to change, their associated movements can change and adapt very quickly. As a result, the pace of change in an urban area will range according to the element concerned: - **Very slow changes** concern **transport networks** and **land use**, which are the most stable elements of the urban spatial structure. Infrastructures, such as highways, roads transit systems, ports, and airports take years to be constructed and will remain operational for decades. The same process applies to land use as residential, commercial, and industrial functions change in a very slow manner. - **Slow changes** concern **workplaces** and **housing**. Urban infrastructure such as buildings (e.g. apartment complexes, warehouses, offices) have a life span that can stretch for centuries depending on the construction techniques used and their perceived significance (historical value). However, activities occupying them (enterprises or households) are of less duration. - **Fast changes** concern **employment** and **population**. Enterprises are part of business cycles where they are created, expanded, and often dissolved. Market opportunities and their related demand will also evolve with technological changes. With these changes, employment opportunities will vary. Households also have a life cycle where they are formed, expanded, and eventually dissolved with the related population changes. - **Very fast (immediate) changes** that concern **freight transport** and **commuting**. Although passengers and freight mobility tends to be stable in time and space within a metropolitan area, they have the potential to change very quickly. For instance, congestion or fluctuations in demand can be coped with rapidly by rerouting vehicles. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/dynamics-urban-change/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/dynamics-urban-change/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/dynamics-urban-change/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/dynamics-urban-change/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Contemporary Modifications to the Land Rent Theory](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-modifications/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/modifications_land_rent_theory.png?resize=900%2C622&ssl=1 "Contemporary Modifications to the Land Rent Theory | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Contemporary Modifications to the Land Rent TheoryIn most contemporary cities the land rent theory is still relevant, but requires modifying some of its [basic assumptions](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4939): - The downtown area is **not necessarily the most accessible location**. The rapid extension of highway systems has spurred developments in new locations away from the CBD, notably in suburbia (E). This has favored the emergence of sub-centers (D) having a concentration of retailing, commercial, distribution, and manufacturing activities. - **Improvements in transportation and telecommunications** have made several activities far more tolerant of distance, but still dependent on accessibility. The urban land use pattern thus tends to be far less coherent, more specialized, and dispersed. - A significant share of the land, notably nearby central areas, is **captured** and not available on real estate markets. Governments, institutions, parks, industries, and transport infrastructures occupy a large part of most central areas, and this ownership can last for several decades (if not several centuries for historical landmarks). This caused an imbalance in the price-fixing mechanism in central areas with less land available (thus higher prices) that have favored urban sprawl. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-modifications/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-modifications/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-modifications/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-rent-theory-modifications/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Sector and Nuclei Urban Land Use Representations](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/sector-nuclei-land-use/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/sector_nuclei_urban_land_use.png?resize=900%2C608&ssl=1 "Sector and Nuclei Urban Land Use Representations | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Sector and Nuclei Urban Land Use Representations*Source: adapted from H. Carter (1995) The Study of Urban Geography, Fourth Edition, London: Arnold, p. 126.* A study of residential areas done by Hoyt (1939) in the North American context concluded that the land use pattern was not a random distribution, nor sharply defined rectangular areas or concentric circles, but rather **sectors**. Thus, the effect of direction and time was added to the effect of distance. Transport corridors, such as rail lines, public transit, and major roads, are mainly responsible for creating sectors. **Transport has a directional effect on land use**, with growth taking place along a major axis. The sector representation also includes concentric transitional processes observed by Burgess, which occur in a specific direction. Following Hoyt’s development of a sectorial city, Harris and Ullman (1945) introduced a more effective generalization of urban land uses. It was brought forward that many towns and nearly all large cities do not grow around one CBD, but are formed by the progressive integration of a number of **separate nuclei** in the urban spatial structure. These nodes become specialized and differentiated in the growth process and are not located in relation to any distance attribute, but are bound by several factors: - **Differential accessibility**. Some activities require specialized facilities such as port and rail terminals. For instance, the retailing sector demands maximum accessibility, which is often different from the centrality offered in the CBD. - **Land use compatibility**. Similar activities group together since proximity implies improved interactions through economies of agglomeration. Service activities such as banks, insurance companies, stores, and institutions are strongly interacting with each other, and this can be defined as centripetal forces between activities. - **Land use incompatibility**. Some activities are repelling each other such as high-quality residential and heavy industrial areas. This may be defined as centrifugal forces and one of the main reasons why poorer neighborhoods tend to be located on the eastern side, at least in industrial cities. Since in the northern hemisphere, prevailing winds tend to be westerlies, eastern sections of industrial cities tended to have a higher level of exposure to industrial air pollution. - **Location suitability**. Some activities cannot afford the rent of the optimal site for their location. They are thus located at cheaper places, which are not optimal, but suitable for these activities. Harris and Ullman’s poly-nuclear model was the first to represent the fragmentation of urban areas, specialized functions as well as suburbanization. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/sector-nuclei-land-use/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/sector-nuclei-land-use/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/sector-nuclei-land-use/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/sector-nuclei-land-use/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Population Density Changes by Census Block, Chicago 2000-2010](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/population-changes-chicago/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/chicago_pop_change_2000_2010.jpg?resize=900%2C675&ssl=1 "Population Density Changes by Census Block, Chicago 2000-2010 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Population Density Changes by Census Block Chicago 2000 2010*Source: map created by Stephen Von Worley,* [*the Data Pointed blog*](http://www.datapointed.net/)*. Used with permission.* *Note: Shades of red are expressing a decline in population density while shades of blue express a population density growth. White reflects no population density (other land uses such as agriculture, industrial, transportation or water).* Density is reflective of the urban spatial structure as well as land use. The Chicago metropolitan area, like all cities, is undergoing processes of land use change, some of them which can be observed through changes in population density. The general pattern observed between 2000 and 2010 is concentric, where the core area of the city has experienced significant declines in population density, with the adjacent ring showing a more mitigated change pattern with clusters of growth and decline. Like most American cities, the outer ring has experienced the most significant growth in density, reflecting suburbanization. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/population-changes-chicago/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/population-changes-chicago/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/population-changes-chicago/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/population-changes-chicago/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Inference of Von Thunen's Model to Continental United States](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-continental-united-states/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/von_thunen_united_states2.png?resize=900%2C352&ssl=1 "Inference of Von Thunen's Model to Continental United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Inference of Von Thunens Model to Continental United States*Source: adapted from Stutz, R. and A. de Souza (1998) The World Economy: Resources, Location, Trade and Development, Third Edition, Toronto: Prentice Hall, p. 268.* Significant improvements in transport technology occurred since Von Thunen designed his [agricultural land-use model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4898) in the 19th century. For instance, rail systems and [grain elevators](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7363), became much more cost-effective for transporting agricultural commodities over long distances. Refrigeration allowed perishable products to be moved cost-effectively over long distances as well with refrigerated containers transforming this trade into the global realm. Since most of the American agricultural landscape was established in the late 19th and early 20th century, agricultural land use was much less constrained by transport costs than its European and Asian counterparts. Large-scale agricultural regions thus emerged where agricultural land use was influenced by distance from major markets and by local geographical conditions. As such, it is possible to apply Von Thunen’s assumption to agricultural land use over the continental United States. - **Figure A** represents what the agricultural land use would be if the most basic assumptions were applied, namely the market located in New York (or BostWash), crops being ranked by comparative rent-paying abilities, and considering ubiquitous geographical characteristics. Although this representation has some level of concordance with reality, it inaccurately portrays agricultural land use in the United States. - **Figure B** includes one supplementary assumption that considers climate variations, where the north is colder than the south. This constraint has a significant impact on agricultural land use as even if for a location a crop would have a higher rent-paying ability, another crop would be grown because climatic conditions forbid it. The resulting agricultural land use has a much higher level of correspondence with reality. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-continental-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-continental-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-continental-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-continental-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Von Thunen's Regional Land Use Model](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-regional-land-use/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/von_thunen_regional_land_use.png?resize=900%2C545&ssl=1 "Von Thunen's Regional Land Use Model | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Von Thunens Regional Land Use ModelIf modern economics began with Adam Smith (1776), modern location economics began with Von Thunen (1826). He was the first to develop a basic analytical model of the relationships between markets, production, and distance. For this purpose, the agricultural landscape was investigated. Von Thunen observed that the land use structure around German villages in the early 19th century was remarkably similar. By looking at this organization he postulated that the relative costs of transporting different agricultural commodities to the central market determined the agricultural land use around a city. The most productive activities thus compete for the closest land to the market, and activities not productive enough will locate further away. The model has a set of basic assumptions which reflected agricultural conditions in the early 19th century: - **Isolation**. There is one isolated market in an isolated state having no interactions (trade) with the outside. The assumption is that the output is for the local market. - **Ubiquitous land characteristics**. The land surrounding the market is entirely flat and its fertility is uniform. - **Transportation**. It is assumed there are no significant transport infrastructures, such as major roads or rivers and that farmers are transporting their products to the market using horses and carts. Transportation costs are dependent on the type of commodity being transported to the market as well as the distance involved. The model compares the relationships between the production cost, market price, and transport cost of an agricultural commodity and is expressed as follows: **R = Y(p-c) – Yfm** - R = Rent per unit of land. - Y = Yield per unit of land. - p = market price per unit of yield. - c = Average production costs per unit of yield. - m = Distance from the market (in kilometers or miles). - f = Freight rate per unit of yield and unit of distance. All agricultural land uses seek to maximize their productivity (rent), which is dependent upon their location from the market (Central City). The role of a farmer is to **maximize profit** which is the market price minus the transport and production costs. The most productive activities (gardening or milk production) or activities with high transport costs (firewood) are located near the market. The above figure provides an overview of Von Thunen’s agricultural land use model with the basic assumptions being applied (isolation, ubiquity, transportation). It can be divided into two parts: - The pure **isolated state** over an isotropic plain (left). In this case, land uses are taking the form of perfect concentric circles. - The potential impacts of **modified transport costs** (a navigable river) and the presence of a **competing center** (right). The relationships between agricultural land use and market distance are very difficult to establish in the contemporary context. However, a strong relationship between the transport system and regional agricultural land use patterns can be acknowledged at the continental level in [North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4903). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-regional-land-use/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-regional-land-use/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-regional-land-use/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/von-thunen-regional-land-use/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Weber's Location Triangle](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/weber-location-triangle/) **Published:** November 3, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/weber_location_triangle.png?resize=900%2C668&ssl=1 "Weber's Location Triangle | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Webers Location TriangleAlfred Weber’s work (1909) is considered the foundation of modern location theories and a **basic P-median location problem**. One of its core assumptions is that firms will choose a location minimizing their total costs through a set of simplifications. Location occurs in an isolated region (no external influences) composed of one market, that space is isotropic (no variations in transport costs except a simple function of distance) and that markets are located in a specific number of centers. Those conditions are quite similar to those behind [Von Thunen’s agricultural land use model](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4898) elaborated almost one hundred years earlier. The model also assumes perfect competition, implying a high number of firms and customers, small firm sizes (to prevent disruptions created by monopolies and oligopolies), and complete knowledge of market conditions, both for the buyers and suppliers. Several natural resources, such as water, are ubiquitous (available everywhere), while many production inputs such as labor, fuel, and minerals, are available at specific locations. According to Weber, three main factors influence industrial location; transport costs, labor costs, and agglomeration economies. Location thus implies an optimal consideration of these factors. Solving Weber’s location model usually implies three stages; finding the least transport cost location and adjusting this location to consider labor costs and [agglomeration economies](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1559). Transportation is the most important element of the model since other factors are considered only to have an adjustment effect. To solve this problem, Weber uses the **location triangle within which the optimal is located**. The above figure illustrates the issue of minimizing transport costs by finding point P. Considering a product of w(M) tons to be sold at market M, w(S1) and w(S2) tons of materials coming respectively from S1 and S2 are necessary. The problem resides in finding an optimal factory location P located at the respective distances of d(M), d(S1), and d(S2). Several methodologies can be used to solve this problem, such as drawing an analogy to a system of weights and pulleys (Varignon’s solution) or using trigonometry. Another way preferred among geographers, particularly with GIS, is to use **cost surfaces** that are overlaid. Weber’s location theory explains the location of heavy industries, particularly from the industrial revolution until the mid-twentieth century (the sector that Weber was looking at). Activities using a high level of raw materials tend to locate near supply sources, such as aluminum factories, will locate near energy sources (electricity), or port sites. Activities using ubiquitous raw materials, such as water, tend to be located close to markets. To assess this issue, Weber developed a **material index,** which is simply the weight of the inputs divided by the weight of the final product (output). If the material index is higher than 1, the location tends toward material sources. If it is less than 1, the location tends toward the market. Contemporary developments in manufacturing, the reduction of transport costs, global supply chains, and new economic sectors (such as high technology) have substantially changed locational behavior, involving much less consideration of Weber’s principles. Still, these principles apply well to industries with a high material index. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/weber-location-triangle/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/weber-location-triangle/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/weber-location-triangle/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter2/transport-and-location/weber-location-triangle/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Evolution of Supply Chain Management](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/evolution-supply-chain-management/) **Published:** November 27, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_logisitcs2.png?resize=900%2C487&ssl=1 "The Evolution of Supply Chain Management | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Evolution of Supply Chain ManagementThe evolution of supply chain management has been characterized by **increasing integration** of separate tasks; a trend underlined in the 1960s as a critical area for future productivity improvements since the system was highly fragmented. Although logistics tasks have remained relatively similar, they initially consolidated into two distinct functions related to **materials management** and **physical distribution** during the 1970s and 1980s. This process moved further in the 1990s as globalization incited functional integration and the emergence of logistics in a true sense. All the elements of the supply chain became part of a single management perspective. However, only with information and communication technologies did a more complete integration became possible with the emergence of **supply chain management**. It allows for the integrated management and control of information, finance, and goods flows, making possible a new range of production and distribution systems. Supply chain management has become a complex sequence of activities aiming at value capture and competitiveness. More recently, the growing level of automation of supply chains has been a dominant element in the evolution of both physical distribution and materials management. This **digitalization** is particularly notable within distribution centers that have experienced a remarkable push towards automation, such as storage, materials handling, and packaging. Automation may eventually lead to automated delivery vehicles. Stepwise and according to improvements in information and communication technologies, the two ends of the assembly line became integrated into the logistics of the supply chain. High rack storage, which later became automatically driven, or the internal movement of packages by flat robots were early expressions of logistical engineering. Initially, logistics was an activity divided around the supplying, warehousing, production, and distribution functions, most of them being fairly independent. With the new organization and management principles, firms followed a more integrated approach, thus responding to the upcoming demand for flexibility without raising costs. At the same time, many firms took advantage of new manufacturing opportunities in developing economies through outsourcing and offshoring. As production became increasingly fragmented, activities related to its management were consolidated. Spatial fragmentation became a by-product of economies of scale in distribution. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/evolution-supply-chain-management/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/evolution-supply-chain-management/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/evolution-supply-chain-management/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/logistics-freight-distribution/evolution-supply-chain-management/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Land Use Zoning](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_land_use_zoning.png?resize=900%2C501&ssl=1 "Types of Land Use Zoning | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Land Use Zoning*Source: Adapted from Cambridge Systematics.* In urban and transportation planning, land use is the object of zonal characterization. Each land use zone is subject to a series of regulations depicting what can be built regarding criteria such as nature, function, and density, giving municipal governments tools to influence urban development. There are four major types of land use zoning: - **Functional zoning**. The most prevalent form of zoning is where land use zones are defined according to their function, such as commercial, residential, or industrial. Each zone type is subject to specific rules and regulations concerning the type of activities built. The assumption is that urban functions should be allocated to specific areas to improve efficiency and mitigate externalities associated with incompatible land uses. - **Form-based zoning.** Define zones according to their physical characteristics, mostly from an urban identity perspective, such as the downtown area. This form of zoning is usually easier to relate to the general population since it uses zonal definitions that are well known and help create an urban identity by underlining areas with unique characteristics. - **Intensity zoning**. Defines land use zones by the permitted intensity level, such as the number of residential units per surface unit or allowed commercial surface. Such regulation enables a level of flexibility in urban development since it permits developers to select which development types take place as long as this development abides by density constraints. Density can also be set to minimum criteria to avoid a wasteful usage of real estate. - **Incentive zoning**. Often part of revitalization or development plans where developers are allowed to build residential, commercial, or industrial (manufacturing, warehousing) projects in specific areas by providing various incentives such as tax abatement or basic infrastructure (road, utilities, public transport services). Further, developers can be granted lower restrictions, namely density limits, if amenities such as park areas and infrastructure are also developed. Commonly, more than one type of zoning will be applied to a city, leading to conflicts and discrepancies between stakeholders. The issue is to try to establish a balance between the restrictions imposed by zoning regulations and the dynamic market forces of urban development. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Land Use Zoning](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/types_land_use_zoning.png?resize=900%2C501&ssl=1 "Types of Land Use Zoning | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Land Use Zoning*Source: Adapted from Cambridge Systematics.* In urban and transportation planning, land use is the object of zonal characterization. Each land use zone is subject to a series of regulations depicting what can be built regarding criteria such as nature, function, and density, giving municipal governments tools to influence urban development. There are four major types of land use zoning: - **Functional zoning**. The most prevalent form of zoning is where land use zones are defined according to their function, such as commercial, residential, or industrial. Each zone type is subject to specific rules and regulations concerning the type of activities built. The assumption is that urban functions should be allocated to specific areas to improve efficiency and mitigate externalities associated with incompatible land uses. - **Form-based zoning.** Define zones according to their physical characteristics, mostly from an urban identity perspective, such as the downtown area. This form of zoning is usually easier to relate to the general population since it uses zonal definitions that are well known and help create an urban identity by underlining areas with unique characteristics. - **Intensity zoning**. Defines land use zones by the permitted intensity level, such as the number of residential units per surface unit or allowed commercial surface. Such regulation enables a level of flexibility in urban development since it permits developers to select which development types take place as long as this development abides by density constraints. Density can also be set to minimum criteria to avoid a wasteful usage of real estate. - **Incentive zoning**. Often part of revitalization or development plans where developers are allowed to build residential, commercial, or industrial (manufacturing, warehousing) projects in specific areas by providing various incentives such as tax abatement or basic infrastructure (road, utilities, public transport services). Further, developers can be granted lower restrictions, namely density limits, if amenities such as park areas and infrastructure are also developed. Commonly, more than one type of zoning will be applied to a city, leading to conflicts and discrepancies between stakeholders. The issue is to try to establish a balance between the restrictions imposed by zoning regulations and the dynamic market forces of urban development. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Types of Urban Expansion](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/urban-expansion/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_expansion_types.png?resize=900%2C511&ssl=1 "Types of Urban Expansion | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Types of Urban Expansion*Source: adapted from Camagni, R., M.C. Gibelli and P. Rigamonti (2002) “Urban Mobility and Urban Form: the Social and Environmental Costs of Different Patterns of Urban Expansion”, Ecological Economics, Vol. 40, pp. 199–216.* The urban expansion of land uses can take place in five general forms: - **Infilling**. New developments are set in previously unused or redeveloped areas for new uses. **Brownfield redevelopments** are a good example of urban expansion opportunities on sites that have lost their economic significance, such as old industrial sites, abandoned terminals (waterfronts or rail yards), and shopping malls. - **Extension**. A standard form of expansion where land use is a development directly adjacent to existing land uses. New infrastructures such as streets and utilities are expanded from the existing network. - **Linear development**. Similar to extension, but in this case, the expansion is shaped by an existing circulation corridor such as a highway or a transit line (subway, light rail). It directly takes advantage of the accessibility offered by the transport infrastructure. - **Sprawl**. A standard form of suburban development taking advantage of scattered lots. Each developer is taking advantage of an existing plot of land without considering the existing urban pattern. - **Large-scale projects**. The setting of a large infrastructure project such as a new port, airport, industrial zone, logistics zone, or intermodal rail terminal consumes a large amount of land. Its operational rationale is often very different from the existing landscape, so the level of integration to existing land uses can be limited. These projects often act as the impetus for new surrounding developments. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/urban-expansion/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/urban-expansion/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/urban-expansion/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/urban-expansion/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transport Infrastructure and Activity Location](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transport-infrastructure-activity-location/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_activity_location2.png?resize=900%2C372&ssl=1 "Transport Infrastructure and Activity Location | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transport Infrastructure and Activity Location*Source: Adapted from Newman, P. and J. Kenworthy (1999) Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, Washington, DC: Island Press, p. 180.* Each type of urban activity has its own mobility requirements that are serviced by the urban transport system and have locational preferences that vary according to urban transport infrastructures. Population-based activities (e.g. residential) are dominant where rail (e.g. subway and light rail) and bus infrastructures are converging, while freight-based activities (e.g. manufacturing and warehousing) agglomerate nearby high-capacity road infrastructures such as highways. Both activities and infrastructure are mutually self-reinforcing since they are part of a [feedback loop](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4882). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transport-infrastructure-activity-location/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transport-infrastructure-activity-location/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transport-infrastructure-activity-location/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transport-infrastructure-activity-location/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Relationships between Land Uses](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-relationships/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/relationships_land_uses.png?resize=900%2C399&ssl=1 "Relationships between Land Uses | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Relationships between Land UsesSince urban areas involve specialized land uses having specific functions, each land use zone involves a set of relationships with other land uses. These relationships can be **expressed by the mobility of passengers and freight** since they represent a realized transport demand such as commuting (mobility of passengers) or supplying stores (mobility of freight). These relationships based on **reciprocity** are assumed by different transport systems involving transport operators that can be individuals, public or private companies. Overlaying all those relationships is close to an impossibility, but the most dominant relations usually involve large commercial, manufacturing, and transport terminal areas (such as logistics zones, ports, and airports). A central area is a cluster of core and/or central activities and the most important central area of a city is usually labeled as the central business district (CBD). **Core activities** are those of the highest order, namely tertiary and quaternary activities involved in management (head offices, finance, and insurance) and consumption (retailing). They commonly benefit from a high level of accessibility to the workforce and customers. **Central activities** focus on the functions of production and distribution with activities such as warehousing, manufacturing, wholesaling, and transportation. They require a good level of accessibility but need more land than core activities. **Peripheral activities** are primarily residential or servicing local needs. The most significant relationships between land use include: - **Commuting**, mainly concerning passenger movements between residential areas and workplaces (central areas). It underlines reciprocity between labor supply and demand. - **Professional movements** are related to work-based movements such as meetings that dominantly take place within central areas. They underline the reciprocity of economic activities. - **Personal movements** include a range of activities that focus on shopping and social interactions. They underline the reciprocity between the supply and demand of goods and services. - **Distribution** concerns a variety of freight movements to supply goods, such as procurement (supplying manufacturing activities), commercial deliveries, and home deliveries (e.g. e-commerce). They underline the reciprocity between activities generating and consuming goods. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-relationships/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-relationships/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-relationships/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-relationships/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Formal and Functional Land Use](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/formal-functional-land-use/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/formal_functional_land_use.png?resize=900%2C404&ssl=1 "Formal and Functional Land Use | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Formal and Functional Land Use*Source: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Hofstra University Campus GIS, 2015.* Land use can be defined using different classification criteria. While **formal land use** refers to the qualitative attributes of space, **functional land use** indicates its socioeconomic function. For instance, while *factory* is a qualitative attribute, *industrial* is an economic function. The above maps represent the land uses of the same neighborhood, classified formally (left) and functionally (right). Under such circumstances, land use that has been formally classified as built up can be functionally described as residential, commercial, institutional, or industrial. The formal land use map can be created with aerial or remote sensing images, but it is difficult to infer any functional attributes from these observations, especially for urban land use. An aerial photo of a building reveals little about its function. However, a trained observer would be able to infer residential and commercial uses with a reasonable level of accuracy by considering attributes such as size, height, and parking space. For agricultural land, remote sensing images have been proven to be efficient tools for functional land use classification as it is possible to identify the nature of the vegetation (forests, grazing land, crops, etc.) from its electromagnetic signature. Such attempts have proven excessively difficult, especially in high-density urban zones. The functional land use map requires an implicit knowledge of the functional attributes of an area, commonly gained through field observations or censuses. The great majority of city planning agencies have undertaken surveys to assess the functional attributes of land use under their jurisdiction. Such an endeavor is often time-consuming as the urban landscape is constantly changing with the construction/renovation of infrastructures, new residential/commercial/industrial developments, and the modification of existing uses. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/formal-functional-land-use/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/formal-functional-land-use/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/formal-functional-land-use/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/formal-functional-land-use/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation, Activity Systems and Land Use](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-activity-land-use/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/transport_activity_systems_land_use.png?resize=900%2C547&ssl=1 "Transportation, Activity Systems and Land Use | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Activity Systems and Land UseUrban activities such as retail or manufacturing have spatial locations from which a land use pattern is derived and influenced by the existing urban form and spatial structure. This form is strongly related to the types of activities that can roughly be divided into three major classes: - **Routine activities** occur regularly and are thus predictable. They involve commuting (residential to industrial/commercial/administrative) and shopping (residential to retailing). The land use pattern generated is thus stable and coherent. Generally, these activities are zonal with interactions reflecting this structure. - **Institutional activities**. Most institutions are located at specific points and generally have links with individuals. This activity system is related to an urban environment where links occur irregularly and according to the lifestyle (students, sports, leisure, etc.) or special needs (health). - **Production activities** involve a complex network of relationships between firms, such as management, distribution, warehousing, and sub-contracting. This activity system can be linked to a specific urban environment, but also to a region, nation, or even the world. Some activities are strongly linked to the local urban area, while others are far more linked to the global economy (global supply chains). Activity land use patterns may thus be linked to an external (international) process. These activity systems underline the importance of **linkages between land uses**, which involve the **mobility** of passengers and freight and the associated land use patterns. Thus, understanding the relationships an industrial district has with its labor, suppliers, and customers will provide an overview of the land use patterns in an urban area, but also with other urban areas. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-activity-land-use/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-activity-land-use/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-activity-land-use/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/transportation-activity-land-use/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Media](https://transportgeography.org/media/) **Published:** January 11, 2018 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ### [E-Book (PDF)](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=11352) ### [PowerPoint Presentations](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=113) ### [PDF Maps](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=8354) ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/media/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/media/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/media/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/media/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation, Urban Form and Spatial Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-form/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_form_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C357&ssl=1 "Transportation, Urban Form and Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation Urban Form and Spatial StructureElements of the urban transport system, namely modes, infrastructures, and users, have a spatial footprint. Transportation infrastructures consume space and their organization shapes urban form. The modes being used, by their technical and operational characteristics, also shape urban form as they underline what can be connected and what can be carried, and in which quantity. It is ultimately users generating passengers and freight movements that define the urban form that can effectively be developed. Considering that each city has different socioeconomic and geographical characteristics, the **spatial footprint** of transportation varies accordingly. For instance, North American cities tend to have an urban form that has been shaped by the automobile with the dominance of highways and connectors. Cities in other parts of the world, because of different modal preferences and infrastructure developments, have different urban forms that tend to be more shaped by public transit. The urban transport system is also represented by its **spatial interactions** since each city has its own circulation pattern of passengers and freight. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-form/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-form/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-form/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-form/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Suburban Development along a Highway Interchange](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/suburban-development-highway-interchange/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/suburban_development_highway_interchange.png?resize=900%2C539&ssl=1 "Suburban Development along a Highway Interchange | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Suburban Development along a Highway InterchangeThe spatial structure commonly found in contemporary suburban or exurban developments in North America (and elsewhere) concerns the highway interchange as the leading structural influence on land uses with a gradient-like effect. Next to the interchange (highest accessibility and visibility), retailing activities, such as restaurants, shopping malls, and hotels can be found. Further are offices, manufacturing and warehousing activities, and, finally, residential areas (mostly single-family homes, but apartment buildings in areas of higher accessibility). This land-use pattern is dependent on road transportation, but some industrial activities could have rail connections. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/suburban-development-highway-interchange/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/suburban-development-highway-interchange/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/suburban-development-highway-interchange/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/suburban-development-highway-interchange/?share=reddit) - --- ### [The Rationale of a Ring Road](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ring-road/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/rationale_ring_road.png?resize=900%2C442&ssl=1 "The Rationale of a Ring Road | The Geography of Transport Systems ")The Rationale of a Ring RoadRing roads became a common infrastructure in the development of large metropolitan areas from the 1960s. Their impact on the urban spatial structure is mainly through inciting radial development patterns and the setting of commercial, residential, and industrial activities near highway interchanges. The decreasing dynamism of central areas is often linked with the emergence of peripheral centers that are gaining from improved accessibility with the construction of ring roads. By changing the structure of urban accessibility, ring roads are therefore refocusing urban development. As shown in the above synthetic example, prior to the construction of a ring road, traveling from point A to point B would take 30 minutes, with delays mainly imposed by having to go through the central area (e.g. narrow roads, congestion, speed restrictions, traffic lights, etc.). Once a ring road has been established, travel time between point A and point B is reduced to 20 minutes even if the distance increases, since congested areas are bypassed. Also, since ring roads tend to be limited-access highways, they can confer further time improvements to cross a metropolitan area by allowing faster travel speed. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ring-road/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ring-road/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ring-road/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/ring-road/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Scale and Urban Spatial Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/scale-urban-spatial-structure/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/scale_urban_spatial_structure.png?resize=900%2C552&ssl=1 "Scale and Urban Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Scale and Urban Spatial StructureThe urban spatial structure varies according to the scale being considered since each scale is linked with specific mobilities. At the community level, the urban spatial structure is influenced by the street pattern and the location of residences and basic services. A “community” can also be a cluster of commercial, distribution, or manufacturing activities. At the district level, which can be seen as a conglomeration of various communities, the urban spatial structure is influenced by main roads and specific employment zones, which tend to be clustered. At the city level, highways, transit systems, and major transport terminals are the dominant elements impacting the spatial structure. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/scale-urban-spatial-structure/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/scale-urban-spatial-structure/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/scale-urban-spatial-structure/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/scale-urban-spatial-structure/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Transportation and the Urban Spatial Structure](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-spatial-structure/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_spatial_structure_transportation.png?resize=900%2C505&ssl=1 "Transportation and the Urban Spatial Structure | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Transportation and the Urban Spatial StructureAlthough there are a wide variety of urban spatial structures, a large share of metropolitan areas can fit into four types: - **Type I (Completely motorized)**. This spatial structure is characterized by low to average land use densities. The automobile-oriented network assumes free movement between all locations with public transit having a residual function. A significant share of the urban footprint is occupied by infrastructures servicing the automobile, notably highways, on-street parking, and parking lots surrounding activity centers. Thus, most activities are designed to be accessed by the automobile, which requires a massive network of high-capacity highways, underlining that urban efficiency and productivity are dependent on road accessibility. Secondary roads converge at highways, along which small centers are located, notably nearby interchanges. This system reflects North American cities where urban growth occurred in the second half of the twentieth century, such as Los Angeles, Phoenix, Denver, and Dallas. - **Type II (Weak center)**. The main characteristics of such urban areas are average land use densities and a concentric pattern. The central business district is relatively accessible by the automobile and is the point of convergence of the transit system, which tends to be under-used and requires subsidies. Most urban areas cannot be cost-effectively serviced with a transit system, so services are often oriented along major corridors. More recently, ring roads favored the emergence of a set of small centers at the periphery, notably at the convergence of radial lines. Some of them are effectively competing with the central business district for the location of economic activities. This system is often related to older cities that emerged in the first half of the twentieth century and were substantially impacted by motorization, such as Melbourne and San Francisco. - **Type III (Strong center)**. This spatial structure characterizes cities with high land use density and high accessibility levels to urban transit. Thus, there are fewer highways and parking spaces in central areas, where a set of high-capacity public transit lines are servicing most of the mobility needs. Thus, the productivity of this urban area is mainly related to the efficiency and accessibility of its public transport system. The convergence of radial roads and ring roads favors the emergence of secondary centers, locating activities that could no longer be able to afford the high costs related to the central district. This system characterizes cities having important commercial and financial functions and having grown in the 19th century, such as Paris, New York, Toronto, Tokyo, Sydney, and Hamburg. It also characterizes cities that recently undertook a fast wave of urbanization, such as in China; the traditional high-density core is complemented by the setting of sub-centers in a lower-density setting. - **Type IV (Traffic limitation)**. Represents urban areas that have implemented traffic control and modal preference strategies in their spatial structure. Commonly, the central area is dominated by public transit. Limitations in automobile usage in central areas are enforced for a variety of reasons, such as preserving its historical character or avoiding congestion. Through a “funnel” effect, the capacity of the road transport system is reduced, the closer one gets to the central area. Public transit is used in central areas, while individual transportation takes greater importance in the periphery. Between suburbs and the central city are interfaces connecting individual (automobile) and collective forms of transportation or between low capacity collective transportation (bus) and high capacity collective transportation (metro, rail). Several cities are implementing this strategy, namely through congestion pricing, as it keeps cars from the central areas while supporting the bulk of the mobility in the suburbs. This system typifies cities having a long planning history favoring public transit. London, Singapore, Hong Kong, Vienna, and Stockholm are good examples of this urban transport structure. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-spatial-structure/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-spatial-structure/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-spatial-structure/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/transport-urban-spatial-structure/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Performance of Urban Transport Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-modes-performance/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/performance_urban_transport_mode2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Performance of Urban Transport Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Performance of Urban Transport Modes*Source: data from R. Tolley and B. Turton (1995) Transport Systems, Policy and Planning, New York: Longman, p. 184.* Urban transportation modes are associated with different performance levels. However, performance is a multidimensional concept as different metrics can be used to assess it. The above figure illustrates two urban transportation performance measures, vehicle speed, and passenger density, that can be combined into a third one; a ratio of speed over space consumption (how much space is required to maintain normal operations involving speed and performance characteristics). Public transit consumes, on average, ten times less space than individual transportation. However, if speed is considered the most important performance criterion, the modal ranking changes in favor of the automobile. Thus, in car-dependent cities, a much larger amount of space must be allocated to transportation than in transit-oriented cities. Lower densities come with the benefit of faster commuting and locational flexibility in terms of residence and workplace. Higher densities are associated with higher performance of public transit systems, but this is usually with lower speeds and locational flexibility. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-modes-performance/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-modes-performance/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-modes-performance/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-modes-performance/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Urban Transport Development Paths](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-development-paths/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_transport_development_paths.png?resize=900%2C449&ssl=1 "Urban Transport Development Paths | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Transport Development Paths*Source: adapted from Barter, P.A. (2004) A Broad Perspective on Policy Integration for Low Emissions Urban Transport in Developing Asian Cities. Draft paper for the International workshop Policy Integration towards Sustainable Energy Use for Asian Cities: Integrating Local Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Concerns. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, Kanagawa.* The transport development of cities is often taking place within a **path dependency, resultin**g in different levels of mobility and ownership of passenger transport modes such as cars, buses, and rail transit. This implies that once a specific path has been elected, future developments are locked in along that path since it is difficult to diverge from. The level of accumulation in existing infrastructure and technology conveys inertia. Still, there is the potential for a path divergence when there is a strong economic, political, and public will to alter the existing situation towards a new paradigm judged to be more suitable. From a pre-industrial city relying on walking, three main urban transport development paths can be identified: - **(A) Automobile dependency**. This development path leads to the setting of automobile-dependent cities with investments continuously made in motorization and developing a road and highway system. The first step usually involves the diffusion of non-motorized forms of transportation, particularly the bicycle. This was the case in cities in developed economies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and in Asian cities (particularly China) in the 1970s. At this stage, a path divergence (1) is likely to take place towards the setting of public transit services. However, a path followed in several developing economies concerns motorization with the motorcycle as an intermediary form, which leads to cities saturated with motorcycles, buses, and some automobiles. As road infrastructure investment continues and with economic development, the outcome is a car-oriented city where the automobile accounts for the majority of the mobility of passengers. Such an outcome can also be achieved by cities that initially undertook transit developments but through a path divergence (3) moved towards automobile dependency through the abandonment of several transit services or the lack of further developments the cope with mobility demand. This was particularly the case for North American cities such as Los Angeles and Houston. - **(B) Transit-oriented development**. This development path involves slow levels of motorization and moderate road building. Through massive investments in public transit and transit-oriented land use development strategies, this path leads to the setting of transit cities where the bulk of the population uses public transit to satisfy their mobility requirements. Such cities are however not that common because as many cities undertook development, an additional path was followed, which lead to the development of hybrid cities. - **(C) Hybrid cities**. This development path is the outcome of further motorization, but the pace of road development comes faster than the pace of urban transit development. It eventually leads to a saturation of the transport system with buses and automobiles. This situation characterized many cities in developed economies in the second half of the 20th century. A possible path divergence involves rapid motorization and a move towards automobile dependency (3). Alternatively, through restrictions on the use and ownership of the automobile and the development of alternative modes of transportation, a path divergence can be achieved (2), leading to more transit-oriented forms. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-development-paths/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-development-paths/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-development-paths/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-transport-development-paths/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Average Commuting Time (One Way), Selected Metropolitan Areas](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/average-commuting-time/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/daily_commuting_time_minutes.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Average Commuting Time (One Way), Selected Metropolitan Areas | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Average Commuting Time One Way Selected Metropolitan Areas*Source: Adapted from Toronto Board of Trade (2014) Toronto as a Global City: Scorecard on Prosperity – 2014. Toronto: Toronto Board of Trade.* Communing is an important component of urban mobility since it accounts for a large share of urban movements and substantially impacts the commuters’ welfare. The time spent commuting has remained relatively constant throughout history, with about 60 minutes per day (30 minutes in each direction). This is known as Marchetti’s constant, in the name of the physicist who first established the relation. While the commuting time may remain constant, the commuting distance is more extensive due to improvements in urban mobility. Because of high levels of motorization, American cities tend to have the lowest average commuting time in the world. The commuters of Europe and Japan have longer commuting times, mostly because they are more dependent on walking and public transit despite more compact cities. There is thus an inverse relationship between the level of public transit use and commuting time as passengers tend to spend more time waiting and transferring within the transit system. However, the last decade has shown growing commuting times, particularly in China, mainly due to increasing motorization in metropolitan areas and the related congestion. Shanghai is now one of the world’s cities having the longest commuting time. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/average-commuting-time/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/average-commuting-time/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/average-commuting-time/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/average-commuting-time/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form in North America and Europe](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-transport-urban-form/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_transportation_urban_form.png?resize=900%2C405&ssl=1 "Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form in North America and Europe | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form in North America and Europe*Source: adapted from Muller, P.O. (1995) “Transportation and Urban Form: Stages in the Spatial Evolution of the American Metropolis”, in S. Hanson (ed.) The Geography of Urban Transportation, 2nd Edition, New York: Guilford, p. 29.* North American and European cities have been impacted by similar technological changes introduced since the industrial revolution. However, a different evolution of urban form took place, especially in the second half of the 20th century. While European cities leaned on public transit, North American cities relied more on the automobile. The outcome was a divergence in their respective urban forms. This evolution had a direct impact on the urban form, with four important periods: - **I. Walking-horsecar era (1800-1890)**. This era was characterized by the absence of urban mass transportation, with people having access to locations that could be reached (walked) in less than 45 minutes (4 to 6 km). Urban densities were very high as the available space was strongly constrained by accessibility. All economic activities were concentrated in a central node along with residential areas. Reduced mobility accounted for this imposed concentration. The horsecar made its debut, which allowed the development of the first urban transit corridors. From the 1850s, railways enabled radial development adjacent to railway stations, especially in Europe and in older American cities (e.g. New York, Boston). - **II. Streetcar era (1890-1920)**. The development of the first forms of urban mass transportation improved accessibility and enabled cities to expand along the main tramway (streetcar) lines, creating full-fledged transit corridors. In tripling the speed of urban transport, electric streetcars proportionally expanded the spatial structure of cities. This permitted the emergence of a specialized downtown area with commercial and service activities. In Europe, tramway lines tended to expand towards long-established adjacent towns, which were integrated into the expanding city. This allowed the development of urban activities beyond city limits. The emergence of commercial centers along transit corridors became apparent because a growing share of the population having access to trolleys, decided to relocate outside the city limits. This reinforced social stratification and favored the emergence of neighborhoods differentiated by socioeconomic status. Less fortunate people, limited in their mobility, tended to remain in central areas while the wealthier class relocated in the early suburbs. The first suburban railroads entered into service, and specialized industrial districts started to take shape. - **III. Automobile era (1920-1945)**. Motorized transportation, mainly buses, and cars, radially expanded cities, further improving accessibility. This technical innovation had a substantial impact on spatial organization. Initially, only the wealthy classes could afford their own automobiles, which were used mainly for recreational purposes. The private car was linked with the emergence of the first low-density suburbs with increased ethnic and economic segregation. This went on par with the decentralization of commercial and industrial activities. It is during this phase that European and North American urban development started to diverge. In order to facilitate the diffusion of the road as a mode of urban transportation in the United States, some oil and car companies bought and dismantled tramway systems. For instance, in 1938 General Motors and Standard Oil bought the Pacific Electric Railway of Los Angeles, dismantled it, and replaced tramways with buses. Consequently, the influence of streetcars in urban development in North America was removed, while it endured in many European cities. This was a contributing factor in the divergence of the spatial structure. - **IV. The highway era (1945-)**. The post-World War Two era saw the large diffusion of the automobile with the growth of individual mobility. Highways favored the extension of full-fledged suburbs, especially in North America. This process also took place in Europe, but to a lower extent and involved higher densities along existing transit corridors. No significant new urban transit technologies emerged during this era, but improvements in transport infrastructures significantly increased accessibility. Residential and employment decentralization was thus accentuated. Also, several sub-centers emerged to serve suburbs, a process favored by the construction of ring roads around metropolitan areas. The development of new highways which circled urban perimeters promoted the agglomeration of commercial, distribution, and manufacturing activities around high accessibility clusters in suburban areas. In the 21st century, several issues about the future relationships between transportation and the urban form are being brought forward. In the **era of information technologies** changes in individual mobility and a concentration of activities along transport corridors and nodes can be expected. Future urban forms are thus likely to be of higher densities with a concentration around clusters. Yet the impacts of information technologies on urban mobility and urban form remain to be assessed and can lead to contradictions. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-transport-urban-form/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-transport-urban-form/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-transport-urban-form/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-transport-urban-form/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Possible Urban Mobility Patterns](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-movement-patterns/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_mobility_patterns.png?resize=900%2C782&ssl=1 "Possible Urban Mobility Patterns | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Possible Urban Movement Patterns*Source: adapted from A. Bertaud (2001) Metropolis: A Measure of the Spatial Organization of 7 Large Cities.* Cities can structurally be classified as **polycentric** (more common) or **monocentric** and major urban mobility flows as **organized** or **disorganized** (more common). Flows can be classified as primary, reflecting main road and transit corridors converging towards main employment and population areas, and as secondary, often linking sub-centers. Cities with a higher reliance on public transit tend to be monocentric with a higher level of organized flows, while cities depending more on the automobile tend to be polycentric with a more disorganized structure of flows. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-movement-patterns/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-movement-patterns/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-movement-patterns/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-movement-patterns/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Evolution of Urban Densities in North America and Europe](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-urban-density/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/evolution_urban_density_america_europe.png?resize=900%2C395&ssl=1 "Evolution of Urban Densities in North America and Europe | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Evolution of Urban Densities in North America and EuropeThe conceptual relationship between distance and urban density varies between European and North American cities. While density in North American cities has generally decreased through sub-urbanization and the creation of peripheral centers, in Europe, there was an extension away from the urban center. Furthermore, density in central areas of North American cities has generally declined given land-use changes such as industrial relocation and the reconversion of land use into parking lots. The radius of a North American city (*r(NA)*) is typically larger than the radius of a European city of a similar population (*r(E)*). Densities are [higher in Europe than in North America](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4731). ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-urban-density/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-urban-density/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-urban-density/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/evolution-urban-density/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Population Density of the World's Largest Metropolitan Areas, 2012](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/global-urban-density/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-Urban-Density.png?resize=900%2C555&ssl=1 "Population Density of the World's Largest Metropolitan Areas, 2012 | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Population Density of the Worlds Largest Metropolitan Areas 2012*Source: Demographia World Urban Areas: 9th Annual Edition (2013.03).* [PDF Map](https://transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map_Global-Urban-Density.pdf) Urban density is reflective of the mode of habitation elected by the population, with high-density cities characterized by apartment buildings (or crowded slums), while lower-density cities have low-rise habitation units and even single-family homes in the suburbs. It is also reflective of the reliance on collective forms of urban transportation, with high-density cities more prone to have a high modal split in favor of public transit. However, higher densities are less suitable for urban freight distribution since delivery trucks, which are usually supporting most urban deliveries, have difficulties performing deliveries in high-density areas. There is a clear geographical distribution of urban population densities among metropolitan areas of more than 1 million inhabitants across the world. While most metropolitan areas have an aggregate density between 4,500 and 8,000 people per square km, a high number of cities with a density of fewer than 3,000 people per square km can be found. There is also a number of very high-density cities, most of them in South Asia. North American and Australian cities are among those with the lowest densities, followed by European cities. The rest of the world has on average much higher densities, usually above 5,000 people per square km. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/global-urban-density/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/global-urban-density/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/global-urban-density/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/global-urban-density/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Street Network Types](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-types/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/street_network_types2.png?resize=900%2C486&ssl=1 "Street Network Types | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Street Network Types*Source: adapted from Marshall, W.E. and N.W. Garrick (2010) “Street Network Types and Road Safety”, Urban Design International, 10.1057/udi.2009.31, April 21 2010.* Prior to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a grid street pattern was relatively uncommon, as many cities grew organically along the landscape. The conventional street grid is mostly the outcome of streetcar suburbs that emerged in the early part of the 20th century. It conferred optimal accessibility and the use of available space. The diffusion of the automobile was a driver in the shift of street networks towards a more curvilinear pattern. This implied a reduction in the level of connectivity as well as the density of land use. This was part of a paradox where while the automobile was becoming the dominant support of urban mobility, it was also increasingly associated with local disturbances, particularly noise and accidents. Planners responded by developing cul-de-sac suburban patterns with the goal of reducing and even eliminating through movements on a large number of residential streets and having them take place on main arterials. By the 1950s, the conventional cul-de-sac pattern became prevalent in suburban developments. Although this pattern minimizes non-local circulation, it also generates more movements and energy consumption. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-types/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-types/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-types/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/street-network-types/?share=reddit) - --- ### [One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/one-hour-commuting/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/one_hour_commuting.png?resize=900%2C629&ssl=1 "One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes | The Geography of Transport Systems ")One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes*Source: Adapted from P. Hugill (1995), World Trade since 1431, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 213.* There is a relationship between the form and structure of cities, a relationship that was shaped by subsequent changes in transportation technology. One way to express this relationship is through the commuting range, which illustrates a specific space/time relationship. The above figure depicts a theoretical urban form which is the **summation of successive transport influences**. It assumes uniform friction of distance and capacity of transport infrastructure. - **Walking**. Assuming a willingness to commute for one hour, a pedestrian walking at 5 km per hour could cross about 5 km. The space/time relationship of such a commute would be a circle of roughly 10 km in diameter. This helps explain why prior to motorization, cities were compact since most of the mobility took place by walking. The majority of cities developed prior to the industrial revolution have kept a high-density urban core reflective of this constraint. - **Streetcar**. A streetcar, like those operating in the first half of the 20th century, could travel around 15 km per hour along fixed lines [radiating from the city center](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/isochrone-map-manchester/ "Isochrone Map of Manchester, 1917"). In this case, the space/time relationship would be to reflect the time spent walking to the streetcar line that has to be deducted from the total travel time. Therefore, someone 15 km away from the city center would need to live next to the streetcar line to fall within the range of one hour maximum commuting time. - **Cycling**. In the late 19th and early centuries, the bicycle became a mode of mass transportation. With approximately the same speed as a streetcar, but with no fixed line limitations, the space/time relationship of commuting by bicycle would be a circle of 15 km in diameter. The influence of the bicycle on the urban form was tenuous and short-lived. Still, many cities around the world have implemented bicycle-friendly infrastructures such as bike paths and parking areas. - **Driving (no freeways)**. With a driving speed of about 30 km per hour (taking into account stops, congestion, and parking), an automobile creates a spherical space/time relationship of about 30 km in diameter. This permitted the formation of the first car-oriented suburbs, many of which were serviced by buses. - **Driving (with freeways)**. Along a freeway, a fixed infrastructure, the driving speed is doubled to 60 km per hour along the main freeway axis. The space/time relationship is, therefore, star-shaped with 60 km of diameter along its axis. However, under such circumstances, a city can become [multi-nodal](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4760). This synthetic representation takes a different result depending on historical and geographical factors, including modal preferences. Older cities were more influenced by the prevailing transport technology of the time, while cities that were established more recently would have been influenced to a greater extent by the automobile. For instance, North American and European cities have [evolved differently](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4767) even if they were impacted by the same changes in transport technology. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/one-hour-commuting/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/one-hour-commuting/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/one-hour-commuting/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/one-hour-commuting/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Cities and Connectivity](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/cities-connectivity/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/cities_connectivity2.png?resize=900%2C500&ssl=1 "Cities and Connectivity | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Cities and ConnectivityA city performs different but interdependent functions related to its connectivity. Although a city can have several forms of connectivity, there is usually a dominance of a particular form based upon the main economic functions and specialization. This involves a range of activities, each having its own connectivity: - **Production and distribution.** Activities related to production and distribution rely on a specific array of modes and terminals. The connectivity provided by long-distance maritime transportation relies on the port district as the main nexus, particularly in major port cities. Heavy industries (e.g. steel, petrochemicals) are mainly linked with ports and rail yards. Manufacturing is more associated with highways and to some extent intermodal rail. Logistics zones (distribution clusters) are also relying on a mix of highway and rail connectivity. Some are directly adjacent to ports, airports, or intermodal rail facilities. - **Mobility and accessibility.** Mainly supports the mobility of residents (movements of passengers from/to residential areas) and provides for their consumption needs (movements of freight to shopping districts and home deliveries). Airport districts have also become important clusters of activities supporting connectivity to a regional and international system of cities. The growing importance of air freight is also reinforcing the importance of some airports as nodes for distribution. - **Transactions**. Relates to the range of activities managing the allocation of resources (capital, labor, materials, etc.). Financial and management districts depend on the connectivity provided by information and telecommunication technologies. Two basic forms of interdependent nodes are at the core of the urban spatial structure: - **Connectivity nodes**. Relate to locations that transfer passengers and freight, thus offering accessibility to resources and markets within and/or outside the urban area. They include terminals such as ports, rail stations, airports, and distribution centers. Most cities owe their initial development to a location that grants connectivity to local, regional, and international systems of circulation, commonly a port site. In a contemporary setting, airports are playing a growing role. Connectivity nodes are often dependent on the specific geographical requirements of each transport node, notably in terms of space consumption. Terminals such as ports, railyards, and airports can be large consumers of space for them to handle large volumes of passengers or freight. - **Economic nodes**. Refer to locations that perform a secondary (manufacturing), tertiary (services), or quaternary (management, research, education) function of economic significance. These functions are extremely varied and can include transformation, management, education, retailing, and leisure. Economic nodes tend to cluster and are often dependent on accessing a connectivity node. Such clusters often take the form of central business districts, commercial strips, industrial districts, logistics zones, or port and airport districts. The presence of nodes requires connectivity, which can be serviced by different transport modes. Road and transit links are obviously local in scope often taking the form of a grid that characterizes the form of many cities. Rail, maritime, and air links integrate the city to a wider context of distribution and trade, often global in scope. The prevalence of connectivity, the complex set of relationships between nodes, and their links imply an urban form that is unique in each case. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/cities-connectivity/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/cities-connectivity/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/cities-connectivity/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/cities-connectivity/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Perspectives about the Urban Spatial Structure: From Dichotomy to Continuum](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/dichotomy-continuum-urban-spatial-structure/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_dichotomy_continuum.png?resize=900%2C503&ssl=1 "Perspectives about the Urban Spatial Structure: From Dichotomy to Continuum | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Perspectives about the Urban Spatial Structure From Dichotomy to Continuum*Source: adapted from World Bank (2009) World Development Report 2009: Reshaping Economic Geography.* Conventional perspectives about the urban spatial structure usually represent the urban and rural spaces as a **dichotomy**, and they were considered two separate entities, albeit interacting. However, the urban spatial structure is better understood as a **continuum** composed of various transitional structures between what can be considered purely rural and urban. The firsts are hamlets and villages representing basic forms of urbanism in a rural setting. Then, a range of urban settlements from towns, cities, and large urban agglomerations like metropolises. At the top of the hierarchy is the megacity of usually more than 10 million people, most of the time ranking among [global cities](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1427). There is also a **regionalism** to urban areas, implying that they can be grouped into larger functional entities. For instance, the Extended Metropolitan Region (EMR; often labeled a metropolis) is a continuum of urban activities, often interwoven with rural activities, that includes a large urban agglomeration and a network of secondary (satellite) cities. At a higher level, megalopolises (also labeled as mega-urban regions) are massive urban conurbations often encompassing several EMRs structured along a corridor, such as [BostWash](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7741) (Boston – Washington), [Tokaido](https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7748) (Tokyo – Osaka), or the Pearl River Delta (Hong Kong – Guangzhou) or Shanghai – Nanjing. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/dichotomy-continuum-urban-spatial-structure/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/dichotomy-continuum-urban-spatial-structure/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/dichotomy-continuum-urban-spatial-structure/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/dichotomy-continuum-urban-spatial-structure/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Share of Housing Units Equipped with Air Conditioning by Region in the United States, 1980-2020](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/air-conditioning-housing-united-states/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/housing_ac_united_states.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Share of Housing Units Equipped with Air Conditioning by Region in the United States | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Share of Housing Units Equipped with Air Conditioning by Region in the United States 1980 2020*Source: US Department of Energy. Residential Energy Consumption Survey. Table HC7.3 Air conditioning in U.S. homes by year of construction, 2022.* The importance of air conditioning is often not well acknowledged as a factor in the expansion of human settlements in warmer and humid climates, opening new regions and economic opportunities. The first commercial air conditioning devices were available at the beginning of the 20th century and after World War II their use expanded to cover residential, commercial, and industrial facilities. In the United States, this enabled new areas to be settled, such as Florida, Nevada, and Arizona, which became important resort and retirement centers. Since the 1970s, the share of housing units in the United States with a form of air conditioning, either central or units, has increased substantially. The highest level is observed in the South, which is characterized by a warm and humid climate. Even in temperate parts of the United States, the share of air-conditioned housing units has increased, such as in the West. This is mainly due to the requirement for more comfortable homes. Climate change may also be a factor having an influence on the growth of air conditioning, particularly in areas that previously had a low prevalence. In many other parts of the world, air conditioning has enabled drastic changes in the location, planning, and dynamics of cities, particularly in developing economies that are not in temperate climates. A large metropolis like Dubai would not exist without air conditioning. It would exist as a settled location, but it would be unable to support its extensive service function, all of which take place in air-conditioned structures. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/air-conditioning-housing-united-states/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/air-conditioning-housing-united-states/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/air-conditioning-housing-united-states/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/air-conditioning-housing-united-states/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Urban Population per Region, 1950-2030](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-population-percentage/) **Published:** December 1, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/urban_population_region2.png?resize=900%2C422&ssl=1 "Urban Population by Region | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Urban Population per Region 1950 2030*Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. World Urbanization Prospects.* The majority of the growth in the urban population takes place in developing economies, which will account for 93% of a 2 billion increase in the global urban population between 2000 and 2030. Much of this growth will come in the world’s least developed economies. This raises issues about mobility and access to urban transportation as a factor of development. Yet, economic growth in many developing economies has resulted in a substantial rise in the average level of mobility. There is a difference between **proportions** and **absolute numbers** in urbanization. For instance, in 2000 the level of urbanization in Asia was low (36%), but the absolute number of urban dwellers makes Asia the most urbanized region in the world, with 1.35 billion urban residents. Developed economies are still the most urbanized, but Latin America has filled the gap. Even if the share of the urban population is smaller in developing economies, the number of urban dwellers is twice as much as in developed countries. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-population-percentage/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-population-percentage/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-population-percentage/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/urban-population-percentage/?share=reddit) - --- ### [Globalization and Urbanization](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/globalization-urbanization/) **Published:** December 2, 2017 **Author:** Jean-Paul Rodrigue **Content:** ![](https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/globalization_urbanization.png?resize=900%2C431&ssl=1 "Globalization and Urbanization | The Geography of Transport Systems ")Globalization and Urbanization*Source: adapted from T.R. Lakshmanan and L.R. Chatterjee (2005) “Economic Consequences of Transport Improvements”, Access, No. 26, pp. 28-33.* Urban areas, as economic units, are influenced by globalization in the scale and scope of their development. Since globalization was relying on different technological and economic drivers through time, this temporal evolution was associated with a different urban context, from the small city-states of the mercantilism era (from the 16th to 19th century), to the industrial city (from the 19th to the mid 20th century), to the megalopolis of the early 21st century. Long-distance sailing was a key technology of the mercantile era, enabling the setting of the first truly global trade networks linking emerging European powers with Asia and the Americas. Several of these territories were incorporated into colonial empires. Emerging trade networks were complemented by advances in navigation (through cartography) and payment methods through the setting of banking systems (letters of credit). The increasing spatial reach of the main commercial cities and the beginning of a division of labor permitted growth in their population and size. There was also the setting of a global urban primacy with centers such as Amsterdam, London, and Lisbon dominating. The technical innovations of the industrial revolution relied on the mechanization of production and mobility. This permitted new processes that were previously challenging to apply, particularly the principles of economies of scale and the vertical integration of production through an increasingly complex system of suppliers. Substantial developments in infrastructure (e.g. railways and telegraph networks) and transactions (banking, legal enforcement) took place. This was associated with large-scale urbanization, particularly through rural to urban migration, with several cities surpassing one million inhabitants; the setting of metropolitan areas. This process was however associated with structural and social issues that would remain salient urban challenges such as infrastructure provision (utilities, public transit), slums, and unemployment. Globalization has become a strong driver of the contemporary era, a process supported by expanded transport and telecommunication systems as well as an environment favoring international transactions (e.g. trade liberalization). The scale and intensity of the mobility of capital, goods, people, and information have been expanded. The urban region became a core organizational and competitive unit where multinational corporations thrive on their comparative advantages of costs and innovative capabilities. A complex lattice of metropolitan areas, global cities, and gateways has been established and this lattice coordinates global production, distribution, and capital accumulation. While large, competitive, and innovative urban regions thrive, more peripheral areas face the challenge of finding a role and function within the global urban system. ### Share this: - [ Share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) LinkedIn](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/globalization-urbanization/?share=linkedin) - [ Share on X (Opens in new window) X](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/globalization-urbanization/?share=x) - [ Share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Facebook](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/globalization-urbanization/?share=facebook) - [ Share on Reddit (Opens in new window) Reddit](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/globalization-urbanization/?share=reddit) - --- ### [World Urban Population, 1950-2015 with Projections to 2050](https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/transportation-urban-form/world-urban-p